Lesson 03

CEng 112n: Building Technologies
Lesson 03: CONCRETE and Lesson Summary:

This lesson discusses the
REINFORCED CONCRETE topics on concrete and reinforced

concrete construction. This
includes the advantage and
CONCRETE REINFORCED CONCRETE disadvantages, properties and
ingredients, types, defects, and
• History, Advantage • TYPES concrete products used as a
and Disadvantages, building material, as well as the
Regular
Properties construction process of reinforced
Ferrocement
concrete.
Fiber-Reinforced
• Production and Prestressed
Ingredients Learning Objectives:
• PARAMETERS FOR • Discuss the history,
Cement properties, production, and
DESIGN (Rules of Thumb)
Aggregates types of concrete.
Water • Identify the common defects
Admixture
• REINFORCEMENTS
and available products of
Footing concrete.
• Types of Concrete Columns • Understand what reinforced
Beams concrete is, as well as its
According to Ingredients types and construction
Slabs
According to Mixture process.
Proportion
• CONSTRUCTION
PROCESS
• Common Defects Reinforcing Bar Works
Formworks, Falseworks, and
• Concrete Product Scaffolds
Concrete Mixing
Cast-in- Place
Concrete Casting/Placement/
Precast
Pouring
Consolidation
Surface Finishing
Concrete Curing
30 The contents and compilation of the following pages are instruments of the profession and under the Intellectual Property Law (R.A.
8293) it shall be unlawful for anybody to copy and reproduce these manual whether in part or in whole without the written consent of
the one who prepared these manual, the author.
CONCRETE
An artificial stone-like building material made by mixing cement and various mineral aggregates with
sufficient water to cause the cement to set and bind the entire mass.
HISTORY OF CONCRETE
300 BC Romans used slaked lime, a volcanic ash called pozzolana, found near Pozzouli by the
bay of Naples
1756 Rediscovery of Hydraulic Cement through repeated testing of mortar in both fresh and
salt water by John Smeaton
1779 Patent for Hydraulic Cement, for Exterior Use or Stucco, was issued to Bry Higgins
1796 Patent for Natural Hydraulic Cement, called Parker’s Cement or Roman Cement, by
calcining nodules of impure limestone containing clay was issued to James Parker
1824 Patent for Portland Cement which resembled the stones quarried on the Isle of Portland
was issued to Joseph Aspdin, a bricklayer and Mason
1848 Ferrocement was invented by Joseph-Louis Lambot applied on a design of a boat
1853 The first iron reinforced concrete building, a four storey residential building, was built
by Francois Coignet
1867 Patent for Reinforced Concrete using Bars was issued to Joseph Monier applied on
horticulture or for garden tubes
1884 Patent for a reinforcing system that uses twisted rods was issued to Earnest L. Ransome
1889 The first reinforced concrete bridge, Alvord Lake Bridge, was built
1903 The first high-rise reinforced concrete building, Ingalls Building, was built
1936 The first major concrete dam, Hoover Dam, was built
1960’s The system of Fiber Reinforced Concrete was introduced to the industry
ADVANTAGES: DISADVANTAGES:
a. High compressive strength (1000-4000 psi) a. Low tensile strength
b. Resistance to fire and water b. Formwork requirements
c. Very rigid c. Shoring and re-shoring
d. Low maintenance d. Heavy
e. Long service life e. Control precision
f. Most appropriate for substructures f. Shrinkage and creep
g. Cast into shape
h. Material and labor availability
PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE
a. Workability relative mobility or ability of freshly mixed concrete to flow
b. Durability resistance to weathering chemical attack, abrasion, and other conditions of
services
c. Porosity ratio between total volume to volume of voids
d. Refractory resistance to high temperature
e. Plasticity combination of qualities of mobility and magnitude of yield value; resistance to
deformation or ease of molding
f. Isotropic having the same properties in all direction
The contents and compilation of the following pages are instruments of the profession and under the Intellectual Property Law (R.A. 31
8293) it shall be unlawful for anybody to copy and reproduce these manual whether in part or in whole without the written consent
of the one who prepared these manual, the author.
PRODUCTION OF CONCRETE
Cement (Binder) Formworks, Falseworks,

Scaffold
7% - 15%
RAW MATERIALS
+
Aggregates
60% - 80% CASTING/
MIXING PLACEMENT/
+
PROCESS POURING
Water
16% - 21%
+
Time of Haul
Admixture period from contact of
water and cement to
completion of discharge,
usually from a mixer
CURING SURFACE CONSOLIDATION

PROCESS FINISHING
INGREDIENTS OF CONCRETE
A. CEMENT – calcined mixture of clay and limestone, finely pulverized
Production of Cement:
Tricalcium Silicate
Lime Iron
RAW MATERIALS
+ + Half of Cement Volume

(CaO) (FeO3) Hardening or Early Strength
Dicalcium Silicate
Calcium Sulfate FIRST MIXING Quarter of Cement Volume
+
(CaSO4) PROCESS Aging or Long-Term Strength
Grounding to Gain
Silica Alumina
+ powder and Tricalcium Aluminate
(SiO2) (Al2O3) Blending Tenth of Cement Volume
Initial Setting
Gypsum
To retard Setting
Calcine – To heat a substance
to a high temperature but
without melting or fusing to
GROUNDING AND CALCINE PROCESS
drive off volatile matter.
SECOND MIXING (Pyroprocessing)
PROCESS Output:
Clinker – A fused mass of
incombustible material
resulting from heating in a
Bulk Cement kiln or the burning of coal.
Transferred and
delivered by bulk.
PACKING AND
TRANSPORTING BATCHING
40 kg and 50 kg Bags PLANT
Types of Cement:
a. Hydraulic cement – cement that reacts with water
Types of Hydraulic Cement
1. Portland cement – made by burning a mixture of limestone and clay. (pure cement)
i. Type I Normal – general purpose; no distinct qualities
ii. Type II Moderate – sulfate resistant; reduced content of Tricalcium Aluminate; less heat
of hydration
iii. Type III High Early Strength – increase Tricalcium Silicate; fast curing and strength gain.
iv. Type IV Low Heat of Hydration – reduced Tricalcium Silicate; increased Dicalcium
Silicate; less heat of hydration
v. Type V Sulfate Resistant – reduced Tricalcium Aluminate; lessening Gypsum, a setting
time retardant
vi. Air-Entraining – Type I, II, III + Air-entraining agent; designated by “A” (Type IA, IIA,
IIIA)
vii. White – low in Iron Oxide and Manganese Oxide
2. Blended cement – a Portland cement with added materials to enhance the quality of concrete
but lessen the cost of production.
i. Pozzolan – a siliceous material that reacts chemically with slake lime in the presence of
moisture to form a slow-hardening cement
a.) Natural (Class N) b.) By-product
i.) Calcined Shale i.) Fly Ash – powdered coal
ii.) Calcined Clay or i. Class F with Pozzolanic properties
Metakaolin ii. Class N with Pozzolanic and cementitious
iii.) Opaline Cherts properties
ii.) Silica Fumes
ii. Blast furnace slag – by-product of steel making (ground granulated blast furnace slag –
“GGBFS”)
b. Non-hydraulic cement – cement that reacts with carbon dioxide
c. Other cement:
1. Asphalt cement – asphalt that is refined to meet specifications for use in the manufacture of
bituminous pavement
2. Bituminous cement – black; solid, semi-solid, or liquid substance at natural air temperatures
and soluble only in Carbon Disulfide or some volatile liquid Hydrocarbon
3. Expansive cement – cement, after mixed with water, increases in volume to a significant
degree than that of Portland cement; used to compensate for volume decrease due to shrinkage
or to induce tensile stress in reinforcement (post-tension)
4. High-fineness cement – higher specific surface and substantially smaller mean particle
diameter than typical for products of similar composition
5. Hot cement – newly manufactured cement that has not had an opportunity to cool after burning
and grinding
6. Hydrophobic cement – unhydrated cement treated so as to have reduced tendency to take up
moisture
7. Keene’s cement – finely ground anhydrous calcine Gypsum; accelerated setting
8. Low-alkali cement – Portland cement, contains a relatively small amount of sodium and/or
potassium
9. Natural cement – hydraulic cement produced by calcining an argillaceous limestone at a
temperature below the sintering point and then grinding to a fine powder
10. Non-staining cement – masonry cement that contains not more than a stipulated amount of
water-soluble Alkali, measured by stipulated test method
11. Sticky cement – finished cement that develops low or zero workability during or after storage
in Silos
12. Supersulfated cement – hydraulic cement made by intimately intergrinding a mixture of
granulated blast furnace slag, calcium sulfate, and a small amount of lime, or Portland cement
B. AGGREGATES (Granular Material; Inert Material) – any various inert, hard, mineral materials used
to make concrete; represent 60% to 80% of concrete volume; important for concrete strength, weight
and fire-resistance
Aggregate Terminologies: Classification Name Size

a. Crushed Gravel – product of Boulders Greater than 6”
Normal
artificially crushing gravel with Cobbles 6”- 3”
nearly all fragments having at Weight
Coarse 3”- #4 (4.5mm)
least one face resulting from (2.0-3.0
Fine #4 - #200 (75m)
fractures specific
Mineral Filters Smaller Than #200
gravity)
(Silt Clay) (75m)
b. Crushed Stone – product of
Name Specific gravity
mechanically crushing of rocks,
Magnenite 4.3
boulders, etc. with substantially
Barite 4.2
all faces of triangle
Heavy Limonite 3.8
c. Stone Sand – fine aggregate Weight Ferrophosporus 6.3
produced by crushing gravel or Steel Shots or
7.6
slag. Also called Manufactured Punchings
Sand Manufactured Natural Non-
Structural Structural structural
d. Dense-Graded Aggregate – Expanded clay Scoria Vermiculite
graded to produce low void Light Weight Shale Pumice Perlite
content and maximum density Slate
when compacted Blast-furnace
Slag
e. Gap-Graded Aggregate – Sieve Analysis – the process of access particle size
graded so that certain distribution of granular materials, “grading”, using a
intermediate size are shaker
substantially absent
f. Open-Graded Aggregate – graded so that voids are relatively large when the aggregate is
compacted
g. Well-Graded Aggregate – having a particle-size distribution that produces maximum density, that
is, minimum voids
h. Angular Aggregate – particles that possess well-defined edges formed at the intersection of
roughly planar surface
i. Crusher-Run Aggregate – mechanically broken and has not been subjected to subsequent
screening
j. Single-Sized Aggregate – major portion of the particles is in a narrow size range
k. Mineral Aggregate – consist essentially of inorganic non-metallic rock minerals; either natural or
crushed and grading
l. Reactive Aggregate – contains substances capable of reacting chemically with the products of
solution of hydration of the concrete
m. Refractory Aggregate – having refractory properties that, when bound together into a
conglomerate mass.
C. WATER – free of harmful substances; recommended to

Water-Cement Ratio
use (drinking water); determines the compressive strength
Amount of water,
and workability of concrete (more water: less strength, Strength, psi
by weight
more workability)
0.41 6000
0.48 5000
Abram’s Law:
𝐶𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 0.57 4000
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 0.68 3000
𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
0.82 2000
D. ADMIXTURES – substance other than cement, water, or aggregate, added to a concrete or a mortar
mix to alter its properties or those of the hardened product, “additive”
Types of Admixtures:
a. Air-Entraining – used to stabilize tiny bubbles, to protect against damage from repeated freezing-
and-thawing cycles
b. Water Reducing and Set Controlling – increase workability, improved durability, provide easier
replacement, control the setting time, and produce easier finishing with less segregation of the
ingredients
A = Water Reducing E = Water Reducing and Accelerating
B = Retarding-Delayed Setting F = High Range Water Reducing (HRWR)
C = Accelerating-Hasten Setting G = HRWR and Retarding
D = Water Reducing and Retarding
c. Shrinkage-Reducing – used for prestressed concrete; reduces shrinkage due to loss of moisture
from concrete drying
d. Corrosion-Resisting – delay the onset of corrosion and reduce the rate of corrosion of embedded
reinforcement after initiation
e. Controlling Alkali-Silica Reactive – control of formation of a water-absorptive gel that expands

and fractures the concrete
f. Underwater Concreting – enhance cohesiveness of the concrete mixture to reduce washout of the
concrete, which reduce strength and integrity
TYPES OF CONCRETE ACCORDING TO INGREDIENTS

Cement Paste = Cement + Water
Mortar = Cement + Water + Fine Aggregate
Masonry Mortar = Cement + Water + Fine Aggregate + Lime
Concrete = Cement + Water + Fine Aggregate + Coarse Aggregate
Cyclopean Concrete = Cement + Water + Fine Aggregate + Boulder Aggregate
Insulating Concrete = Cement + Water + Fine Aggregate + Perlite
Reinforced Concrete = Cement + Water + Fine Aggregate + Coarse Aggregate
+ Reinforcement
TYPES OF CONCRETE ACCORDING TO MIXTURE PROPORTION

Proportion
Aggregate
Aggregate
Mixture Potential Cement, Sand, Gravel,

Cement
Coarse
Fine
Class Strength, psi bags Cu. M. Cu. M.
AA 1 1½ 3 4000 12 0.5 1
A 1 2 4 3500 9 0.5 1
B 1 2½ 5 3000 7.5 0.5 1
C 1 3 6 2500 6 0.5 1
Based on Fajardo’s Simplified Construction Estimates
Mix Design – most economical selection and proportioning of cement, water, and aggregate to
produce concrete or mortar having the required workability, strength, durability, and water
tightness.
COMMON CONCRETE DEFECTS AND ITS CAUSES

A. SEGREGATION – separation of coarse aggregate from the mortar or of water. Caused by excessive
horizontal movement, free fall mix, or from over vibration.
Honeycomb – voids on the formed concrete caused by segregation
B. STRATIFICATION – horizontal layering with light materials above and heavy materials below
caused by excessively wet mixture or over vibration.
C. BLEEDING OR WATER GAIN – emergence of excess water on the surface caused by settlement of
solids
Laitance – milky deposit containing cement and fine aggregate
Segregation Stratification Bleeding
D. SHRINKAGE – reduction in volume due to loss of moisture, “drying shrinkage”

Setting – shrinkage prior to final set
E. CRAZING – numerous hairline cracks in the surface caused by rapid drying shrinkage
F. CRACK – complete or incomplete separation into two or more parts produced by breaking of
fracturing
Crazing Crack
G. CREEP – time-dependent deformation due to sustained load
H. BLEMISH – variation from a consistently smooth and uniformly colored surface
I. BLISTERING – irregular raising of a thin layer at the surface
J. CHALKING – formation of a loose powder from the disintegration of the surface
K. DUSTING – development of a powdered material at the surface of concrete
L. EFFLORESCENCE – deposit of salts formed on a surface
M. SCALING OR SPALLING – chipping of concrete caused by freeze-thaw cycles or application of

deicing salts
N. WEATHERING – changes in color, texture, strength, chemical composition or other properties of a

natural or artificial material due to the action of the weather
O. OVER VIBRATION – excessive use of vibrations during placement of freshly mixed concrete,
causing segregation, stratification, and excessive bleeding
P. SETTLEMENT – sinking of solid particles after placement and before initial set
CONCRETE PRODUCTS
A. CAST-IN PLACE, IN SITU – concrete deposited, formed, cured, and finished in its final position as
part of a structure
a. Conventional – concrete is directly casted to the final position
b. Prestressed – reinforced concrete with its reinforcement, usually stranded wire or tendons, is
stressed into a tension
1. Pre-tension – tension before concrete placing
2. Post Tension – concrete placing before tension
3. Pre-Post Tension – pre-tensioning a few some of the tendons and post tension others
B. PRECAST – concrete placed and cured other than where it is to be installed, usually prestressed
Hollow-Core Flat Slab

Solid Flat Slab
Tee Beam
Double Tee Beam Inverted Tee Beam
Wall Panels
Concrete Pipe/Culverts L-Beam
REINFORCED CONCRETE
A concrete in which steel reinforcement is embedded in such a manner that the two materials act
together in resisting forces.
Reinforcement – a system of steel bars, strands, or wires for absorbing tensile, shearing and
sometimes compressive stresses in a concrete member or structure.
TYPES OF REINFORCED CONCRETE

A. REGULAR REINFORCED CONCRETE – reinforced with steel reinforcing bar, plain or deformed
B. FERROCEMENT – Cement + Fine Aggregate + Mesh

Welded-Wire Woven-Wire Fabric Perforated Metal Expanded Metal Mesh
Mesh/Fabric Sheet
C. FIBER-REINFORCED – concrete reinforced with dispersed, randomly oriented fabric of glass or

plastic. GFCR – Glass Fiber RC
D. PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
Prestress – to introduce internal stresses to a member to counteract the stresses that will result from
an applied load
Parts of Prestressed Concrete Production:

a. Tendons – high-strength steel strand (cable composed of high strength steel wires twisted about a
core) or bar for prestressing
b. Abutment – a structure for anchoring the reinforcing tendon in the pre-tensioning of a concrete
member
c. Anchor or Anchorage – a mechanical device for locking a stressed tension in position and deliver
prestressing force to the concrete
1. Pre-tension – temporary
2. Post tension – permanent
d. Jacking force – tensile force exerted temporarily by a jack, a hydraulic device for stretching and
stressing tendons, in the prestressing of a concrete
e. Casting Bed/Form – a horizontal slab on which a number of pre-tensioned concrete members may
be prestressed, formed, and cast simultaneously
f. Sheath – a tube for encasing tendons (post tensioning) to prevent their bonding to the concrete
during placement
Tendon Casting Bed
Abutment
Anchor Sheath
Jacking Force
Types of Prestressed Concrete:

1 Pretension 2 Post tension
Tendon Jacking
Unstressed Tendon Placing
Concrete Casting Concrete Casting
Prestressing Prestressing
(Tendon Cutting) (Tendon Jacking)
Loading of Body Loading of Body
3 Pre-Post Tension
Post tension types:
Technique where some of the tendons are
• Bonded – tendons are bonded to the concrete
prestressed prior to concrete casting while via grouting of sheath
the rest are prestressed after curing. • Unbounded – sheath are not grouted, allowing
tendons to move relative to the surrounding
Initial prestress – tensile force in the tendons is transferred to the concrete

Loss of prestress – reduction in initial prestress from creep, shrinkage, or elastic shortening, relaxing
of reinforcing steel, friction loses, and anchor slippage
Final prestress – internal stress after loss of prestressed
Effective – final prestress, including the weight of a member
Partial prestress – nominal tensile stress at design or service load
Tendon Placement
a. Concentric Straight trajectory coincident with central axis,
tendons produce a uniformly distributed load
across the section
b. Eccentric Straight trajectory not coincident with the

centroidal axis, tendons produce an eccentric
force which reduces compressive stress across the
section
c. Depressed Segmented of straight line in a parabolic

trajectory
d. Draped Parabolic trajectory, tendons produce a variable

eccentricity that responds to the variation in
applied bending movement
PARAMETERS FOR DESIGNING REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURE

Rules of Thumb When Designing RC Structures
A. PLACEMENT OF COLUMN
a. Should be placed, if possible only in perimeter, strategically to support structure above
b. Should not intervene with the activities of the users of the structure
c. Should, as much as possible, be continuous from top of structure to top of column footing
d. Most economic spacing is 5.0 meters based upon the available reinforcing bar length of 6.0 meters
B. PLACEMENT OF BEAM
a. Should be supported at least at two points, either by column or another beam, except for cantilever
beams
b. As much as possible, beams must be concentric with the column which supports it
c. Continuous beams should be concentric with each other
d. Depth of beam maybe uniform given that the depth is designed for the beam which carries the larges
load
C. ADDITION OF TIE BEAM

a. Should be added when strength of soil foundation is undetermined or is unstable
b. Should connect two columns and shall be placed above the column footing
D. PARAMETERS FOR COLUMN FOOTING

a. Should be located at least 1.20 meters measured from the bottom of the footing to the natural grade
line
b. Should be supported with a gravel bed to counteract capillary action of water on soil.
Minimum Concrete Cover for RC Structures, NSCP 2010 Section 408.8.1
Concrete Covering – minimum concrete thickness required to protect reinforcing bars from corrosion
thru water seepage.
A. CAST-IN-PLACE CONCRETE
a. Concrete cast against and permanently exposed to earth - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
75
b. Concrete exposed to earth or weather:
20m through 36 mm bars - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
50
16mm bars and smaller - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
40
c. Concrete not exposed to earth or weather:
Slabs, Walls, & Joist with 32mm bar and smaller - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 20
Beams & Columns: Primary Reinforcement, Ties, Stirrups, Spirals - - - - - - - - - - 40
Shells, & Folded Place Members 20mm bar and larger - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 20
Shells, & Folded Place Members 16mm and smaller - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 15
B. PRECAST CONCRETE (MANUFACTURED IN PLANT CONDITIONS)

a. Concrete exposed to earth and weather
Wall panels with 32mm bar and smaller - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
20
Other members with 20mm through 32mm bars - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
40
Other members with 16mm bar and smaller - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
30
b. Concrete not exposed to weather or in contact with ground
Slabs, Walls, & Joists with 32mm bar and smaller - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 15
Beams, & Columns Primary Reinforcement, - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 40 < db >15
Beams, & Columns Ties, Stirrups, Spirals - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 10
Shells, & Folded Plate Members with 20mm bar and larger - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 15
Shells, & Folded Plate Members with 16mm bar and smaller - - - - - - - - - - - - - 10
C. PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
a. Concrete cast against and permanently exposed to earth - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 75
b. Concrete exposed to earth or weather:
Wall panels, slabs, joists - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
25
Other members - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
40
c. Concrete not exposed to weather or in contact with ground
Slabs, Walls, & Joist - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 20
Beams, & Columns Primary Reinforcement - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 40
Beams, & Columns Ties, Stirrups, Spirals - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 25
Shells, folded place members with 16mm and smaller - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 10
Other reinforcement - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - db > 20
Note: All dimensions are in millimeter
REINFORCEMENTS OF REGULAR REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURE

A. FOOTING – the bottom most part of a structure that distributes the load of the structure to the soil.
Column Footing – Footing that supports the Wall Footing – Footing that carries the weight
loads from a column. and load from a given wall
Dowel Bars
Main Bars
Temperature Bars
Mat Bars
B. COLUMN – the main vertical member of a structure that transfers the load from a horizontal member,
e.g. beams and slabs, to the footing of the structure.
Parts of Column Reinforcement:

a. Main Vertical Bars – are the bars that carry the load of the column, Minimum of four Ø16 mm
Deformed Bars.
b. Transverse Reinforcement/Ties – are bars which primarily counter act the shear force applied to
the column. Minimum of Ø10 mm Deformed Bar.
Types of Columns According to:

a. Cross Section b. Height/Slenderness Ratio: c. Transverse
1. Rectangle/Square Ratio between the effective Reinforcements
2. Circular length/height and its least lateral 1. Spiral Ties
3. Polygonal dimension 2. Lateral Ties
1. Short Column, if Ratio ≤ 12
2. Long Column, if Ratio > 12
Spiral Ties Lateral Ties
Sample Layout of Lateral Ties
Single Tie Single Tie,

Single Line
Double Tie Double Tie

(Rectangular) (Rectangular +
Diamond)
Single Tie, Double Tie,

Double Line Double Line
Triple Tie
C. BEAM – horizontal member that carries the load
of the structure for the slabs which is then
transferred to the column.
Parts of Beam Reinforcement:

a. Main Bars (Top and Bottom) – are the bars
that carry the load of the column, Minimum of
Ø16 mm Deformed Bar
b. Additional Cut Bars – are additional

reinforcement designed and located to the
tension side of the Midspan and End Supports
of the beam to support tension points of the
beam
c. Transverse Reinforcement/Stirrups – are

bars which primarily counter act the shear force
applied to the beam. Minimum of Ø10 mm
Deformed Bar.
Closed Stirrup Open or U Stirrup
D. SLABS – are diaphragm structures that directly

carry the weight of the users and are usually
supported by beams or by column.
One-Way Slab
Two-Way Slab
E. STAIRS – one of a flight or series of steps for going from one level to another, as in a building.
Types of Concrete Stairs
a. Waist-Slab – a type of stair flight where a slab is used as support to the treads.
b. Tread-Riser – a type of stair flight where the thickness of the tread and risers are equal.
c. Isolated Tread – a type of stair flight where each tread is isolated from each other.
Waist-Slab Tread-Riser
Isolated Tread
Typical Reinforcements of Waist Slabs
Upper Level
Nosing Bar
Transverse Bars
Main Bottom Bars
Top Cut Bars

Transverse Bars
Wall Footing
On Plan Section
CONSTRUCTION PROCESS OF REGULAR REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURE

A. REINFORCING BAR WORKS
a. Bar Bending – the process by which bends, necessary for structural design, are done to the
reinforcing bars either done manually or by the use of a bending machine.
B B
B
A
A A
90° Bend 180° Bend 135° Bend
Angle of Minimum Bar Bending Minimum

Bar Diameter (db)
Bend (A) Extension (B)
Stirrups and Ties:
10 mm. – 16 mm. 90 4 db 6 db
20 mm. – 25 mm. 90 6 db 12 db
28 mm. and smaller 135 Follow Req’t. bellow 6 db
Other Reinforcements:
10 mm. – 25 mm. 90 6 db 4 db (60 mm.
28 mm. – 36 mm. 8 db Min.)
42 mm. – 58 mm. 180 10 db 12 db
b. Bar Cutting – the process by which reinforcing bars are cut to proper length
c. Bar Installation – the process where reinforcing bars, after bending and cutting, are placed to the
right places and are attached to each other using a Galvanized Iron Wire, Gauge 18 or higher.
B. ESTABLISHMENT OF FORMWORKS, FALSEWORKS, AND SCAFFOLDS
Formworks – the temporary structure required to support newly placed concrete, including the forms
and all supporting members, bracing, and hardware’
Form – Boarding or sheeting of Wood, Metal, Earth, Fiberglass, or Composite Materials, such as
Phenolic Boards, for containing and giving desired shape to newly placed concrete
Types of Formworks
Vertical Special
Conventional, Hand Set, Ganged, Large Core Wall, Single Sided Wall, Self-Climbing
Panel, Large Custom Wall (Climbing Form), Flying Form
Horizontal Vertical/Horizontal
Conventional, Hand Set, Table Tunnel form
Parts of Vertical Forms

a. Form/Sheathing – contains and shapes newly placed concrete until it sets and gains sufficient
strength to be self-supporting
Bulkhead – a partition closing the end of a form or construction joints
b. Support and Bracing

1. Strongback – a vertical support for aligning and reinforcing waler
2. Waler – horizontal support for reinforcing a vertical support
3. Stud – a vertical support directly supporting the form
4. Yoke – a clamping device
5. Spreader – a brae for spreading and keeping wall or footing forms apart
Form
Spreader
Bulkhead Yoke
Strongback
Waler
Stud
Form Ties
Waler
Continuous Rib Stud Type
Type
Reinforced Concrete Wall Reinforced Concrete Column

Formworks Formworks
c. Hardware
1. Form tie – metal tie for keeping wall forms from spreading
Snap Tie Cone Bolt She Bolt
2. Chair – a device for supporting and holding reinforcement in proper position
Chair High Chair Bolster Spacer
Part of Horizontal Forms

a. Form/Sheathing
b. Support and Bracing

1. Joist – horizontal brace that directly supports the forms.
2. Stringer – vertical support for leveling and supporting the stringer.
3. Shore – horizontal brace that support the joists.
Form
Joist
Shore
Stringer
c. Falsework and Scaffolding Horizontal
Falsework – the temporary Members
framework for supporting a structure
under construction that is not yet
capable of supporting itself.
Scaffolding/Staging – a temporary
structure or platform for supporting
workers and materials at a height
above the floor or ground during
construction or repair of a building
Parts of a Lumber/Built-Up Pipe

Scaffold
1. Vertical Support
2. Base of Vertical Support
3. Horizontal Member
4. Diagonal Brace
5. Bolts, Nails, and Clamps
Vertical
Support Diagonal
Brace
Base of Vertical
Support
Parts of a Ready Made Pipe Scaffold

1. Frame – the main frame of a pipe scaffold. Either an A-Frame or H-Frame. Usually with a
dimension of 1.70 M. high and 1.20 M. wide. Also available in 0.90 M. and 1.20 M. High.
Cross Brace
A-Frame
H-Frame
2. Cross Brace – braces two frames together for

rigidity.
3. U-Head – the upper most support of the frame.
Used to support items above the frame
4. Joint Pin – used to attach a frame above another.
5. Base Jack – the foot of a frame, usually
U-Head Base Jack Joint Pin
adjustable.
C. CONCRETE MIXING
Types of Concrete Mixing
a. Manual – use of manual labor or portable mixer to make concrete
b. Ready-mix – concrete that has been mixed at batch-plant for transport using an agitator truck
c. Shrink-mix – concrete partially mixed at a batch plant and mixed more completely in a truck mixer
en route to the site
d. Transit-mix – dry batched at a batch plant and mixed in a truck mixer en route to the site
D. CONCRETE CASTING/PLACEMENT/POURING
The process of depositing freshly mixed concrete in a form or in the final position where it is to harden.
Methods of Casting:
a. Direct – discharging of freshly mixed concrete into a form from a concrete mixer, buggy, or crane
bucket.
b. Pneumatic – the delivery of concrete, slurry, or plaster by a pipeline or hose to the point of
placement.
Shotcrete – A pneumatic placement where the concrete in pumped through a hose and sprayed at
high velocity over reinforcement until the desired thickness is reached.
Activities Prior to Concrete Casting

a. Slump Test - test conducted, during plastic state, to determine the consistency and workability or
water-conduct ratio
Workability – refers to the relative base of handling freshly mixed concrete
Slump – measure of consistency of plastic concrete
Maximum Slump Value for

Slump Specific Concrete Element
Slump Cone
4” at Top Footing 1” - 3”
8” at Bottom Slump Mix
12” High Beams, Reinforced
1” - 4”
Walls, Columns
Pavements and
1” - 3”
Slabs
Mass Concrete 1” - 2”
Types of Slump Mix
Plastic Mix Dry Mix Wet Mix

flows sluggishly no slump; containing runny; low strength,
without segregation a little water durability and water tightness
6”
Cylinder Sampling for Compression Test
A concrete cast into a cylinder cured in a controlled condition. Test
Cylinder shall be with a dimension of 6” diameter and 12” in
Height
E. CONSOLIDATION OF FRESH CONCRETE 12”

Process of eliminating voids other than entrained-air within newly placed
concrete and ensures contact to the form.
Methods of Consolidation
a. Tamping – consolidation by
compacting concrete to remove voids.
• Spading – consolidation by the
use of a spade, a flat tool usually
of 4” x 8” dimension.
• Rodding – consolidation by the
use of a rod.
b. Vibration – consolidation using a

moderately high-frequency
oscillation vibrator
c. Centrifugation – moulding of
Spading Rodding Vibration
concrete by the use of centrifugal
force.
F. SURFACE FINISHING
The process of leveling, smoothing, compacting, and treating a newly placed concrete surface to
produce the desired texture and appearance.
Tools for Finishing Concrete

a. Straightedge
1. Screed – a tool for leveling fresh concrete 2. Darby – a tool used for smoothing
concrete after screeding.
b. Flat-bladed
1. Float – used for spreading concrete to a flat Bull Float – a large surface area
surface, and a smooth finish float used, usually for large
slab casting
2. Trowel – used for finishing a smooth Power Trowel – a machine
surface of the concrete by making the operated trowel, usually 4-
surface more smooth bladed, for even smoothing of
concrete
3. Float Trowel – looks like a bull float but is primarily used to smooth finish a large area of
concrete
Architectural Finishes
Exposed concrete work requiring special care in the selection of materials, forming, placing, and
finishing, to acquire the desired appearance.
a. Dry-shake – dry mixture of cement, sand, and b. Béton brut – natural surface after removal
pigment sprinkled on screeded surface of formwork
c. Tooled finish – finish using the different tools

Float finish Broom finish
Trowel finish / Swirl finish Bush Hammered Finish

Overlapping circular motion
d. Exposed Aggregates – concrete finish where Wash Out

the plaster is composed of aesthetically
pleasing aggregates which will be exposed to
the surface.
G. CONCRETE CURING Plastic/Green Concrete
The process of maintaining newly placed
concrete or mortar at a required temperature Setting Period
Un-Watered
Week 01
and humidity for the first seven days to
ensure satisfactory hydration and hardening. Formwork Stripping
or Removal
Curing Period and the States of Concrete

a. Plastic Concrete – state of concrete that
Week 02
First Compression Testing
is semi-liquid.
at least Half of the Desired
Green Concrete – the state of concrete
Curing Period
Strength Capacity
in which a plastic concrete has not yet
set.
Watered
Week 03
Second Compression Testing
b. Setting Period – time needed for
concrete to set or assume a rigid state.
Set Concrete – the state of concrete in
Third Compression Testing
which a plastic concrete has already
Week 04
harden but in not yet capable of
supporting itself or has not yet fully
cured.
Final Compression Testing
at Desired Strength Capacity
c. Cured Concrete – the state of
concrete that is solid after undergoing
curing process.
Cured Concrete
Methods of Curing:
a. Water curing – curing process by which the concrete is fully or partially soaked in water.
1. Immersion – for precast concrete, where concrete is fully soaked or immersed in water
2. Ponding – for horizontal concrete structures such as slabs and road pavements, where earth or
any other material is used to cause ponding to the surface of the concrete
3. Spraying – for vertical concrete structures such as columns and walls, where water is applied
to the surface of the concrete
4. Wet covering – curing where a damp cloth or any other material that can hold water is placed
over the concrete
b. Moisture-retaining covering – curing where a thin film is used to cover the concrete surface to
minimized moisture loss.
c. Curing compound – a chemical compound for curing is mixed to the plastic mix of concrete prior
to concrete casting.
Other Curing Terminologies:

a. Adiabatic Curing – maintenance of no heat gain or loss in concrete or mortar during curing
b. Atmospheric-Pressure Steam Curing (Low Pressure Steam Curing) – steam curing at

atmospheric pressure, usually at temperature between 40-45° C
c. Autoclave Curing (High Pressure Steam Curing) – curing at an autoclave, usually at temperature
between 170 - 215° C
d. Electrical Curing – temperature is maintained by supplying heat generated by electrical resistance
e. Fog Curing – storage of concrete in moist room
f. Mass Curing – adiabatic curing in sealed container
g. Standard Curing – exposure to specified conditions of moisture and temperature
h. Membrane Curing – liquid or non-liquid protective coating which functions as a film to restrict
evaporation of water
Book References:
Ching, Francis D.K., A Visual Dictionary of Architecture, Second Edition, 2014
Ching, Francis D.K., Building Construction Illustrated, Fifth Edition, 2014
Harris, Cyril M., Dictionary of Architecture and Construction, Fourth Edition, 2006
Allen, Edward & Iano, Joseph, Fundamentals of Building Construction, Fifth Edition, 2009
National Structural Code of the Philippines
Web References:

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CEng 112n: Building Technologies

Lesson 03: CONCRETE and Lesson Summary:

REINFORCED CONCRETE topics on concrete and reinforced

Cement (Binder) Formworks, Falseworks,

CURING SURFACE CONSOLIDATION

+ + Half of Cement Volume

b. Non-hydraulic cement – cement that reacts with carbon dioxide

Aggregate Terminologies: Classification Name Size

C. WATER – free of harmful substances; recommended to

e. Controlling Alkali-Silica Reactive – control of formation of a water-absorptive gel that expands

TYPES OF CONCRETE ACCORDING TO INGREDIENTS

TYPES OF CONCRETE ACCORDING TO MIXTURE PROPORTION

Mixture Potential Cement, Sand, Gravel,

Class Strength, psi bags Cu. M. Cu. M.

COMMON CONCRETE DEFECTS AND ITS CAUSES

Segregation Stratification Bleeding

D. SHRINKAGE – reduction in volume due to loss of moisture, “drying shrinkage”

G. CREEP – time-dependent deformation due to sustained load

H. BLEMISH – variation from a consistently smooth and uniformly colored surface

I. BLISTERING – irregular raising of a thin layer at the surface

J. CHALKING – formation of a loose powder from the disintegration of the surface

K. DUSTING – development of a powdered material at the surface of concrete

L. EFFLORESCENCE – deposit of salts formed on a surface

M. SCALING OR SPALLING – chipping of concrete caused by freeze-thaw cycles or application of

N. WEATHERING – changes in color, texture, strength, chemical composition or other properties of a

Hollow-Core Flat Slab

Double Tee Beam Inverted Tee Beam

Concrete Pipe/Culverts L-Beam

TYPES OF REINFORCED CONCRETE

B. FERROCEMENT – Cement + Fine Aggregate + Mesh

C. FIBER-REINFORCED – concrete reinforced with dispersed, randomly oriented fabric of glass or

Parts of Prestressed Concrete Production:

Types of Prestressed Concrete:

Concrete Casting Concrete Casting

Loading of Body Loading of Body

Initial prestress – tensile force in the tendons is transferred to the concrete

b. Eccentric Straight trajectory not coincident with the

c. Depressed Segmented of straight line in a parabolic

d. Draped Parabolic trajectory, tendons produce a variable

PARAMETERS FOR DESIGNING REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURE

c. Continuous beams should be concentric with each other

C. ADDITION OF TIE BEAM

D. PARAMETERS FOR COLUMN FOOTING

B. PRECAST CONCRETE (MANUFACTURED IN PLANT CONDITIONS)

REINFORCEMENTS OF REGULAR REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURE

Parts of Column Reinforcement:

Types of Columns According to:

Spiral Ties Lateral Ties

Sample Layout of Lateral Ties

Single Tie Single Tie,

Double Tie Double Tie

Single Tie, Double Tie,

Parts of Beam Reinforcement:

b. Additional Cut Bars – are additional

c. Transverse Reinforcement/Stirrups – are

Closed Stirrup Open or U Stirrup

D. SLABS – are diaphragm structures that directly

Main Bottom Bars