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European Erasmus Mundus Master Course
Sustainable Constructions under Natural

Hazards and Catastrophic Events
Tanks, pipelines, and silos
Storage tank, conical roof
Storage tank, dome roof
Florea Dinu
Lecture 12: 27/02/2017
Sustainable Constructions Fuel storage tank, capacity approx 2,000,000
liters, fixed roof and internal floating roof
under Natural Hazards and Catastrophic Events Irrigation Water Storage Tank
520121-1-2011-1-CZ-ERA MUNDUS-EMMC L12 - 2C08 Tanksand pipelines 3
European Erasmus Mundus Master Course European Erasmus Mundus Master Course
Sustainable Constructions under Natural Sustainable Constructions under Natural

Hazards and Catastrophic Events Hazards and Catastrophic Events
Tanks Analysis and design of tanks (EN 1993-4-2)

• Tanks are commonly used to store oil products or water, stiffened as well as
unstiffened. 3 consequence (reliability) Classes: Class 1, 2, 3
• The principal structural element of these tanks is a vertical steel cylinder, or Class 1
shell, which is made by welding together a series of rectangular plates and - Simple structures for agriculture or tanks containing water.
which restrains the hydrostatic pressures by hoop tension forces. -Membrane theory may be used, with simple formulas for boundary
• The tank is normally provided with a flat steel plated bottom which sits on a
disturbance and asymmetric loading.
prepared foundation, and with a fixed roof attached to the top of the shell wall.
• According to shape: cylindrical vertical, cylindrical horizontal, spherical,
rectangular, other. Class 2
• According to internal pressure: low-pressure (up to 20 mbar = 2kPa), high- -Medium size tanks with flammable or water-polluting liquids in urban
pressure. areas
- Axisymmetric actions and support:
Types of cylindrical tanks Horizontally placed cylinders Spherical tank
- Membrane theory may be used to determine the primary stresses,
with bending theory elastic expressions to describe all local effects.
- A validated numerical analysis may be used (for instance, finite
element shell analysis).
-Loading condition is not axisymmetric: a validated numerical analysis
should be used, except under some conditions (see EN 1993-4-2)
2 L12 - 2C08 Tanksand pipelines 4
L12 - 2C08 Tanksand pipelines
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Analysis and design of tanks (EN 1993-4-2) Wind Loads

The loads should be taken from EN 1991-1-4. In addition, the following pressure
Class 3: Tanks storing liquids or liquefied gases with toxic or explosive coefficients may be used for circular cylindrical tanks, see figure:
potential and large size tanks with flammable or water-polluting liquids in a) internal pressure of open top tanks and open top catch basin: cp = -0,6.
urban areas. Emergency loadings should be taken into account for these b) internal pressure of vented tanks with small openings: cp = -0,4.
structures where necessary. The internal forces and moments should be c)where there is a catch basin, the external pressure on the tank shell may be
determined using a validated analysis (for instance, finite element shell assumed to reduce linearly with height.
Due to their temporary character, reduced wind loads may be used for erection
analysis)
situations according to EN 1991-1-4.
Wall design
- Global and local stability, static equilibrium
- strength of the structure and joints
- cyclic plasticity
- fatigue
- SLS (deflections and vibrations)
Tank with catch basin Tank without catch basin

Transformation of typical wind
external pressure load distribution
L12 - 2C08 Tanksand pipelines 5 L12 - 2C08 Tanksand pipelines (for simplified design) 7

Actions Design of shell - simplified relations

Liquid induced loads: During operation, the load due to the contents should be the weight of the product
to be stored from maximum design liquid level to empty. Required thickness of cylindrical tank web:
Internal pressure loads: During operation, the internal pressure load should be the load due to the
specified minimum and maximum values of the internal pressure.
Thermally induced loads: Stresses resulting from restraint of thermal expansion may be ignored if where design loading by liquid and
the number of load cycles due to thermal expansion is such that there is no risk of fatigue failure or overpressure, pd is:
cyclic plastic failure.
Dead loads: The dead loads on the tank should be considered as those resulting from the weight design overpressure
of all component parts of the tank and all components permanently attached to the tank. above liquid level
Insulation loads: The insulation loads should be those resulting from the weight of the insulation.
unit weight
Distributed live load, Concentrated live load
Snow: The loads should be taken from EN 1991-1-3.
Wind: The loads should be taken from EN 1991-1-4. For spherical tanks: (one half in comparison to the above)
Suction due to inadequate venting: The loads should be taken from EN 1991-1-4.
Seismic loadings: The loads should be taken from EN 1998-4, which also sets out the The lowest course of plates is fully welded to the
requirements for seismic design. bottom plate of the tank providing radial restraint to
Loads resulting from connections: Loads resulting from pipes, valves and other items connected the bottom edge of the plate.
to the tank and loads resulting from settlement of independent item supports relative to the tank Similarly, the bottom edge of any course which sits on
foundation should be taken into account. top of a thicker course is somewhat restrained
Loads resulting from uneven settlement: Settlement loads should be taken into account where because the thicker plate is stiffer.
uneven settlement can be expected during the lifetime of the tank.
The effect of this on the hoop stresses is illustrated in
Emergency loadings: The loads should be specified for the specific situation and can include
the figure
loadings from events such as external blast, impact, adjacent external fire, explosion, leakage of Variation of stress in shell wall
inner tank,
2C08 rollpipelines
Tanksand over, overfill of inner tank. 6 L12 - 2C08 Tanksand pipelines 8


Bottom design Tank anchorage

• The design of the bottom plate should take corrosion into account. • Tanks are usually not equipped with anchoring devices.
• Bottom plates should be lap welded or butt welded.
• The specified thickness of the bottom plates should not be less than specified in • Anchoring devices should be provided for fixed roof tanks, if any of the following conditions
table below. can cause the cylindrical shell wall and the bottom plate close to it to lift off its foundations:
Minimum nominal bottom plate thickness a)Uplift of an empty tank due to internal design pressure counteracted by the effective
corroded weight of roof, shell and permanent attachments
b)Uplift due to internal design pressure in combination with wind loading counteracted by the
effective corroded weight of roof, shell and permanent attachments plus the effective weight of
the product always present in the tank
c)Uplift of an empty tank due to wind loading counteracted by the effective corroded weight of
roof, shell and permanent attachments;
d)Uplift of an empty tank due to external liquid caused by flooding. In such cases it is
necessary to consider the effects upon the tank bottom, tank shell etc. as well as the
anchorage design.
e) Uplift of filled tank due to seismic action
Typical tank foundation

L12 - 2C08 Tanksand pipelines 9 L12 - 2C08 Tanksand pipelines Typical tank anchorage detail 11

Fixed roof design

• Fixed roofs of cylindrical tanks are formed of steel plate and are of either conical or
domed (spherically curved) configuration.
• The steel plates can be entirely self supporting (by 'membrane' action), or they may rest
on top of some form of support structure.
Membrane Roofs
Typical bottom layout for • In a membrane roof, the forces from dead and imposed loads are resisted by
tanks over 12.5 diameter compressive radial stresses.
• For downward loads, the radial compression is complemented by ring tension.
• For upward loads, i.e. under internal pressure, the radial tension has to be
complemented by a circumferential compression. This compression can only be
provided by the junction section between roof and shell. This is expressed as a
Typical bottom layout for tanks up Cross joints in bottom plates requirement for a minimum area of the effective section.
to and including 12.5m diameter where three thicknesses occur
Supported Roofs
• Radial members supporting the roof plate permit the plate thickness to be kept to a
minimum.
• Supported roofs are most commonly of conical shape, although spherical roofs can be
used if the radial beams are curved.
Joints in bottom plates • The roof support structure can either be self supporting or be supported on internal
bellow shell plates columns. Self supporting roofs are essential when there is an internal floating cover.
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Seismic design (EN 1998-4)

Seismic motion induces two main
effects in tanks:
- The rocking motion, accompanied Cut off of anchor bolt
by an uplifting of the rim of the
annular plate or the bottom plate, is
induced by the overturning moment
due to the horizontal inertia force.
In this case, particular attention
should be paid to the design of the Pulled out of anchor bolt
bottom corner of the tank
- On the other hand the rocking
motion in the liquefied gas storage Pulled out of earthing wire
tank caused by the overturning
moment induces pulling forces in
anchor straps or anchor bolts in
place of uplifting the annular plate.
In this case, the stretch of the
anchor straps or anchor bolts
Elephant foot bulge type buckling
Alternative support systems for roofs which are provided at the bottom
of tank wall Diamond pattern buckling of
course of the tank, should be the
tank wall
subject of careful design.
Tank damage mode at Hanshin-Awaji
L12 - 2C08 Self-supporting
Tanksandpipelines fixed roofs 13 L12 - 2C08 Tanksand pipelines Earthquake 15

Edge ring at the shell to roof junction Pipelines

• The force in the effective edge ring (area where the roof is connected to the shell) • Design is done according to EN 1993-4-2: Eurocode 3 - Design of steel
should be verified using: structures - Part 4-3: Pipelines
• Fundamental requirements
• The pipeline shall be designed and constructed in such a way that:
in which:
• With acceptable probability, it will remain fit for the use for which it is
required, having due regard to its intended life and its cost;
where: • With appropriate degrees of reliability, it will sustain all actions and
Aeff is the effective area of the edge ring indicated in
figure
other influences likely to occur during the execution and use and have
adequate durability in relation to maintenance costs;
α is the slope of the roof to the horizontal at the
junction; • It will not be damaged by events like explosions, impact or
pv,Ed is the maximum vertical component of the design
consequences of human errors, to an extend disproportionate to the
distributed load including the dead weight of the original cause.
supporting structure (downward positive). • The potential damage of pipelines shall be limited or avoided by
• The bending moments in the ring should be considered if appropriate choice of one or more of the following:
rafter is located at a distance to the edge that exceeds • Avoiding, eliminating or reducing the hazards which the structure is to
3,25m. sustain.
• Selecting a structural form that has low sensitivity to the hazards
considered.
At the connection of the rafter At half span between the rafters


Actions to be considered in design Silos

• Silos are used by a wide range of industries to store bulk solids in quantities ranging from
The following actions should be considered, where appropriate: a few tones to hundreds or thousands of tones.
- Internal pressure; • The term silo includes all forms of particulate solids storage structure, that might
- External pressure; otherwise be referred to as a bin, hopper, grain tank, or bunker.
- Self weight of the pipeline; • They can be constructed of steel or reinforced concrete and may discharge by gravity flow
- Self weight of the contents of the pipeline or by mechanical means.
• Steel bins range from heavily stiffened flat plate structures to efficient unstiffened shell
- Soil loads;
structures.
- Traffic loads; • They can be supported on columns, load bearing skirts, or they may be hung from floors.
- Temperature variations; • Flat bottom bins are usually supported directly on foundations.
- Construction loads;
-Imposed deformation: due to differential settlements, mining subsidence
and landslides;
- Earthquake loads (reference should be made to Eurocode 8).

Terminology used in silo structures
17 19
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Pipelines for dusty material Pipeline bridge - general view Pipeline - detail Flat Bottom Silos
Used for long-term storage of Hopper Silos
large quantities of grain, seeds Storage of grains (cereals, seeds, Truck load silos
and granular products legumes, industrial products and Are used for the storage
other products) that require and subsequent delivery
special storage conditions of bulk products
Oil pipelines


Basis of design Moisture Content

Classification of two parameters, the size and the type of operation into An increase in the moisture content of the stored material can increase cohesive forces or
consequence classes Consequence classes depending on size and operation form links between the particles of water soluble substances. The angle of wall friction for
pressure calculations should be determined using both the driest and wettest material likely to
Consequence Class Design situations be encountered. Increased moisture can result in swelling of the stored solid and should be
Consequence Class 3 Ground supported silos or silos supported on a complete skirt considered in design.
extending to the ground with capacity in excess of W 3a tonnes Segregation
Discretely supported silos with capacity in excess of W 3b tonnes For stored material with a wide range of density, size and shape, the particles tend to
Silos with capacity in excess of W 3c tonnes in which any of the
segregate. The greater the height of free fall on filling, the greater the segregation.
following design situations occur:
a.eccentric discharge Segregation may create areas of dense material. More seriously, coarse particles may flow
b.local patch loading to one side of the bin while fine cohesive particles remain on the opposite side. An
c.unsymmetrical filling eccentric flow channel may occur, leading to unsymmetrical loads on the wall. The
Consequence Class 2 All silos covered by this Standard and not placed in another class concentration of fine particles may also lead to flow blockages.
Consequence Class l Silos with capacity between W 1a tonnes† and W 1b tonnes
† Silos with capacity less than W 1a tonnes are not covered by this standard.
Class boundary Recommended value (tonnes)
W 3a 5000
W 3b 1000
Recommended values for
W 3c 200
class boundaries
W 1b 100
W 1a Segregation patterns due to different mechanisms
ipelines 10 L12 - 2C08 Tanksand pipelines
21 23

• Actions on silos Degradation

A solid may degrade on filling. Particles may be broken or reduced in size due to impact,
agitation and attrition. This problem is particularly relevant in bins for the storage of silage
where material degradation may result in a changing pressure field which tends to hydrostatic.
Corrosion
Stored material may attack the storage structure chemically, affecting the angle of wall friction
and wall flexibility. Corrosion depends on the chemical characteristics of the stored material
Coefficient of active earth pressure: and also the moisture content. Typically, the design wall thickness may be increased to allow
for corrosion and the increase depends upon the design life of the bin.
Abrasion
Another actions: Large granular particles such as mineral ores can wear the wall surface resulting in problems
Temperature variation similar to those described for corrosion. A lining may be provided to the structural wall, but care
Thermal contraction of a bin wall is restrained by the stored material. The magnitude of the should be taken to ensure that wall deformation does not cause damage to the lining. The
resulting increase in lateral pressure depends upon the temperature drop, the difference linings are usually manufactured from materials such as stainless steel or polypropylene.
between the temperature coefficients of the wall and the stored material, the occurrence of Impact Pressures
temperature changes, the stiffness of the stored material and the stiffness of the bin wall. The charging of large rocks can lead to high impact pressures. Unless there is sufficient
Consolidation material to cushion the impact, special protection must be given to the hopper walls. The
Consolidation of the stored material may occur due to release of air causing particles to collapse of natural arches which may form within the stored material and hold up flow, can also
compact (a particular problem with powders), physical instability caused by changes in surface lead to severe impact pressures. In this case, a preventative solution is required at the
moisture and temperature, chemical instability caused by chemical changes at the face of the geometric design stage.
particles, or vibration of the bin contents. The accurate determination of wall pressures
requires a knowledge of the variation with depth of bulk density and the angle of internal
friction.


Rapid Filling and Discharge

The rapid discharge of bulk solids having relatively low permeability to gasses can induce negative air
pressures (internal suction) in the bin. Rapid filling can lead to greater consolidation, and the effects are
discussed above.
Powders
The rapid filling of powders can aerate the material and lead to a temporary decrease in bulk density,
cohesiveness, internal friction and wall friction. In an extreme case, the pressure from an aerated stored
material can be hydrostatic.
Wind Loading
Design against wind loads is especially critical during bin construction.
Dust Explosions
Bins storing materials may explode should either be designed to resist the explosion or should have
sufficient pressure relief area.
Differential Settlements
Large settlements often occur as bins are filled, particularly the first time. The effects of differential
settlement of groups of bins should be considered. Differential settlements may lead to buckling
failure of membrane steel bins.
Seismic Actions
Rules for seismic design are given in Eurocode 8, part 4.
Mechanical Discharge Equipment
Mechanical discharge equipment can lead to unsymmetrical pressure distributions even when it is Graphical method for the determination of flow pattern
considered to withdraw the stored material uniformly.
Roof Loads
Bin roofs impose an outward thrust and axial compression on bin walls and should be considered during
wall design.Tanksand
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pipelines of bin roofs is beyond the scope of this lecture. L12 - 2C08 Tanksand pipelines
25 27

Silo design Analysis and design of silos (EN 1993-4-1)

• The design of bins and silos to store bulk solids involves bulk material, geometric, and Design checks for:
structural considerations. • global stability and static equilibrium,
- Bulk material considerations are important because the frictional and cohesive • strength of the structure and joints,
properties of bulk solids vary from one solid to another, and these properties affect
material behavior considerably. • stability (global and local – formulas given in Eurocode),
-When considering the geometric design of a silo, potential problems include arching • cyclic plasticity,
• fatigue, for Class 1 may be ignored
across an outlet, ratholing through the material, and the flow pattern during discharge.
-Established design procedures include selection of the optimum hopper angles and • SLS (deflections and vibrations)
minimum outlet dimensions. The ideal discharge mode is one where, at steady state, all • Design allowance for corrosion and abrasion min. 2 mm is
material flows without obstruction. This is referred to as mass flow. The discharge mode
recommended!
where only some of the material flows is called funnel flow.
• Simplified rules for circular silos in Consequence Class 1 can be used:
• The following simplified action combinations may be considered for
silos in Consequence Class 1:
• Filling
Mass flow Funnel flow • Discharge
• Wind when empty
• Filling, combined with wind
• A simplified treatment of wind loading is permitted.


Cylindrical silos (shell):

L12 - 2C08 Tanksand pipelines 30 32



Failure of silos Failure due to construction errors

The major causes of silo failures are due to shortcomings in one or more • In the construction phase, there are two main problems that can cause potential
of four categories: failures:
• Failure due to design • The more common of these is poor workmanship. Faulty construction, such
as using the wrong materials and uneven foundation settlement are two
• Failure due to construction
examples of such a problem. Uneven settlement is rare but when it does
• Failure due to usage occur, the consequences can be catastrophic since usually the center of
• Failure due to maintenance. gravity of the mass is well above the ground.
• The other cause of construction problems is the introduction of badly
chosen, or even unauthorized, changes during construction in order to
expedite the work or reduce costs.
Failure due to usage
• Problems can arise when the flow properties of the material change, the
structure changes because of wear, or an explosive condition arises. If a
different bulk material is placed in a silo than the one for which the silo was
Result of mass flow developing in a silo designed, obstructions such as arches and ratholes may form, and the flow
designed structurally for funnel flow pattern and loads may be completely different than expected.

Buckling of unsupported wall

above a sweep arm unloader
Arching Ratholing
Flow problems experienced in an improperly
Failure of a grain silo designed
Failure due to design
• The designer must first establish the Damage to upper part of silo
due to flow problems
material's flow properties and design criteria,
including load combinations, load paths,
primary and secondary effects on structural
elements, and the relative flexibility of the Burst silo had fallen onto adjacent silo
on left causing collateral damage (most
elements.
probably due to improper emptying
process)
1999 Kocaeli, Turkey earthquake


Failure due to improper maintenance

• Maintenance of a silo comes in the owner's or user's domain, and must not be
neglected. Two types of maintenance work are required:
• The first is the regular preventative work, such as the periodic inspection
and repair of the walls and/or liner used to promote flow, protect the
structure, or both. Loss of a liner may be unavoidable with an abrasive or
corrosive product, yet maintaining a liner in proper working condition is
necessary if the silo is to operate as designed.
• The second area of maintenance involves looking for signs of distress (e.g.,
cracks, wall distortion, tilting of the structure) and reacting to them. If
florea.dinu@upt.ro
evidence of a problem appears, expert help should be immediately asked.
http://ct.upt.ro/suscos
L12 - 2C08 Tanksand pipelines 37

Figure 1.1 Symbols in shell of revolution
This lecture was prepared for the 1st Edition of SUSCOS

(2012/14) by Prof. Josef Macháček (CTU) and Michal
Jandera, PhD. (CTU).
Adaptations brought by Florea Dinu, PhD (UPT)
The SUSCOS powerpoints are covered by copyright and are for the
exclusive use by the SUSCOS teachers in the framework of this Erasmus
Mundus Master. They may be improved by the various teachers
throughout the different editions.
L12 - 2C08 Tanksand pipelines 38

Table 5.2 Types of shell analysis
6.2.2 Design values of resistance

The von Mises design strength:

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European Erasmus Mundus Master Course

Sustainable Constructions under Natural

Tanks, pipelines, and silos

Storage tank, conical roof

Storage tank, dome roof

Sustainable Constructions under Natural Sustainable Constructions under Natural

Tanks Analysis and design of tanks (EN 1993-4-2)

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Sustainable Constructions under Natural Sustainable Constructions under Natural

Analysis and design of tanks (EN 1993-4-2) Wind Loads

Tank with catch basin Tank without catch basin

Sustainable Constructions under Natural Sustainable Constructions under Natural

Actions Design of shell - simplified relations

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Sustainable Constructions under Natural Sustainable Constructions under Natural

Bottom design Tank anchorage

Typical tank foundation

Sustainable Constructions under Natural Sustainable Constructions under Natural

Fixed roof design

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Sustainable Constructions under Natural Sustainable Constructions under Natural

Seismic design (EN 1998-4)

Sustainable Constructions under Natural Sustainable Constructions under Natural

Edge ring at the shell to roof junction Pipelines

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Sustainable Constructions under Natural Sustainable Constructions under Natural

Actions to be considered in design Silos

L12 - 2C08 Tanksand pipelines

Sustainable Constructions under Natural Sustainable Constructions under Natural

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Sustainable Constructions under Natural Sustainable Constructions under Natural

Basis of design Moisture Content

Sustainable Constructions under Natural Sustainable Constructions under Natural

• Actions on silos Degradation

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Sustainable Constructions under Natural Sustainable Constructions under Natural

Rapid Filling and Discharge

Sustainable Constructions under Natural Sustainable Constructions under Natural

Silo design Analysis and design of silos (EN 1993-4-1)

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Sustainable Constructions under Natural Sustainable Constructions under Natural

Cylindrical silos (shell):

L12 - 2C08 Tanksand pipelines 29 L12 - 2C08 Tanksand pipelines 31

Sustainable Constructions under Natural Sustainable Constructions under Natural

L12 - 2C08 Tanksand pipelines 30 32

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Sustainable Constructions under Natural Sustainable Constructions under Natural

Failure of silos Failure due to construction errors

L12 - 2C08 Tanksand pipelines 33 L12 - 2C08 Tanksand pipelines 35

Sustainable Constructions under Natural Sustainable Constructions under Natural

Buckling of unsupported wall

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Sustainable Constructions under Natural

Failure due to improper maintenance

L12 - 2C08 Tanksand pipelines 37

European Erasmus Mundus Master Course

This lecture was prepared for the 1st Edition of SUSCOS

Adaptations brought by Florea Dinu, PhD (UPT)