Review Module

Lesson Summary
This lesson covers the basic definition of what a building is, its purpose, who uses it and the
various laws, codes, and standards that regulate building design. Also, this introduces the
division of a building and its various parts necessary for its functionality.

Learning Outcomes
1. At the end of this lesson, the student should be able to recognize the purpose of a
building and the different laws that govern its design.
2. At the end of this lesson, the student should be able to identify the various parts of the
building and discuss its purpose.

Motivation Question
What do you think is the purpose of the different types of building uses or occupancies?
Can you name all building parts found inside your house?

Discussion
A. Definition and Purpose of a Rain
Building

A building is any structure built for the

support, shelter, or enclosure of
person, animals, chattels, or property of any
kind. (Ching, A Visual Dictionary of
Architecture, 2012) It protects and
shelters the users of the space, or
Noise

Occupancies, from external forces as well

as divide the spaces for specific
functions. These forces include
Wind

weather conditions called Natural Forces

as well as the natural weight of the
building and its users called Internal
Forces.
Flood

Natural Forces includes forces from wind,

water, and earth forces.
a. Wind Force is a force that is
produced by the movement of air.
1. Noise is a variation of a wind
force by which the air is
disturbed by the Moisture and Earth
wavelength of a sound.
Figure 1. Forces Acting on a Building
b. Water Force are forces
produced by the various movements of water.
 1. Flood is a water force produced by the pooling of water or the flow of increased
volume of water.
2. Rain is a water force produced by the condensation of water vapor from a higher
altitude which eventually fall to the surface.
3. Moisture is a water force produced either by the condensation of water vapor in
any surface or the exfiltration of water from the ground.
c. Earth is force that is acted by the soil upon the structure. This includes earth
movements such as earthquakes and settlements.
Internal Forces refer to the weight of the building and its users. As people move throughout
the building they apply forces to the building itself while the building, constructed with solid
materials, is supporting its own weight in order to stand and protect the users inside.
These forces create loads that will act upon the occupancies. Other than the loads that the
natural forces produce, various elements of the structures and the different equipment that will
be used for the specific occupancy will have its own weight thus transforming it into a load. A
load can be defined as a force, or system of forces, carried by a structure, or a part of the
structure. Loads are generally subdivided into the following: (Ching, A Visual Dictionary of
Architecture, 2012)

a. Natural Loads refers to loads that act upon a structure that is delivered by natural
events.
1. Wind Load refers to the total force exerted by the wind and noise pressure on a
structure or part of a structure.
2. Earthquake Load refers to the total force exerted on a structure by an earthquake
or earth movements.
3. Rain Load refers to the total force exerted on a structure by the volume of rain with
respect to a given duration.
b. Dead Loads refers to the weight of a structure itself, including the weight of fixtures or
equipment permanently attached to it.
c. Live Loads refers the moving or movable external load on a structure; includes the
weight of furnishings of a building, of the people, of equipment, etc., but does not
include wind load.
To protect the users inside, the building transfers these loads from its various parts down or
towards the earth at the bottom of the structure. Majority of the loads that act on the building
is accepted by a set of building elements called the Envelopes or Enclosure which includes
the Roof, Floors or Slabs, and the Exterior Walls. These enclosures are diaphragm in nature
such that they can protect a very huge area from the forces. The loads are then transferred to
the Structural Framework of the building which includes the Trusses, Beams, and Columns.
The purpose of the structural framework is to transfer the loads from the enclosure to the
Foundation, including the Column Footing and Wall Footing, where it distributes the forces to
the so to the soil.
 Roof

Trusses

Roof Beams

Exterior Wall

Floor Slab

Rain and Wind Loads

Floor Beam

Columns

Ground Floor
Slab

Wall Footing

Fill

Column
Footing

Soil Foundation

Counter Force from Soil

Figure 2. Loads Transfer Diagram

B. Types of Occupancy

The use of the spaces where specific activities are performed is called Building Occupancy
or Occupancy. This term also refers to the intended use of a space inside a building. In the
Philippines, building occupancies are defined in the National Building Code of the Philippines
(RA 1096) and its Implementing Rules and Regulation (IRR), however, other law may have a
more specific categorization for the occupancies. For our studies, we will be referring to the
categorization based from the National Building Code of the Philippines.
Building Occupancies According to the National Building Code of the Philippines:

Group A - Residential Dwellings shall include:

Division 1 - Residential building/structure for exclusive use of single family occupants
including school or company staff housing; single (nuclear) family dwellings;
churches or similar places of worship; church rectories; community facilities
and social centers; parks, playgrounds, pocket parks, parkways, promenades
and play lots; clubhouses and recreational uses such as golf courses, tennis
courts, basketball courts, swimming pools and similar uses operated by the
government or private individuals as membership organizations for the benefit
of their members, families, and guests and not operated primarily for gain.

Division 2 - Residential building for the exclusive use of non-leasing occupants not
exceeding 10 persons including single-attached or duplex or townhouses,
each privately-owned; school dormitories (on campus); convents and
monasteries; military or police barracks/dormitories; pre-schools, elementary
and high schools, provided that they do not exceed 16 classrooms; outpatient
clinics, family planning clinics, lying-in clinics, diagnostics clinics, medical and
clinical laboratories; branch library and museums; steam/dry cleaning outlets;
party needs and accessories (leasing of tables and chairs, etc.).

Group B - Residentials, Hotels and Apartments

Group B Occupancies shall be multiple dwelling units including boarding or lodging
houses, hotels, apartment buildings, row houses, convents, monasteries and other similar
building each of which accommodates more than 10 persons.

Group C - Education and Recreation

Group C Occupancies shall be buildings used for school or day-care purposes,
involving assemblage for instruction, education, or recreation, and not classified in Group
I or in Division 1 and 2 or Group H Occupancies.

Group D – Institutional shall include:

Division 1 - Mental hospitals, mental sanitaria, jails, prisons, reformatories, and buildings
were personal liberties of inmates are similarly restrained.

Division 2 - Nurseries for full-time care of children under kindergarten age, hospitals,
sanitaria, nursing homes with non-ambulatory patients, and similar buildings
each accommodating more than five persons.

Division 3 - Nursing homes for ambulatory patients, homes for children of kindergarten age
or over, each accommodating more than five persons: Provided, that Group D
Occupancies shall not include buildings used only for private or family group
dwelling purposes.

Group E - Business and Mercantile shall include:

Division 1 - Gasoline filling and service stations, storage garages and boat storage
structures where no work is done except exchange of parts and maintenance
requiring no open flame, welding, or the use of highly flammable liquids.

Division 2 - Wholesale and retail stores, office buildings, drinking and dining
establishments having an occupant load of less than one hundred persons,
printing plants, police and fire stations, factories and workshops using not
highly flammable or combustible materials and paint stores without bulk
handlings.
 Division 3 - Aircraft hangars and open parking garages where no repair work is done
except exchange of parts and maintenance requiring no open flame, welding
or the use of highly flammable liquids.

Group F – Industrial
Group F Occupancies shall include: ice plants, power plants, pumping plants, cold
storage, and creameries, factories and workshops using incombustible and non-explosive
materials, and storage and sales rooms for incombustible and non-explosive materials.

Group G - Storage and Hazardous shall include:

Division 1 - Storage and handling of hazardous and highly flammable material.

Division 2 - Storage and handling of flammable materials, dry cleaning plants using
flammable liquids; paint stores with bulk handling, paint shops and spray-
painting rooms.

Division 3 - Wood working establishments, planning mills and box factories, shops,
factories where loose combustible fibers or dust are manufactured, processed
or generated; warehouses where highly combustible materials is stored.

Division 4 - Repair garages.

Division 5 - Aircraft repair hangars.

Group H - Assembly Other Than Group I shall include:

Division 1 - Any assembly building with a stage and an occupant load of less than 1000 in
the building.

Division 2 - Any assembly building without stage and having an occupant load of 300 or
more in the building.

Division 3 - Any assembly building without a stage and having an occupant load of less
than 300 in the building.

Division 4 - Stadia, reviewing stands, amusement park structures not included within
Group I or in Division 1, 2, and 3 of this Group.

Group I - Assembly Occupant Load 1000 or More

Group I Occupancies shall be any assembly building with a stage and an occupant
load of 1000 or more in the building.

Group J – Accessory shall include:

Division 1 - Agricultural structures.

Division 2 - Private garages, carports, fences over 1.80 meters high, tanks, swimming
pools and towers.

Division 3 - Stages, platforms, pelota, tennis, badminton or basketball courts, tombs,

mausoleums, niches, aviaries, aquariums, zoo structures, banks and record
vaults.

C. Laws that Govern the Design of a Building

As the mentioned in previous discussions, the main purpose of the building is to protect its
occupancies before, during, and after use. In order to do so, the government developed and
imposed safety measure in the form of Laws and Codes. Here are the major laws and codes
that secures the safety of the occupancies.
 a. Presidential Decree 1096: The National Building Code of the Philippines (NBCP)
and its Implementing Rules and Regulation (IRR) of 2004 – contains the general
requirements for building design and construction practices.
b. Batas Pambansa 344: Accessibility Law – contains the requirements for
accessibility of the challenged citizens.
c. Republic Act 9514: The National Fire Code of the Philippines of 2008 and its IRR
of 2019 – contains the requirements for fire safety and fire fighting for building.
d. National Structural Code of the Philippines 2015 as published by the Association
of Structural Engineers of the Philippines (ASEP) – contains the requirements for
structural design of a structure or infrastructure.
e. Republic Act 1378: The Plumbing Law and its IRR of 1999 – contains the
requirement for plumbing systems of a building.
f. Philippine Electrical Code 2017 – contains the requirements for the electrical design
of the structures and infrastructures.
g. Presidential Decree 856: The Code on Sanitation of the Philippines of 1975 –
contains the proper practices and design for sanitation of various occupancies.
h. Batas Pambansa 220: Economic and Socialized Housing Projects and its IRR of
2008 – contains the requirements for economic and socialized housing designs for the
low-income class.
i. Presidential Decree 957: Subdivision and Condominium Buyer’s Protective
Decree and its IRR or 2009 – contains the various requirements for subdivision and
condominium designs.
j. Local Ordinances – depending on the location of the project, various implemented
ordinances may apply.
k. Various codes for professional practices – contain regulatory provisions for those
practicing building design professionals and those who wish to practice the building
design profession.

D. Building Division
Superstructure

A building can be divided into two main

divisions, the superstructure and the
substructure. Superstructure refers to the
vertical extension of a building or other
construction above the ground or foundation
while Substructure refers to the underlying
structure forming the foundation of a building or
Substructure

other construction. Substructures can be any

of the following:
Types of Substructures
a. On-Stilts - A grid of independent
Figure 3. Building Division
piers or poles can elevate the
superstructure above the surface of
the ground.
b. Slab-on-Fill/Grade – slabs constructed above a compact fill or grade.
c. Crawl Space – an area in a building having a clearance less than human height, but
accessible by crawling, esp. such a space below the first floor that is enclosed by the
foundation walls.
d. Basement – a storey of a building that is wholly or partly below ground level
 Crawl Space
On-Stilts

Slab-on-Fill Basement

Figure 4. Types of Substructures

E. Building Anatomy

Building refers to the various parts of the parts of the building. The building parts can be
categorized into Foundation, Structural Framework, Building Envelope, and the Service
Systems.

For the discussion of the various building parts in this course, only the following will be
discussed in this arrangement.
a. Foundation including its types and the types of building footings.
b. Structural Framework including the type of Columns and Beams.
c. Building Envelopes including the type of Floors, Walls, and Ceiling.
d. Roof System including its Roof Framing System and Roof Envelope.
e. Building Fenestrations including Doors and Windows and their respective types.
f. Building Conveyance including Stairs and Ramps, their types and parts.

The definition of the various parts is based from the definition from the following references:
Ching, Francis D.K., A Visual Dictionary of Architecture, Second Edition, 2014
Ching, Francis D.K., Building Construction Illustrated, Sixth Edition, 2019
Harris, Cyril M., Dictionary of Architecture and Construction, Fourth Edition, 2006
Allen, Edward & Iano, Joseph, Fundamentals of Building Construction, Fifth Edition, 2009
FOUNDATION the lowest division of a building or other construction, partly or wholly below
the surface of the ground, designed to support and anchor the superstructure and transmit
its loads directly to the earth. The system includes both the bearing soil and the building part
called the Footing which transfer the load from the building to the soil.

➢ Types of Foundation
a. Shallow Foundation is a foundation system placed directly below the lowest part of a
substructure and transferring building loads directly to the supporting soil by vertical
pressure.

Figure 5. Shallow Footing

1. Float Foundation is a foundation used in yielding soil, having for its footing a raft
placed deep enough that the weight of the excavated soil is equal to or greater
than the weight of the construction supported.
b. Deep Foundation is a foundation system that extends down through unsuitable soil

Figure 6. Float Foundation

to transfer building loads to a more

appropriate bearing stratum well below the
superstructure.
1. Pile Foundation is a system of
piles, pile caps, and tie beams for
transferring building loads down to
a suitable bearing stratum, used
esp. when the soil mass directly below
the construction is not suitable for
the direct bearing of footings.

Pile is a straight material which is

driven or otherwise introduced
into the soil, usually to carry a
vertical load or to provide lateral
support.
➢ Footing is the part of a Figure 7. Pile Foundation foundation
bearing directly upon the supporting
soil, and enlarged to distribute its load over a greater area. Footings are generally used
for shallow foundation systems.

Types of Footing
a. Isolated Footing is a single spread footing supporting a freestanding column or pier.
b. Strap/Cantilever Footing is a footing connected by a tie beam to another footing in
order to balance an asymmetrically imposed load, as at the perimeter of a building site.
 c. Combined Footing is a footing that is formed by two or more footings overlapping
each other. Usually used for a perimeter column or foundation wall extended to support
an interior column load.
d. Strip/Continuous Footing is the continuous spread footing of a foundation wall.
e. Stepped Footing is a continuous or strip footing that changes levels in stages to
accommodate a sloping site or bearing stratum.
f. Mat Footing is a thick, slab-like footing supporting a number of columns or an entire
building.
1. Raft Footing is a mat providing a footing on yielding soil, usually for an entire
building, placed so that the weight of the displaced soil exceeds the weight of the
construction. Usually used for float foundation systems.
STRUCTURAL FRAMEWORK refers to the parts of the building the transfers the loads from

Isolated Footing Strap/Cantilever Footing Combined Footing

Strip/Continuous Footing
Stepped Footing

Mat Footing Raft Footing

Figure 8. Types of Building Footing

the envelopes to the foundation. This includes the columns, beams, and roof framing.
However, this section will only discuss the various types of columns and beams.

➢ Columns is a rigid, relatively slender structural member designed primarily to support

compressive loads applied at the member ends. Columns are generally used to transfer
loads vertically from a higher to a lower elevation. Its cross section may vary in shape but
are commonly in the shape of a square, rectangle, or a circle mainly due to the ease in
constructing these shapes.

Types of Columns
a. Columns by Height. Columns can be categorized based on its height.
 1. Pedestal is a column designed to carry another
member but only serves as a base of the main
structural elements such as a Posts.

Effective Length
2. Short Column is when the ratio between the
effective length and least lateral dimension
of a column is less than or equal to 12.
3. Long Column is when the ratio between the
effective length and least lateral dimension
of a column is greater than 12. These columns
are generally slender and are prone to buckling.
b. Stiffener Column are columns designed to support
free standing members such as walls. The Least Lateral least lateral
Dimension
dimension of these columns is based on the member
being supported.
c. Planted Column are columns that are not continuous from the footing to the top most
element of the structure.
d. Post is the term used when timber is used for a column.

Pedestal Pedestal Stiffener

Supporting Post Supporting Walls Columns

Planted Columns
Post

Figure 9. Types of Columns

➢ Beams is a rigid structural member designed to carry and transfer transverse loads across
space to supporting elements. Beams are generally used to transfer loads on a horizontal
span. Beams can be categorized into Beams Supported by Earth and Suspended
Beams.

Beams Supported by Earth are beams that is directly placed over earth or fill. Its types
include:

a. Tie Beam is a beam distributing the horizontal forces from an eccentrically loaded pile
cap or spread footing to other pile caps or footings.
 b. Grade Beam is a beam supporting a superstructure at or near ground level and
transferring the load to isolated footings, piers, or piles.

Tie Beam Grade Beam

Figure 10. Beams Supported by Earth

Suspended Beams are beams that are supported in one or more points and are
constructed in such a manner that it is hanging from the supports. This includes the
following types:

a. Simply Supported/Simple Beam is a beam resting on simple supports at both ends,

which are free to rotate and have no moment resistance.
b. Fixed-End Beam is a beam having both ends restrained against translation and
rotation.
c. Cantilever Beam is a projecting beam supported at only one fixed end.
d. Suspended-Span/Hung-Span Beam is a simple beam supported by the cantilevers
of two adjoining spans with pinned construction joints at points of zero moment.
e. Spandrel Beam is a beam spanning between columns and supporting the outer edge
of a floor or roof.
f. Girder Beam is a large principal beam designed to support concentrated loads at
isolated points along its length.

Simply Supported/Simple Beam Fixed-End Beam Cantilever Beam

Spandrel Beam

Suspended-Span Beam Girder Beam

Figure 11. Suspended Beam Types

BUILDING ENVELOPE SYSTEM refers to the various parts that cover the exterior of the
building including the Floors, Walls, Roof Cover, and their respective Fenestrations (i.e.
Doors and Windows). This section will only discuss the floors, walls, and ceiling and their
respective types.

➢ Floor is the level, base surface of a room or hall upon which one stands or walks. Floors
can be made from various structural frameworks, however, the most common of the frame
is the solid floors called Slab Floors and the hollow floors called Framed Floors. Floors
can either be placed directly on the ground or can be suspended. Suspended floors, much
like beams, can be categorized into:
a. Simply Supported/Simple Floors is a floor resting on simple supports at all ends,
which are free to rotate and have no moment resistance.
b. Fixed-End Floor is a floor having all ends restrained against translation and rotation.
c. Cantilever Slab is a projecting floor supported at only one or two fixed ends.
➢ Walls are any of various upright constructions presenting a continuous surface and
serving to enclose, divide, or protect an area. Walls can be divided into three categories;
Interior Partitions, Exterior Walls, and Retaining Walls.

Interior Partitions is any wall within a building, entirely surrounded by exterior walls.
Exterior Walls are walls forming part of the envelope of a building, having one face
exposed to the weather or to earth. These include the following:
a. Platform Wall is an exterior wall system where the wall is constructed separately every
floor over the slab.
b. Curtain Wall is an exterior wall supported wholly by the structural frame of a building
and carrying no loads other than its own weight and wind loads.
c. Parapet Wall is a low, protective wall at the edge of a terrace, balcony, or roof, esp.
that part of an exterior wall, fire wall, or party wall that rises above the roof.

Parapet Wall

Platform Wall Curtain Wall

Figure 12. Types of Exterior Walls

Retaining Walls are walls for holding in place a mass of earth. A retaining wall can fail by
overturning, sliding, or settling. Retaining walls include:
a. Dry Stone Wall/Riprap Wall is a layer of broken stones thrown together irregularly on
an embankment slope to prevent erosion.
b. Horizontal Timber Wall is a retaining wall constructed of heavy timbers laid
horizontally supported by vertical studs.

Figure 13. Riprap Wall (Left), Horizontal Timber Wall (Middle), and Sheet Piles (Right)

c. Sheet Piles is any of a number of steel sheets driven vertically side by side to retain
earth or prevent water from seeping into an excavation. Also called Sheath Pile.
d. Gravity Wall is a retaining wall that resists overturning and sliding by the sheer
weight and volume of its mass.
e. Cantilever Wall is a retaining wall of reinforced concrete or reinforced concrete
masonry cantilevered from and securely tied to a spread footing that is shaped to resist
overturning and sliding. Cantilever walls can be supported by Counterforts.
 1. Counterfort is a triangular-shaped cross wall tying a concrete retaining wall to its
base at regular intervals, built on the side of the material to be retained in order to
stiffen the vertical slab and add weight to the base.

Figure 14. Gravity Wall (Left), Cantilever Wall (Middle), and Counterfort (Right)

Flat Ceiling Slope Vaulted Ceiling Barrel Vaulted Ceiling

Figure 15. Examples of Rooms and Ceiling Sections

➢ Ceiling is the overhead interior surface or lining of a room, often concealing the underside
of the floor or roof above. Ceilings can be categorized into Flat Ceiling, those that have
no change in elevation, or Vaulted Ceiling, those that angles or curves upward to create
a feeling of openness in an interior space.
ROOF SYSTEM refers to the various structural framing components, called Roof Framing,
needed to support the diaphragm structure and the diaphragm structure, called the Roof
Cover, and the Roof Eaves that are located at the edges of the roof. Roof Systems can
differ depending on the slope of the roof.

➢ Types of Roof according to Slope

a. Flat Roof is a type of roof having a surface with a slope less than 2%.
b. Pitched Roof is a type of roof having sloping surfaces. Pitched Roof include the
following types:
Ridge *Ridge is the topmost
Rake
line formed by two
intersecting planes
with opposite
slopes.

*Rake refers to the

sloping edge of the
roof.

1. Shed Roof is a roof 2. Gable Roof is a roof sloping

having a single slope. downward in two parts from a
central ridge, so as to form a
gable at each end.
Hip Hip *Hip is the top line
formed by two
intersecting slopes
oriented at an
angle.

3. Hip/Hipped Roof is a 4. Butterfly Roof is a roof having

roof having sloping ends two slopes, each descending
and sides meeting at an inward from the eaves.
inclined projecting angle.
 Curb Curb
*Curb refers to the
line formed where
the slope of the roof
changes.

5. Gambrel Roof is a 6. Mansard Roof is a ridged roof

ridged roof divided on having on each side a steeper
each side into a lower part and a shallower
shallower slope above a upper part.
steeper one.

7. Hipped Gable Roof is a 8. Dutch Hip Roof is a

roof having a hipped end combination of hipped and
truncating a gable. Also gable roof, where the upper
called Jerkinhead, portion of the roof is gable
Shreadhead. while the bottom portion is in
the shape of a hipped roof.

9. Lean-to Roof is a shed 10. Sawtooth Roof is a roof

roof with the higher end composed of a series of small
abutting a wall or larger parallel roofs of triangular
building. cross section, usually
asymmetrical with the shorter
slop glazed.

c. Curved Roof is a type of roof having at surfaces at an arc or arcs. Curved Roof include
the following types:

1. Rainbow Roof is a gable 2. Parabolic Roof is a roof

roof in the form of a broad having a cross sectional
Gothic arch, with gently shape of a parabolic curve.
sloping convex surfaces.
 3. Barrel Roof is a roof or ceiling having a semi-cylindrical form.

d. Other Roof Types

1. Monitor is a raised section of a roof, usually straddling a ridge;

has openings, louvers, or windows along the sides to admit
light or air.

Shed Dormer Roof Gable Dormer Roof

2. Dormer Roof is a structure projecting above a sloping roof,

usually housing a vertical window.
➢ Roof Framing is the main structural framework of a roof system. This includes the main
frame, either a Truss or a Rafter or both, Cross Bracing, Purlins, and Purlin Cleats.
a. Trusses is a structural frame based on the geometric rigidity of the triangle and
Purlin Cleat

Rafters

Cross Bracing

Purlin
Roof Truss

Figure 16. Parts of a Roof Framing

composed of linear members subject only to axial tension or compression.

• Parts of a Truss

Subdiagonals

Web Members

Bottom Chord

Figure 17. Parts of Truss

1. Chord – either of the two principal members of a truss extending from end to
end and connected by web members.
i. Top Chord refers to the chord found at the top or at the slope of the of the
roof. This chord directly supports the purlins.
ii. Bottom Chord refers to the chord found at the bottom of the truss. This
chord is usually horizontal in orientation and connects the truss to the roof
beams.
2. Web Member – the integral system of members connecting the upper and
lower chords of a truss.
i. Crown Post – any vertical member in a pitched truss.
a.) King Post – a vertical member from the apex to the bottom chord of a
pitched truss.
b.) Queen Post – either of the two vertical members set at equal distances
from the apex of a pitched truss.

Figure 18. Crown Post Types: King Post (Left) and Queen Post (Right)

ii. Diagonal – an inclined web member joining the top chord and bottom
chords of a truss.
iii. Subdiagonal – an inclined web member joining a chord with a main
diagonal.

• Types of Trusses according to its Top and Bottom Chord

1. Flat Truss is a truss having parallel top and bottom chords. Flat trusses are
generally not as efficient as pitched or bowstring trusses. Also called Parallel-
Chord Truss.
2. Pitched Truss is a truss having inclined top chords
3. Bowstring Truss is a truss having a curved top chord meeting a straight
bottom chord to each end.
4. Crescent/Camelback Truss is a truss having both top and bottom chords
curving upward from a common point at each side.
 5. Trussed Beam is a beam stiffened by a combination of diagonal truss rods
and either compression struts or suspension rods.

Flat Truss Pitched Truss

Bowstring Truss Crescent/Camelback Truss

Trussed Beam

Figure 19. Types of Trusses according to its Top and Bottom Chords

• Types of Trusses according to its Web Members

1. Pratt Truss pertains to a flat or pitched truss having vertical web members in
compression and diagonal web members in tension.
2. Howe Truss pertains to a flat or pitched truss having vertical web members in
tension and diagonal web members in compression.
3. Warren Truss pertains to a flat or bowstring truss having inclined web
members forming a series of equilateral triangles. Vertical web members are
sometimes introduced to reduce the panel lengths of the top chord, which is in
compression.
4. Belgian Truss is of or pertaining to a pitched truss having only inclined web
members.
5. Fink Truss is a Belgian truss having sub-diagonals to reduce the length of
compression web members toward the centerline of the span.
 6. Scissors Truss is a pitched truss having tension members extending from the
foot of each top chord to an intermediate point on the opposite top chord.
b. Rafters is any of a series of a small, parallel beams for supporting the sheathing and

Flat Pratt Truss Pitched Pratt Truss

Flat Howe Truss Pitched Howe Truss

Flat Warren Truss Pitched Warren Truss

Belgian Truss Fink Truss

Scissor Truss

Figure 20. Types of Trusses according to its Web Members

covering of a roof.
 • Types of Rafters
Common Rafter
Valley Rafter

Jack
Rafter

Fly
Rafter

Lookout
Hip Rafter
Figure 21. Types of Rafters

1. Common Rafter – a rafter extending from the wall plate to a ridge board or
ridge beam and having no function other than to support sheathing and
covering of a roof.
2. Hip Rafter – a rafter forming the junction of the sloping sides of a hip roof.
3. Valley Rafter – a rafter connecting the ridge to the wall plate along a valley.
4. Fly Rafter – either of the end rafters in the part of a gable roof that projects
beyond the gable wall.
5. Jack Rafter – any rafter that is shorter than the full length of the roof slope, as
one meeting a hip or a valley.
i. Valley Jack – a jack rafter extending from a valley rafter to a ridge.
ii. Hip Jack – a jack rafter extending from a wall plate to a hip rafter.
iii. Cripple Jack – a rafter for joining a hip and a valley. Also called a Double-
Jack Rafter.
6. Lookout/Tailpiece – a relatively short bracket or cantilever for supporting the
overhang of a roof.

c. Cross Bracing is a support of two or more intersecting braces to support trusses or

rafters. Usually a horizontal member, called a Stretcher, is added at the top and
bottom of the cross bracing.

b. Purlin is a longitudinal member of a roof frame for supporting the roof cover.

c. Purlin Cleats is any of various materials placed on the surface of a truss or rafter to
support the roof purlins.
➢ Roof Cover is the part of the roof system that forms the diaphragm member of the roof. It
is responsible for keeping moisture, rain, and most of the sunlight out of the building. This
includes the Roofing Materials and the Roof Accessories that cover specific location of
the roof.
Valley Gutter
Ridge Roll

Hip Roll Flashing

Roofing
Concealed Material
Gutter

End Gutter
Figure 22. Roof Cover Parts

a. Roofing Material is any of various water-resistant materials, as shingles, slates, or

tiles, laid on a roof to shed or drain rainwater.
b. Roof Accessories are pieces of sheet metal or other thin, impervious material
installed to prevent the passage of water into a structure from an angle or joint.
1. Hip Roll is a material which is used to cover and
finish the hip of a roof.
2. Ridge Roll is a material covering which caps
the ridge of a roof; also called Ridgecap.
Ridge Roll and
3. Flashing is a thin impervious Hip Roll material
placed in construction to prevent water
penetration and/or provide water drainage,
esp. between a roof and wall, and over exterior
door openings and windows.
4. Gutter is a shallow channel of metal or wood set
Rake Flashing Eaves Flashing
immediately below and along the eaves of a
building to catch and carry off rainwater
from the roof.
i. End Gutter is a gutter built on the end of the
roof, usually at the lowest point of the roof.
Wall Flashing
ii. Concealed Gutter is a gutter built into the
eaves of a roof, usually metal- lined.
iii. Valley Gutter is a gutter at the bottom
meeting line of two slopes of a roof called a
Valley.
➢ Roof Eaves is the part of a roof that End Gutter Concealed Gutter projects
beyond the exterior wall; usually at the lower edge of
a sloped roof. Roof eaves prevent water from draining
directly to the building exterior walls and at the same
time cast shadows to the building walls, to Valley Gutter cool them off,
and fenestration preventing direct sunlight from entering
Figure 23. Common Profile of
the interior. The roof eaves include the Roof Accessories Eaves
Fascia and the Soffit.
 a. Eaves Fascia is the horizontal or
sometimes diagonal, referred to as Rake,
edges of the roof usually found at the
bottom of the roof usually supporting
a gutter. It is usually made Eaves from a
board that is nailed vertically to Fascia a frame,
called a Fascia Frame, attached to
the main frame of the roof system.
Soffit
Also referred to as Fascia Board.
b. Soffit is the exposed
undersurface of the roof Eaves projecting
beyond the exterior walls.

Figure 24. Roof Eaves

BUILDING FENESTRATIONS refers to the parts
of the building that serves as entry point of the users, light, and wind. This term generally
includes Doors and Windows.

➢ Doors refers to material that serves as a barrier for entry and exit to and from a building
or room. The door unit consists of the Door Leaf and the Door Frame. Other parts that
are normally attached to the door is also discussed in this section

Parts of a Door Unit

Door Rough Opening

Door Frame

Door Leaf

Figure 25. Parts of a Door Unit

a. Door Leaf is the operable portion of a door.

 1. Panel is a distinct section of a door
enclosed by a frame, called Rails and
Stiles. Top Rail
2. Rails is any of various horizontal members
framing panels, as in a system of paneling,
a paneled door, window sash, or chest of

Hinge Stile
drawers.

Lock Stile
i. Top Rail is the uppermost rail

Muntin
connecting the stiles of a paneled
door.
ii. Lock Rail is the rail of a door that
meets the shutting stile at the Lock level of
the lockset. Rail
iii. Bottom Rail is the lowest rail
connecting the stiles of a paneled
door. Bottom Panel
Rail
3. Stile is any of various upright members
framing panels of a paneled door. Figure 26. Parts of a Door Leaf
i. Hinge Stile is the stile of a door by
which it is hung. Also called Hanging Stile.
ii. Lock Stile is the stile of a door that closes against the frame of the opening.
Also called Shutting Stile.
iii. Meeting Stile is one of the abutting stiles in a pair of double doors.
iv. Muntin is a stile within the frame of a door.

b. Door Frame is frame of a doorway, consisting

of two jambs, and a head or lintel.
1. Door Head/Lintel is the uppermost member of a
doorframe.
2. Door Jamb is either of the two sidepieces
of a door frame.
3. Door Stop is the projecting part of a doorframe
Door Jamb

against which a door closes.

i. Planted Stop is a stop formed by
attaching a moulding to a door
frame or window frame.
Door Jamb

ii. Rabbeted Stop is a stop formed

integrally by a rabbet in a door
frame or window frame.
iii. Blank Jamb is a door jamb having
no stops, nor prepared to receive
hardware.

4. Door Sill is the horizontal Figure 27. Parts of a Door Frame

member
beneath a door or window opening.
i. Threshold is the sill of a doorway,
covering the joint between two flooring materials or providing weather
protection at an exterior door.
ii. Saddle is a raised piece of flooring between the jambs of a doorway, to which
a door fits closely so as to prevent its binding when opening.

c. Other Parts Attached to a Door

1. Transom is a crosspiece separating a window or fanlight above a door.
2. Overdoor is an ornamental painting, carving, or section of woodwork directly
above the doorway.
3. Fanlight is a semicircular or semielliptical window over a doorway or another
window.
4. Sidelight is a window at the side of a door or another window. Also called
Winglight.
5. Vision Light is a small window in the upper portion of a door glazed with clear
glass for viewing.
6. Louver is an opening with slanting, fixed or movable slats to admit air but exclude
rain and snow or to provide privacy.

Vision
Light
Transom Sidelight

Overdoor
Louver

Fanlight

Figure 28. Other Parts Attached to a Door

Doors can be divided into two general categories which are based on how it operates and
its general design.

Types of Doors According to Operation

a. Swinging Doors is a door that turns on hinges or pivots about a vertical edge when
pushed or pulled.
1. Single Acting Door is a door hung on hinges that permit it to swing in one direction
only.
2. Double Acting Door is a door hung on hinges that permit it to swing in either
direction from a closed position.

Single Acting Door Double Acting Door

Figure 29. Types of Swing Doors

b. Pivoted Doors is a door carried on and

swinging about on a center or offset pivot,
as distinguished from hung on hinges.
c. Sliding Doors is a door that operates or
moves by sliding on a track, usually
Figure 30. Pivot Door
parallel to a wall.
1. Pocket Sliding Door is a door that
Pocket Sliding Door
slides into and out of a recess in a
doorway.
2. By-Pass Sliding Door is a door that
slides in front of another By-Pass Sliding Door sliding door
or a fixed window.
3. Surface Sliding Door is a door
mounted on the surface of a wall that
slides parallel to the wall. Surface Sliding Door
d. Folding Doors is a door with Figure 31. Types of Sliding Doors hinged
sections that can be folded flat against
one another when opened.
1. Bi-Fold Door is a door that divides
into two leaves, the inner edge of
Bi-Fold Door
each leaf being hung from an overhead
track and the outer edges pivoted at
the jamb.
2. Accordion Door is a multi- leafed
Accordion Door
door that is hung from an overhead
track and opens by folding Figure 32. Types of Folding Door back in
the manner of an accordion.
e. Revolving Doors is an entrance door for excluding drafts from interior of a building,
consisting of four leaves set in form of a cross and rotating about a central, vertical
pivot, within a cylindrical shaped vestibule.
 f. Rolling Doors is a large door consisting of horizontal interlocking metal slats guided
by a track on either side, opening by coiling about an overhead drum at the head of
the door opening.

Figure 33. Revolving Door (Left) and Rolling Door (Right)

Types of Doors According to Design

a. Flush Door is a door having smooth-surfaced faces.
b. Paneled Door is a door having a framework of stiles, rails, and sometimes muntins,
filled with panels of a thinner material.
c. Louver Door is a door having a louvered opening for passage or circulation of air. Also
called Blind Door.
d. French Door is a door having rectangular glass panes extending throughout its
lengths, and often hung in pairs.
e. Venetian Door is a doorway having a form similar to that of a Palladian window.
f. Dutch Door is a door divided horizontally so that the upper or lower part can be opened
or closed separately.

Flush Paneled Louvered

French Venetian Dutch

Figure 34. Types of Doors according to Design
➢ Windows refers to an opening in the wall of a building for admitting light and air, usually
fitted with a Window Frame in which a set of operable Window Leaf containing panes of
glass are attached to. The exterior of a window frame may or may not be equipped with a
Dressing.
Parts of a Window Unit

Window Rough
Window Frame Opening
Window Leaf

Dressing

Figure 35. Parts of a Window Unit

a. Window Leaf is the operable portion of a window.

1. Window Pane is one of the
Lock/Meeting
divisions of a window or door, Stile
consisting of a single unit of glass.
2. Window Sash is the fixed or
Top Rail
movable framework of a window or
door in which panes of glass are set.
Hinge Stile

Pane
i. Hinge Stile is the stile of a
window by which it is hung. Also
called Hanging Stile. Muntin
ii. Lock Stile is the stile of a
window that closes against the
frame of the opening. Also called
Shutting Stile. Hinge Stile
iii. Meeting Stile is one of the
abutting stiles in a pair of double
Bottom
windows. Rail
iv. Muntin is a rabbeted
member for holding the Figure 36. Parts of a Window Leaf edges
Window Jamb

of window panes within a sash.

Also called Glazing Bar, Sash Bar.
b. Window Frame is the fixed frame of a window,
Window Jamb

consisting of two jambs, a head, and a sill.

1. Window Jamb is either of the two
sidepieces of a window frame.
2. Window Head is the uppermost member of a
doorframe.
3. Window Sill is the horizontal member
beneath a door or window opening.
4. Mullion is a vertical member Figure 37. Parts of a Window Frame between the
sashes of windows.
c. Dressing is the ornamental detail of a building, esp. the molded framework around
door and window openings.

Windows can be divided into two general categories which are based on how it operates
and its general design.
Types of Window According to Operation
a. Fixed Window is a window or sash of a window that
does not open for ventilation.
b. Operable Window is a window having a sash that
may be opened for ventilation.
1. Jalousie Window is a window having horizontal
glass or wood louvers that pivot
simultaneously in a common frame, used
primarily in mild climates to control Figure 38. Fixed Windows ventilation
and to cut off visibility from the outside.
2. Sliding Window is a sash that opens by moving
horizontally or vertically along grooves or tracks at
the top and bottom of the window frame.
i. Horizontal Sliding Window is a window
having two or more sashes, of which at
least one slides along horizontal grooves or
tracks.
ii. Single-Hung Window is a window having two
sashes, of which only one vertically slides.
iii. Double-Hung Window is a window
having two vertically sliding Figure 39. Jalousie Windows sashes,
each in separate grooves or tracks and closing
a different part of the window.
a.) Box-Head Window is a double-hung window constructed with a pocket
head, into which one or both sashes can pass to increase the opening
available for ventilation.
b.) Drop Window is a window constructed with a pocket below the sill into
which a sash can slide to increase the opening available for ventilation.

Casement Window

Horizontal Sliding Window

Single-Hung Window Box-Head Window Drop Window

Awning
Figure 40. Types of Sliding Windows Window

3. Swinging Window is a window that turns on

hinges or pivots about a vertical edge Projected when
pushed or pulled. Window

i. Casement Window is a window with at

least one casement, often used in
combination with fixed windows. Hopper
ii. Awning Window is a window Window having
one or more sashes swinging outward
on hinges generally attached to the top of
the frame. Figure 41. Types of Swing
Windows
iii. Projected Window is a
casement or awning window in which the
 inner end of the sash slides along track on the sill or jamb as the sash swings
outward.
iv. Hopper Window is a window having one or more sashes swinging inward on
hinges generally attached on the bottom. Also called Hospital Window.
4. Pivoted Window is a window having a sash that rotates 90° or 180° about a
vertical or horizontal axis at or near its center, used in air-conditioned multistory or
high-rise buildings and operated only for cleaning, maintenance, or emergency
ventilation.

Types of Window According to Design

a. Picture Window is a large, usually fixed single-
pane window, placed to frame an
attractive exterior view.
b. Window Wall is a nonbearing wall
composed primarily of vertical and
horizontal framing members containing a Figure 42. Pivoted Window
combination of fixed lights and operating
sashes.
c. Ribbon Window is a horizontal band of windows, separated only by mullions.
d. Clerestory Window is a portion of an interior rising above adjacent rooftops and
having windows admitting daylight to the interior. Also, Clearstory.
e. Bay Window is a window or series of windows projecting outward from the main wall
of a building and forming a bay or alcove in a room within, especially one having its
own foundation.
1. Cant Bay Window is a bay window having canted sides.
2. Bow Bay Window is a bay window having a rounded projection.
3. Oriel Window is a bay window supported from below by corbels or brackets.
f. Dormer Window is a vertical window in a projection built out from a sloping roof.
1. Internal Dormer Window is a vertical window set below the line of a sloped roof
 Picture Window Window Wall

Ribbon Window Ribbon Window

Cant Bay Window Bow Bay Window Oriel Window

Internal Dormer Window

Figure 43. Types of Windows according to Design

BUILDING CONVEYANCE is the part of the structure which provides entry from one level to
another. This generally covers static or non-operable conveyance elements which are the
Stairs and Ramps.

➢ Stairs refers a series of steps for going from one level to another. A group of steps that
begins and ends on a landing is called a Flight. The stairs include the balustrade, carriage,
steps, and the landing.

Parts of the Stairs

Newel Post

Landing

Handrail

Tread
Steps

Nosing Riser
Baluster

Newel Post
Carriage

Landing

Figure 44. Parts of a Stairs

a. Balustrade is an entire railing system including the newel post, a handrail and its
balusters, and sometimes a bottom rail.
1. Baluster is one of a number of short vertical members, often circular in section,
used to support a stair handrail or a coping.
2. Handrail is bar of material passing from one post or other support to another; a
hand support along a stairway.
3. Newel Post is a tall and more or less ornamental post at the head or foot of a stair,
supporting the handrail.
b. Carriage or Rough Stringer is an inclined beam which supports the steps or adds
support between the strings of a wooden staircase, usually between the wall and outer
string.
c. Steps is a stair unit which consists of one tread and one riser.
1. Riser is the vertical face of a stair step.
2. Tread is the horizontal surface of a step.
3. Nosing is the prominent, usually rounded, horizontal edge which extends beyond
an upright face below; as the projection of a tread beyond a riser.
d. Landing is the horizontal platform at the beginning end of a stair flight or between two
flights of stairs.
Stairs can be classified depending on the orientation and number of their flights. The
following are the various Types of Stairs.
a. Straight Run Stair is a stair that extends from one level to another without turns or
winders.
 b. Quarter Turn or L-Type Stair is a stair that makes a right-angled turn in the path of
travel. The two flights connected by an intervening landing may be equal or unequal,
depending on the desired proportion of the stairway opening.
c. Half-Turn or U-Type Stair is a stair that turns 180° or through two right angles at an
intervening landing. A half-turn stair is more compact than a single straight-run stair.
The two flights connected by the landing may be equal or unequal, depending on the
desired proportion of the stairway opening.
d. Winding Stair is any stairway constructed with winders, as a circular or spiral stair.
Quarter-turn and half-turn stairs may also use winders rather than a landing to
conserve space when changing direction. Winders can be hazardous since they offer
little foothold at their interior corners. Building codes generally restrict the use of
winders to private stairs within individual dwelling units.
e. Circular or Grand Stair is a stair that has a circular plan configuration. Even though
a circular stair is constructed with winders, the building code may allow its use as part
of the means of egress from a building if its inner radius is at least twice the actual
width of the stairway.
f. Spiral Stair consists of wedge-shaped treads winding around and supported by a
central post. Spiral stairs occupy a minimum amount of floor space, but building codes
permit their use only as private stairs in individual dwelling units.

Second Flight
Handrail Baluster
Top Landing Mid Landing

Straight Run Stairs Quarter Turn Stair Half-Turn Stair

Carriage

First Flight

Winding Stair Bottom Stair

Circular Landing
Spiral Stair
Figure 46. Parts of a Ramp
Figure 45. Types of Stairs

➢ Ramps refers a sloping floor, walk, or roadway connecting two levels. A Flight of a ramp
is normally the sloping surface that begins and end on a landing. A ramp for pedestrian,
or used by people, have the same parts as that of the stairs which includes a Landing, a
Balustrade, and Carriage.
SERVICE SYSTEMS refer to the various utility services that enhances the function or comfort
experience of the users of the building. This include the following systems.
 a. Electrical System pertains to the system that brings electricity to
the building, its distribution, and points of consumption. This also
includes the various devises, controls, and protection of the
electrical components.

b. Plumbing and Sanitary Systems pertains to systems that

involve the supply, distribution, and usage of water within the
building as well as the collection, treatment, and disposal of waste
coming from the building.

c. Mechanical System pertains to the system that uses mechanical

devices to enhance and improve conditions of the of the space or
building. This includes mechanical conveyance (e.g. Escalators
and Elevators), air conditioning systems, and mechanical
equipment with motors.

d. Fire Safety and Protection System pertains to both passive and

active fire safety elements and features that the buildings required
to ensure that the users are not in danger in case a fire occurs.
This includes the building elements (e.g. fire stair, and fire exit
corridors) and active fire-fighting equipment (e.g. fire suppression
system, and fire-fighting standpipes).
e. Electronics and Communication Systems pertains to various
systems that deals with the receiving and delivering data to and
from the building through telecommunication lines (e.g.
Telephone Lines, Internet Access, TV/Radio) as well as
information dissemination (e.g. Public Announcement System,
Audio/Visual System). This also includes electronic devices used
for security purposes (e.g. entry/exit monitoring devices,
surveillance system, alarms).

f. Lighting System pertains to the design and use of appropriate

lighting techniques to light up a surface, room, or building with the
use of natural and/or artificial lights. This includes determining the
amount of lights, type of lights, and how the lights are mounted to
achieve a specific result.

g. Acoustical System pertains to the design and use of acoustical

materials to enhance the quality of sound while reducing the
audible noise within a room or a building.

END OF LESSON

References and Additional Resources

Ching, F. D. (2012). A Visual Dictionary of Architecture (2nd ed.). Hoboken, New Jersey:
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Davies, N., & Jokineimi, E. (2008). Dictionary of Architecture and Building Construction
(1st ed.). Burlington, MA, USA: Architectural Press.
Harris, C. M. (2006). Dictionary of Architecture and Construction (4th ed.). USA: The
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.