BACHELOR OF TEACHING (PRIMARY EDUCATION) WITH HONOURS

(BTPSE)

SEMESTER JANUARY 2022

HBSC2103_V2

CHEMISTRY I

NO. MATRIKULASI : 900318125457001

NO. KAD PENGENALAN : 900318-12-5457
NO. TELEFON : 013 – 254 0547
E-MEL : randy90l@oum.edu.my
PUSAT PEMBELAJARAN : KOTA KINABALU LEARNING
CENTRE (X02)
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.0 INTRODUCTION...................................................................................................................1

2.0 ARRHENIUS THEORY ON ACID AND BASE...................................................................2

2.1 ARRHENIUS ACID............................................................................................................3

2.2 ARRHENIUS BASES..........................................................................................................4

2.3 INCREASED ACIDITY OF RAINWATER.....................................................................4

2.4 SOURCES OF POLLUTANTS..........................................................................................5

3.0 BRONSTED-LOWRY THEORY ON ACID AND BASE....................................................6

3.1 THE EFFECT OF RAINWATER PH ON PLANT AND ANIMAL LIFE.....................7

4.0 SUGGEST WAYS TO TEST AND CONFIRM THAT THE SALT IS CALCIUM
OXIDE BEFORE USING IT..................................................................................................8

5.0 CONCLUSION......................................................................................................................10

PART 2...............................................................................................................................................11

6.0 REFERENCES......................................................................................................................13
1.0 INTRODUCTION

Rain is the main form in which water that evaporates from the earth’s surface, formed a
clouds and will return to the earth when the water droplets in a cloud get too heavy to stay
suspended in the sky and fall due to gravity. This is also known as rainfall. The atmosphere
contains water vapor and when they are saturated in a certain place, they form clouds.
Sinking air is easier when it is cooled than when it is hot. In a super-cooled atmosphere,
water droplets and ice crystals in a cloud interact to produce more ice crystals. However,
these crystals from the cloud will melt as they fall. For example, water vapor can be cooled
when it comes in contact with a cooler surface. For rain to occur, water vapor, which is in the
form of small droplets, must join together and form a larger drop of water. This process is
known as coalescence. Coalescence occurs when water droplets collide with each other, and
when the drop is heavy enough, it falls. Rainfall patterns vary according to geographical
differences. Deserts get minimal rainfall throughout the year, while rainforests get very high
rainfall. In addition, it is influenced by various other factors such as wind, sunlight, human
activity, and so on. Rain is very important for agriculture. Earlier, people really relied on
rainwater for their agriculture. Nowadays, most agriculture depends on rainwater.

"Acid rain" is a popular term referring to the deposition of a mixture from wet (rain,
snow, sleet, fog, cloudwater, and dew) and dry (acidifying particles and gases) acidic
components. Distilled water, once carbon dioxide is removed, has a neutral pH of 7. Liquids
with a pH less than 7 are acidic, and those with a pH greater than 7 are alkaline. "Clean" or
unpolluted rain has an acidic pH, but usually no lower than 5.7, because carbon dioxide and
water in the air react together to form carbonic acid, a weak acid according to the following
reaction:
H2O (l) + CO2 (g) ⇌ H2CO3 (aq)
Carbonic acid then can ionize in water forming low concentrations of carbonate and
hydronium ions:
−¿ ¿ + ¿¿
H2O (l) + H2CO3 (aq) ⇌ HCO3  (aq) + H 3 O (aq)
Unpolluted rain can also contain other chemicals which affect its pH (acidity level). A
common example is nitric acid produced by electric discharge in the atmosphere such as
lightning.

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 Acid rain causes various harms to certain aspects, namely from the aspects of health,
soil and plant fertility, aquatic ecosystems and buildings and building equipment. In terms of
health, acid rain is harmful to people both old and young with asthma. For children, this
phenomenon can cause coughs, allergies and colds. Sulfur dioxide gas is an agent of several
diseases in humans such as chest pain, cough, sore throat, colon cancer and breast cancer. In
addition, water and acid rain mixed with lead, cadmium and aluminum are harmful to humans
when drunk which can cause diarrhea in children, nerve disorders and harm the brain.
Aluminum can cause Alzheimer's disease (related to memory loss).

In terms of agriculture, acid rain can cause forest destruction due to acid rain. 70% of
forests in Czechslovakia were destroyed by acid rain. The alkali and acid content in the soil
becomes unbalanced and affects the balance and stability of the soil. A pH value of less than
6 will cause the organic matter of the soil to die, then this soil becomes infertile with the
absence of nutrients in it. Leaf function is also destroyed and trees die as acids react with
nutrients in the soil and reduce soil fertility.Plants in the lake and plankton life are destroyed
due to the decrease in the pH value of lake water (less than 5) and will interfere with the
smooth reproduction of fish and amphibians. Fish and shrimp are indirectly a threat to
humans where high levels of mercury and sulfuric acid seep into the skin of these animals.
River and sea water becomes acidic at pH 5 and will kill aquatic life such as fish (or any
animal that depends on fish will die like seabirds). This situation has occurred in Lake
Minnesota where acid rain destroyed 140 lakes there.

Acid rain that falls on the earth will accumulate into acidic sediments. This will
accelerate the rate of corrosion and rusting of iron goods and also bleach and damage the car
paint. In addition, rocks and building structures become weak and brittle as well as accelerate
building erosion.

2.0 ARRHENIUS THEORY ON ACID AND BASE

The Arrhenius theory of acids and bases was originally proposed by the Swedish chemist
Svante Arrhenius in 1884. He suggested classifying certain compounds as acids or bases
based on what kind of ions formed when the compound was added to water.

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2.1 ARRHENIUS ACID

An Arrhenius acid is any species that increases the concentration of H +¿¿ ions or protons in
aqueous solution. For example, let’s consider the dissociation reaction for hydrochloric acid,
HCL, in water:
HCL (aq) → H +¿¿ (aq) + Cl−¿¿ (aq)
When we make an aqueous solution of hydrochloric acid. HCL dissociates into H +¿¿ ions and
Cl−¿¿ ions. Since this results in an increase in the concentration of H +¿¿ ions in solution,
hydrochloric acid is an Arrhenius acid.

Let's say we made a 2 M aqueous solution of hydrobromic acid, HBr, which is an

Arrhenius acid. Does that mean we have 2 M of H +¿¿ ions in our solution? Actually, no. In
practice, the positively charged protons react with the surrounding water molecules to form
+ ¿¿
hydronium ions, H 3 O . This reaction can be written as follows:
+¿¿
H
+¿ ( aq ) ¿
+ H 2 O ( l ) ⟶ H 3 O (aq)
Even though we often write acid dissociation reactions showing the formation of H +¿¿ (aq),
there are no free H +¿¿ ions floating around in an aqueous solution. Instead, there are primarily
H 3 O+ ¿¿ ions, which form immediately when an acid dissociates in water. The following
picture illustrates the formation of hydronium from water and hydrogen ions using molecular
models:

The Hydronium Ion. (2020, August 16). https://chem.libretexts.org/@go/page/1290

When an acid dissociates in water to form H +¿¿ ions, protons, the H +¿¿ ions immediately react
+ ¿¿
with water to form H 3 O . Thus, chemists talk about the concentrations of hydrogen ions
and hydronium ions interchangeably.

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2.2 ARRHENIUS BASES

An Arrhenius base is defined as any species that increases the concentration of hydroxide
ions, OH −¿¿, in aqueous solution. An example of an Arrhenius base is the highly soluble
sodium hydroxide, NaOH. Sodium hydroxide dissociates in water as follows:
NaOH (aq) ⟶ Na +¿¿ (aq) + OH −¿¿ (aq)
In water, sodium hydroxide fully dissociates to form OH −¿¿ and Na +¿¿ ions, resulting in an
increase in the concentration of hydroxide ions. Therefore, NaOH is an Arrhenius base.
Common Arrhenius bases include other Group 1 and Group 2 hydroxides such as LiOH and
Ba(OH )2.

Even insoluble compounds such as Ca(OH )2 are often classified as Arrhenius bases
because they have some tiny fraction that can dissolve in water, and the fraction that is in
solution dissociates to form OH −¿¿ ions. Another way to think about this is that complete
solubility is not a requirement for something to be an Arrhenius base! As long as some of it
gets into solution and increases the concentration of OH −¿¿ ions, we can classify it as an
Arrhenius base.

The Arrhenius theory is limited in that it can only describe acid-base chemistry in
aqueous solutions. Similar reactions can also occur in non-aqueous solvents, however, as well
as between molecules in the gas phase. As a result, modern chemists usually prefer the
Brønsted-Lowry theory, which is useful in a broader range of chemical reactions.

2.3 INCREASED ACIDITY OF RAINWATER

Acid rain refers to a mixture of deposited material, both wet and dry, coming from the
atmosphere containing more than normal amounts of nitric and sulfuric acids. Simply put, it
means rain that is acidic in nature due to the presence of certain pollutants in the air due to
cars and industrial processes.It is easily defined as rain, fog, sleet or snow that has been made
acidic by pollutants in the air as a result of fossil fuel and industrial combustions that mostly
emits Nitrogen Oxides (NO) and Sulfur Dioxide (SO2). Acidity is determined on the basis of

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the pH level of the water droplets by assigning it a number between 0 and 14, where 0
represents extreme acidity and 14 represents superlative basicity (the opposite of acidity).

2.4 SOURCES OF POLLUTANTS

Human activities are the main cause of acid rain. Over the past few decades, humans have
released so many different chemicals into the air that they have changed the mix of gases in
the atmosphere. Power plants release the majority of sulfur dioxide and much of the nitrogen
oxides when they burn fossil fuels, such as coal, to produce electricity. In addition, the
exhaust from cars, trucks, and buses releases nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide into the air.
These pollutants cause acid rain.

Normal rainwater is slightly acidic with a pH range of 5.3-6.0 because carbon dioxide
and water present in the air react together to form carbonic acid, which is a weak acid. When
the pH level of rainwater falls below this range, it becomes acid rain. When these gases react
with water molecules and oxygen among other chemicals found in the atmosphere, mild
acidic chemical compounds such as sulfuric and nitric acid are formed resulting to acid rain.
Acid rain generally leads to weathering of buildings, corrosion of metals, and peeling of
paints on surfaces. Erupting volcanoes contains some chemicals that can cause acid rain.
Apart from this, the burning of fossil fuels, the running of factories and automobiles due to
human activities are a few other reasons behind this activity.

Anthropogenic activities, particularly the burning of fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas)
and the smelting of metal ores, are the major causes of acid deposition. In the United States,
electric utilities produce nearly 70 percent of sulfur dioxide ( SO 2 ¿ and about 20% of nitrogen
oxide (NO) emissions. Fossil fuels burned by vehicles account for nearly 60 percent of NO
emissions in the United States. In the atmosphere, sulfuric and nitric acids are generated
when SO 2and NO, respectively, react with water. The simplest reactions are:
SO 2 + H 2O ⟶ H 2 SO4 ← → H +¿ HSO ¿ ← → 2 H +¿¿ + SO 24
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NO 2 + H 2O ⟶ HNO3 ← → H +¿¿ + NO 3

These reactions in the aqueous phase (for example, in cloud water) create wet deposition
products. In the gaseous phase they can produce acidic dry deposition. Acid formation can
also occur on particles in the atmosphere.

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 Where fossil fuel consumption is large and emission controls are not in place to
reduce SO 2and NO emissions, acid deposition will occur in areas downwind of emission
sources, often hundreds to thousands of kilometres away. In such areas the pH of
precipitation can average 4.0 to 4.5 annually, and the pH of individual rain events can
sometimes drop below 3.0. In addition, cloud water and fog in polluted areas may be many
times more acidic than rain falling over the same region.

Many air pollution and atmospheric deposition problems are intertwined with one
another, and these problems are often derived from the same cause, namely the burning of
fossil fuels. In addition to acid deposition, NO emissions along with hydrocarbon emissions
are key ingredients in ground-level ozone (photochemical smog) formation, which is one of
the most widespread forms of air pollution. The SO 2 and NO emissions can generate fine
particulates, which are harmful to human respiratory systems.

Coal combustion is the leading source of atmospheric mercury, which also enters
ecosystems by wet and dry deposition. (A number of other heavy metals, such as lead and
cadmium, and various particulates are also products of unregulated fossil fuel combustion.)
Acid deposition of nitrogen derived from NO emissions creates additional environmental
problems. For example, many lake, estuarine, and coastal marine systems receive too much
nitrogen from atmospheric deposition and terrestrial runoff. This eutrophication (or over-
enrichment) causes the overgrowth of plants and algae. When these organisms die and
decompose, they deplete the dissolved oxygen supply necessary for most aquatic life in water
bodies. Eutrophication is considered to be a major environmental problem in lake, coastal
marine, and estuarine ecosystems worldwide.

3.0 BRONSTED-LOWRY THEORY ON ACID AND BASE

Bronsted-Lowry theory, also called proton theory of acids and bases, a theory, introduced
independently in 1923 by the Danish chemist Johannes Nicolaus Bronsted and the English
chemist Thomas Martin Lowry, stating that any compound that can transfer a proton to any
other compound is an acid, and the compound that accepts the proton is a base. A proton is a

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nuclear particle with a unit positive electrical charge; it is represented by the symbol H +¿¿
because it constitutes the nucleus of a hydrogen atom.

According to the Bronsted-Lowry scheme a substance can function as an acid only in

the presence of a base; similarly, a substance can function as a base only in the presence of an
acid. Furthermore, when an acidic substance loses a proton, it forms a base, called the
conjugate base of an acid, and when a basic substance gains a proton, it forms an acid called
the conjugate acid of a base. Thus, the reaction between an acidic substance, such as
hydrochloric acid, and a basic substance, such as ammonia, may be represented by the
equation:
+¿¿
HCl + NH 3 ⇌ NH 4 + Cl−¿¿
+¿¿
In the equation the ammonium ion ( NH 4 ) is the acid conjugate to the base ammonia, and the
chloride ion (Cl−¿¿) is the base conjugate to hydrochloric acid.

The Bronsted-Lowry theory enlarges the number of compounds considered to be

acids and bases to include not only the neutral molecules (e.g., sulfuric, nitric, and acetic
acids, and the alkali metal hydroxides) but also certain atoms and molecules with positive and
negative electrical charges (cations and anions). The ammonium ion, the hydronium ion, and
some hydrated metal cations are considered acids. The acetate, phosphate, carbonate, sulfide,
and halogen ions are considered bases.

3.1 THE EFFECT OF RAINWATER PH ON PLANT AND ANIMAL LIFE

An ecosystem is a community of plants, animals and other organisms along with their
environment including the air, water and soil. Everything in an ecosystem is connected. If
something harms one part of an ecosystem – one species of plant or animal, the soil or the
water – it can have an impact on everything else.

The ecological effects of acid rain are most clearly seen in aquatic environments, such
as streams, lakes, and marshes where it can be harmful to fish and other wildlife. As it flows
through the soil, acidic rain water can leach aluminum from soil clay particles and then flow
into streams and lakes. The more acid that is introduced to the ecosystem, the more aluminum
is released.

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 Some types of plants and animals are able to tolerate acidic waters and moderate
amounts of aluminum. Others, however, are acid-sensitive and will be lost as the pH declines.
Generally, the young of most species are more sensitive to environmental conditions than
adults. At pH 5, most fish eggs cannot hatch. At lower pH levels, some adult fish die. Some
acidic lakes have no fish. Even if a species of fish or animal can tolerate moderately acidic
water, the animals or plants it eats might not. For example, frogs have a critical pH around 4,
but the mayflies they eat are more sensitive and may not survive pH below 5.5.

Dead or dying trees are a common sight in areas effected by acid rain. Acid rain
leaches aluminum from the soil. That aluminum may be harmful to plants as well as animals.
Acid rain also removes minerals and nutrients from the soil that trees need to grow. At high
elevations, acidic fog and clouds might strip nutrients from trees’ foliage, leaving them with
brown or dead leaves and needles. The trees are then less able to absorb sunlight, which
makes them weak and less able to withstand freezing temperatures.

Many forests, streams, and lakes that experience acid rain do not suffer effects
because the soil in those areas can buffer the acid rain by neutralizing the acidity in the
rainwater flowing through it. This capacity depends on the thickness and composition of the
soil and the type of bedrock underneath it.

4.0 SUGGEST WAYS TO TEST AND CONFIRM THAT THE SALT IS

CALCIUM OXIDE BEFORE USING IT

Unlike covalent compounds, which can be identified using physical properties like boiling
point and refractive index, ionic compounds are more appropriately identified with their
chemical properties. In the qualitative analysis procedure, the chemical properties of an
unknown substance are determined by systematically reacting the unknown with a number of
different reagents. By predetermining what the particular reaction will produce if a specific
ion is present, the ions that actually are in the solution can be identified. For example, if a
reaction is known to produce a precipitate if ion A is present and a precipitate is formed when
the reaction is run, then ion A may be present in solution (there may be, and usually are, other
ions that will also precipitate with a particular reagent). If no precipitate is formed when the
reaction is run, then ion A is clearly not present in the unknown solution and a different
reaction will have to be run to determine what ions are present.
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 There are two general situations in which qualitative analysis is used - in the
identification of a simple salt, or the identification of multiple cations in a solution.

1. Heating effect
Heating a compound can cause a liquid to condense on the inside of the test tube. This is
probably water, indicating that the compound is a hydrate. If a gas is given off, note the color
and odor of the gas. The nitrate, carbonate, and sulfite ions may decompose, as illustrated by
the reactions:
2 Pb¿ ¿ (s) + heat → 2 PbO(s) + O2(g) + 4 NO 2(g, brown)
CaCO3(s) + heat → CaO(s) + CO 2(g, colourless, odourless)
CaSO 3(s) + heat → CaO(s) + SO2 (g, colourless, pungent)
Some bromides and iodides decompose to give Br2 (g, orange-brown) and I 2 (g, purple).

2. Flame test
Solutions of ions, when mixed with concentrated HCl and heated on a nickel/chromium wire
in a flame, cause the flame to change to a color characteristic of the atom.Visible colors occur
with the following ions:
Sodium : Bright yellow (intense, peristent)
Potassium : Pale violet (slight, fleeting)
Calcium : Brick red (medium, fleeting)
Strontium : Crimson (medium)
Barium : Light green (slight)
Lead : Pale bluish (slight, fleeting)
Copper : Green or blue (medium, persistent)

3. Solubility in water
Place one small spatula of the compound in 1 mL of water. If the compound is soluble this
amount will dissolve after considerable stirring. If the compound is moderately soluble, some
of this amount will dissolve. If the compound is insoluble, even a very small amount will not
dissolve.
General solubility rules:
a) All nitrates are soluble.

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 b) Practically all sodium, potassium, and ammonium salts are soluble.
c) All chlorides, bromides, and iodides are soluble except those of silver, mercury(I),
and lead(II).
d) All sulfates are soluble except those of strontium, barium, and lead(II), which are
insoluble, and those of calcium and silver which are moderately soluble.
e) All carbonates, sulfites, and phosphates are insoluble except those of sodium,
potassium, and ammonium.
f) All sulfides are insoluble except those of the alkali metals, the alkaline earth metals,
and ammonium.
g) All hydroxides are insoluble except those of the alkali metals. The hydroxides of
calcium, strontium, and barium are moderately soluble. Ammonium hydroxide does
not exist; ammonium hydroxide is a misnomer for aqueous ammonia, NH 3 (aq).

5.0 CONCLUSION

Acid rain is the invisible form of pollution, but has some indirect effects on human health.
Indirect effects involve damage to humans by contact with materials that have themselves
been affected by acidification like food and water supplies. The control of acid rain can be
done. For example, the damage to lakes and other water bodies can be eliminated by adding
lime. Many chemicals such as caustic soda, sodium carbonate, slacked lime and limestone are
most popular for raising pH of acidified water (Khemani et al., 1985). Liming eliminates
some of the symptoms of acidification; it is expensive and not real cure. Although liming can
restore many species and improve water quality in lakes and streams, it must be repeated
periodically (every 3-6 years) to remain effective. The most important solution for acid rain
problem is reduction of SO 2 and NO emissions. The use of fuel that is low in S is not really
practical because the world supply of low S fuels is limited. Various techniques are available
to reduce S emission from non-ferrous smelters. Oxides of nitrogen can also be reduced
through reduction or better control of combustion temperature.
Acid rain has deleterious effect on ecosystem, which includes decline in growth of
trees as well as other plants including crops, reduction in aquatic flora and fauna. Marble,
limestone and sand stone can be easily destroyed by acid rain. Metals, paints, textiles and
ceramics can be corroded due to acid rain. Acid rain can also affect indirectly the human
health. Soil fertility is negatively affected due to acid rain as a result of leaching of essential

10
nutrient cations and increase of availability of toxic heavy metals. Acid rain problem has
been tackled to some extent in the developed world by reducing the emission of the gases
causing acid rain. Such efforts need to be done in developing world so as to avoid the
magnitude of potential of problem as faced by industrialized world.

PART 2

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6.0 REFERENCES

Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia (2021, April 21). Brønsted-Lowry theory.

Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/science/Bronsted-Lowry-theory
US EPA, OW (September 3, 2015). "Drinking Water Regulations and Contaminants".
www.epa.gov. Retrieved October 19, 2021.
US EPA, OAR (February 9, 2016). "What is Acid Rain?". www.epa.gov. Retrieved October
19, 2021.
US EPA, OAR (February 9, 2016). "What is Acid Rain?". www.epa.gov. Retrieved
September
13, 2021.
Khemani, L.T., G.A. Momin, M.S. Naik, P.S.P. Rao, R. Kumar and B.V. Ramananmurthy:
Impact of particulates on pH of rain water in India. Water Air Soil Pollut., 24, 365-
376 (1985).
Likens, G. E. and Butler, . Thomas J. (2019, March 19). acid rain. Encyclopedia Britannica.
https://www.britannica.com/science/acid-rain
Likens, Gene E.; Keene, William C.; Miller, John M.; Galloway, James N. (1987).
"Chemistry
of precipitation from a remote, terrestrial site in Australia". Journal of Geophysical
Research. 92 (D11): 13299. Bibcode:1987JGR....9213299L.
doi:10.1029/JD092iD11p13299. Archived from the original on February 21, 2021.
Retrieved August 25, 2020.
Kotz, J. C., P. M. Treichel, J. R. Townsend, and D. A. Treichel. "Acids and Bases: The
Arrhenius Definition." In Chemistry and Chemical Reactivity, Instructor's Edition,
116. 9th ed. Stamford, CT: Cengage Learning, 2015.

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