<PontijicaCarul(_fyya[

University of Santo Tomas

The Catholic University of the Philppines
Espana. Manila
COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE

Building Technology• S
Reinforced Concrete Construction
Arch. Raffy Cueva Alfi

Reinforced Concrete
Concrete in which steel reinforcement is embedded in such a A concrete section in which the tension reinforcement reaches its
manner that the two materials act together in resisting forces. specified yield strength before the concrete in compression
reaches Its assumed ultimate strain. This is a desirable condition
Also called Belon anne, Ferroconcrete.
since failure of the section would be preceded by large
deformations, giving prior warning of irrq>ending collapse. In this
Plain Concrete particular type of design, the steel fails first while the concrete has
Concrete having no reinforcemenl or reinforced only for drying not yet reached its allowable values but the failure is gradual with
shrinkage or thermal stresses. steel yielding.

Ferrocement Assumptions in Bastic Theory in Concrete

Constructed of cement- sand mortar over wire mesh that has
been preshaped over a mold.
Cast-in-Place Concrete, Cast In-situ, In-situ Concrete
Concrete which is deposited in the place where it is required to
harden as part of the structure, as opposed to precast concrete.
Reinforcement
A system of steel bars, strands or wires for absorbing tensile,
shearing and sometimes compressive stresses in a concrete
member or structure.
Deformed Bar
A reinforcing bar hot-rolled with surface deformations to develop a
greater bond with concrete.
Tension Reinforcement
_Reinforcetll!nl designed to absorb tensile stresses.
Compression Reinforcement
Reinforcerrent designed to absorb compressive stresses.
Bal�Section
A concrete section in 'M'lich the tension reinforcement theoretically
reaches its specified yield strength as the concrete in compression
reaches its assumed ultimate strain. A design so proportional such that
the maicimum stresses in the concrete and steel are reach
simultaneously so that they fail together.
1. Plane section remains plc11e before and after bending occurs.
2. Concrete is elastic; that is the stress of concrete varies from
zero at the neutral axis to a maximum at the extreme fibers.
3. Concrete is not good in carrying tension a1d only the steel bars
are carrying all the stresses due to bending which Is tension.
4. There rrust be no slippage between concrete and steel bars.
Historical Note: In 1867, Joseph Monier (France) used the
concept of iron reinforcing bars (rebars) when he reinforced
William Ward's (US) flower pots using wire.
Beam
A rigid structural member designed to carry and transfer
transverse loads across space to supporting elements.
Sifll)le Beam
Refers to a beam having a single spc11 supported at its end wfthout
a restraint at the support.
Semi-continuous Beam
Refers to a beam with two spc11s with or without restraint at the
two extreme ends.
Cantilever Beam
A beam supported on ooe end and the other end projecting
beyond the support, beam or wall.
Continuous Beam
A tenn applied to a beam that rests on more than two supports.

OVerreinforced Section Tbean

A concrete section In which the concrete in compression reaches
its assumed ultimate strain before the tension reinforcement
reaches its specified yield strength. This is a dangerous condition
since failure of the section could occur instantaneously withoot
warning. This type of design is not advisable because concrete
!ails abnJp�ly in compression.
Underreinforced Section
Part of the floor and beam unit v.tien poured simultaneously
thereby producing a monolithic structure wiere the portion of the
slab at both sides of the beam seives as flanges of such beam.
Reinforced Concrete Beam
A concrete beam designed to act together with longitudinal and
web reinforcement in resisting applied forces, formed and
placed along with the slab it supports.
Beam Nomenclature
Bfective Depth of Section
The depth o! a concrete section measured from the compression
face tothe centrofd of the tension reinforcement.
Bar Spacrig
The center-to-<:enter spacing of parallel bars, the resulting clear
distance between the bars being regulated by bar diameter,
maximum size of coarse aggregate, and thickness of the concrete
section.
Spa, of Supports
Refers to the distances between posts, columns or supporting walls.
Concrete Cover
The amount of concrete required lo protect steel reinforcement from
fire and corrosion, measured from the surface of the reinforcement to
the outer surface of the concrete section.
Bond
The adhesion between two subsances, as concrete and reinforcing
bar.
Bond Stress
The adhesive force per unit area of contact between a reinforcing bar
and the surrounding concrete developed at any section of a flexural
member.
Development length
The length of embedded reinforcement required to develop the
design strength of reinforcement at a critical section.
Embedment Length
Length of embedded reinforcement provide beyond a critical section
End Anchorage
Length of reinforcement or mechanical anchor or hook or
combination thereof beyond point of zero stress in reinforcement.
Hook
A bend or curve given to the end of a tension bar to develop an
equivalent embedment length, used where there is insufficient room
to develop an embedment length.
Longitudinal Reinforcement
Reinforcement essentially parallel to the horizontal surface of a slab
or to the long axis of a concrete beam or colurm.
Percentage Reinforcement
The ratio of effective area ol reinforcement to effective area of
concrete at any section ot a reinforced concrete member, expressed
as a percentage.
Top Bar
Any of the longitudinal bars serving as tension reinforcement In the
section of a concrete beam or slab subject to a negative moment.
Bottom Ba'
Any of the longitudinal bars serving as tension reinforcement in the
section of a concrete beam or slab subject to positive moment
Web Reinforcement
Reinforcement consisting of bent bars or stirrups, placed in a
concrete beam to resist diagonal tension.
Bent Bar
A longiflldinal bar bent to an angle of 30 • .or more with the axis of
the concrete beam, perpendicular to and intersecting the cracking
that could occur from diagonal tension.
Bend Reinforcing Bars
Reinforcing bars that are bent up on or ne.r the inflection point and
are extended at the top of the beam across the support towards the
adjacent span.
No Bent Ba's
Bars that are not bent, an additional straight reinforcing bars placed
on the top of the be4am across the supports to the required length
and other straight additional bars are also placed at the bottom
center of the beam span where positive moment develops.
Truss Bar
A longitudinal bar bent up or do'Ml at points of moment reversal in a
reinforced concrete beam.
Stirrup
Any of lhe U-shaped or closed-loop bars placed perpendicular to the
I ongitudinal reinforcement of a concrete beam to resist the vertical
component of diagonal tension.
Building Code Re(Jlirements for Reinforced Concrete (ACI 318-77)
Standard for Tests and Materials
Cements
Cement shall conform to one of the following specifications for
Portland Cement:
1. Specifications for Portland Cement (ASTM 150)
2. Specifications for Blended Hydraulic Cements (ASTM C
595), excluding Types S and SA which are not intended as
principal constituents of structural concrete.
Admixtures
1. Admooures to be used in concrete shall be subject to prior
approval by the Engineer.
2. An admixture shall be shown capable of maintaining
essentially ltle same composition and performance
throughout the work as the product used in establishing
concrete proportions.
3. Admixtures containing chloride ions shall not be used in
prestressed concrete containing aluminum embedments tt
their use will produce deleterious concentration of chloride in
the mixing water.
Aggregates
Concrete aggregates shall conform to _one of the foll9wing
specifications:
1. Specifications for Concrete Aggregates (ASTM C 33)
2. Specifications for Lightweight Aggregates for Structural
Concrete (ASTM C 330)
Nominal maximum size of aggregates shall not be larger than:
1. 1/5 the narrowest dimension between sides of forms, nor
2. 1/3 the depth of slabs, nor
3. 3/4 the maximum clear spacing between individual
reinforcing bars, or prestressing tendons or ducts.
 Schedule of Minimum Concrete Ccwer
Cast in pl!oo Concrete
(Non-prestressed)
Concrete cast against and
permanently e,cposed to earth
Concrete exposed to earth or weather:
20 mm through 36 mm bars
16 rrvn bar, W31 or 031 wire and
smaller
Goncrete not exposed to wealher or in
contact with ground:
Slabs, Walls, Joists, 32 mm bar and
smaller
Beams, Columns: Primary
reinforcement, ties, stirrups, spirals 40
Shell, Folded Plate members:
20. mm bar and larger
16 mm bar, W31 or 031 Wire and
smaller
. . Precast Concrete (Manufa:tured
lllder Plait Cootrol Conditions)
Concrete exposed to earlh or weather:
Wall panels:
32 mm bar and smaller
Other Members:
20 mm bar through 32 mm bar
16 mm bar, W31 or 031 Wire and
smaller
Concrete not exposed to weather or in
contact with ground:
Slabs, Walls, Joists:
32 mm bar and smaller
Beams, Columns:
Primary Reinforcement
Ties, Stirrups, Spirals
Shells, Folded Plate members:
20 mm bar and larger
16 mm bar, W31 or D31 Wire, and
smaller
Prestressed Concrete
Concrete cast against and
permanently exposed to earlh
Concrete exposed to earth or weather:
Wall Panels, Slabs, Joists
Other Members
Concrete not exposed to weather or in
contact with ground:
Slabs, Walls, Joists
Beams, Columns:
Primary Reinforcement
Ties, Stirrups, Splrals
Shells, Folded Plate Member:
16 mm bar, W31 or D31 Wire, crid
smaller
Other Reinforcement
Source: National Structural Code of the Phtltpptnes (NSCP)
Reinforced Concrete Column
A concrete designed to act together with vertical and lateral
Minimum Cover (mm) reinforcement in resisting applied forces. Reinforced concrete
column constituting the principal supports for a floor or roof
75 should have a minimum diameter of 10 in (254 mm) or if
rectangular in section, a minimum thickness of 8 in (203 mm)
and a minimum gro$ area of 96 sq. in (61935 sq. mm).
50 ShortColurm
40 A colurm having an unsupported height not greater than 10 lirr'sS
the shortest lateral dimension of the cross section.
20 LongCOlurm
When the unsupported height is more than 1O limes the shortest
lateral dimension of lhe cross section.
Tied Column
20 A concrete column reinforced with vertical bars and individual
15
lateral ties. Lateral ties should have a diameter of al least 1 O mm
3/8 in.) spaced apart not more than 48 tie diameters, 16 bar
diameters or the least dimension of the column section.
Vertical Reinforcement
Longitudinal reinforcement placed in concrete column to absorb
compressive stresses, resist bending stresses and reduce the
20 effects of creep and shrinkage in the colurm.
40 lateral Reinforcement
30 Spiral reinforcement or lateral ties placed in a concrete column to
laterally restrain the vertical reinforcement and prevent buckling.
Spiral Rertforcement
Lateral reinforcement consisting of an evenly spaced continuous
15 spiral held firmly in place by verticalJspacers.
di, but not less than 15 and
&Jndlecl Reinforcement
need not exceed 40
Reinforcement. employed consisting of two lo four bars tied in
10
direct contact with each other to serve or act as one unit
reinforcement placed at the comer of lateral lies.
15
10
lateral Reinlorooment for Compression Members
Minimum Cover
(mm) lateral Ties
75 1. All nonprestressed bars shall be enclosed by lateral ties, al
least 10 mm in size for longitudinal bars 32 mm or smaller, and
at least 12 mm in size for 36 mm and bundled longitudinal bars.
25
. Deformed wire or welded wire fabric of equivalent area is
allowed.
40 2. Vertical spacing of ties shall not exceed 16 longitudinal bar
diameter, 48 tie diameters, or least dimension of the
compression member.
3. Ties shall be arranged such that fNer; comer and alternate
20 longitudinal bar have lateral support provided by the comer of a
lie with an included angle of not more than 135 degrees and no
40 bar shall be farther than 150 mm clear on each side along the tie
25 from such a laterally supported bar. Where longltudlnal bars are
located around the perimeter of a circle. a complete circular tie
10 is allowed.
4. Ties shall be located vertically not more than 1/2 a lie
d,, but not less than 20
..
spacing above the top of footing or slab in any story, and shall
be spaced as provided herein to not more than 1/2 a tie spacing
below the lowest horizontal reinforcement in slab or drop panel
above.
4
5. Where beams or brackets frame from four direct.ions into a 3. Clear spacing between spirals shall not exceed 75 mm nor
column, ties may be tenninated not more than 75 mm below less than 25 mm.
lowest reinforcement in shallowest of such beams or brackets. 4. Anchorage of spiral reinforcement shall be provided by 1 1/2
extra turns of spiral bar or wire at each end of a spiral unit.
ACI S,peeif'1cation for A,jaII1v loaded Ti1ed Co Iumns 5. Splices In spiral reinforcement shall be lap splices of 48db
Particulars Remarks but not less than 300 mm or welded.
Min. Cross sectional area of 60,000 rnrrt 6. Spirals shall extend from top of fooljng or slab in any story to
colurm Ao level of lowest horizontal reinforcement In members supported
Minimum thickness of 200mm above.
colurm 7. Where beams or brackets do not frame into all sides of a
Minimum covering of ties 1.Not less than 40 mm column, lies shall extend above terminalion of spiral lo bottom
2. Not less than 1.5 times the max. of slab or drop panel.
size of coarse aggregate 8. In columns with capitals, spirals shall extend to a level at
Minimum diameter of lateral 10 mm diameter
ties which the diameter or width of capital is two times that of the
Lateral lies spacing 1. Nol more than 16 bar diameter column.
2. Not more than 48 lie diameter 9. Spirals shall be held firmly in place and true to line.
3. Not more than the least dimension
of colurm Composite Column
Clear distance between Not less than 1.5 times the bar A type of column where structural steel is embedded into
horizontal bars diameter nor less than 1.5 times the concrete coOre of a spiral column.
max. size of coarse aggregate
Minimum number of bars 4 -16 mm diameter Combined Column
Pg (ratio of gross rein!. area 0.01 -0.04 A column with a structural steel encased in a concrete of at least
lo gross cross sectional 7 cm thick reinforced with wire mesh surrounding the column al
area) a distance of 3 cm inside the outer surface of the concrete
Source: Amencan :onc,ele lnslllute (ACI) covering.

Spiral Column Lally Column

A concrete column with spiral reinforcement enclosing a circular A fabricated post made of steel provided with a plain flat steel
core reinforced with vertlr.al bars. bar or plate which holds girder, girt or beam. The steel pipe is
sometimes filled with concrete for additional strength and
ACI S peeificaU on for Axially Loaded S•Pl·ra1 Column protection from rust or corrosion.
Particulars Remarks
Minimum diameter 250mm Special Reinforcement Details for Columns
Minimum diameter of spiral 10 mm diameter Offset Bars
ties i. The slope of an inclined portion of an offset bar with axis of
Spacing of spiral ties 1. Not more than 75 mm column shall not exceed 1 in 6.
2. Not less lh11125 mm 2, Portions of bar above and below an offset shall be parallel to
3. Not less !hill 1.5 times the size of axis of column.
coarse aggregate 3. Horizontal support at offset bends shall be provided by lateral
4. 1/6 core diameter lies, spirals or parts of floor construction. Horizontal support
Minimum number of bars 6 -16 mm diameter
Clear distance between 1. Not less than 1.5 times bar provided shall be designed to resist 11/2 times the horizontal
longib.Jdinal bars diameter component of the computed force in the inclined portion of an
2. Not less than 1.5 times max. size of offset bar. lateral Ues or spirals, if used shall be placed not
coarse aggregate more than 1 SO mm from points of bend.
Pg (ratio of gross rein!. area 0.01 -0.08 4. Offset bars shall be bent before placement of forms.
to gross cross sectional area 5. Where a column is offset 75 mm or greater, longitudinal bars
of colurm) shall not be offset bent. Separate dowels, lap splices with the
Source: American Concrste lnst1Me (ACt) longitudinal bars adjacent to the offset column faces shall be
provided.
Lateral Reinforcement for Compression Members
Notes on Concrete Columns
Spiral Reinforcement 1. Columns shall be of the sizes indicated in the schedule or as
1. Spirals shall consist of evenly spaced continuous bar or wire detailed in drawings and reinforced as shown, with defonned
of such size and so assembled to permit handling and placing bars only. Vertical bars of columns shall have a 90· bend and
without distortion from designed dimensions. anchored at the supporting fooling or other supporting
2. For cast-in-place construction, size of spirals shall not be member.
less than 1 O mm diameter. 2. Concrete protective covering from the face to the reinforcing
steel shall be 40 mm. Splices of vertical bars shall be

s
Notes on Concrete Walls
1. All walls lo be reinforced according to the schedule provided
in the working drawing shall be observed unless otherwise
specified or indicated on drawings.
2. Reinforcing bars shall be 0.03 m. clear from the face of the
wall except in 0.10 m wall where they shall be al the center,
unless otherwise detailed.
Schedule of Wall Reinforcement
Wall Vertical Horizontal Remarks
Thickness
0.10m. 10 mm at 10mmat Al center, hor.
0.30m. 0.30m . Staggered
0.15m . 10mmat 10mmal Both a
f ces, verl
0.30m. 0.30m. Outside

0.20m . 10mmat 10 mm at Bolh af ces, vert .

0.30m. 0.25m . Outside
0.25m 12mmat 10mm at Both a f ces, hor.
0.30m. 0.25m. Outside
0.30 12mmat 12mmat Both faces, hor.
0.30m. 0.30m . Outside
0.35 12 IMlal 12mmm Both laces, hor .
0.30m . 0.30m. Outside
0.40 12mm al 12 mmal Both a f ces, hor.
0.30m. 0.25m. Outside
0.45 16 mm al 12mmat Both faces, hor.
0.30m. 0.25m. Outside
0.50 16mm al 16mmat Bolh faces, hor.
0.30m . 0.30m . Outside
 Foundation Engineering

• Foundation Passive Soil Pressure

The lowest division of a building, its substructure, or other The horizontal component of resistance developed by a soil
construction, constructed partly or wholly below the surface of mass against the horizontal movement of a vertical structure
the ground, designed to support and anchor the through the soil. It occurs usually at the side of retaining walls
superstructure above and transmit its load directly to the between the walls and the surrounding soil.
earth; that part of the structure that supports the weight of the
structure and transmits the load to underlying soil or rock.. Active Soil Pressure
The horizontal component of pressure that a soil mass exerts
Foundation Engineering applies the knowledge of soil on a vertical retaining wall.
mechanics, rock mechanics, geology and structural
engineering to the design and construction of foundation for • Allowable Bearing Pressure/ Allowable Bearing Capacity/
buildings and other structures. Allowable Soil Pressure
The maximum unit pressure a foundation is permitted to
Shallow Foundation impose vertically or laterally on a supporting soil mass.
A foundation system type which is employed when stable soil
of adequate bearing capacity occurs relatively near to the • Base Course
ground surface, they are placed directly below the lowest part A layer of coarse granular materials placed and compacted on
of the sub-structure and transfer building loads directly to the undisturbed soil prepared fill to prevent the capillary rise of
supporting soil by vertical pressure. moisture to a concrete ground slab.
Deep Foundation • Consolidation
A foundation system type employed when the soil underlying The gradual reduction in the volume of a soil mass resulting
a foundation is unstable to transfer building loads to a more from the application of a sustained load and an increase in
appropriate bearing stratum qf rock or dense sand and gravel compressive stress.
well below the superstructure.
Primaiy Consolidation
Footing A reduction volume of a soil mass under the action of a
That part of the foundation bearing directly upon the supporting sustained load, due chiefly to a squeezing out of water from
soil, set below the natural grade line and enlarged lo distribute the voids within the mass and a transfer of the load from the
its load t:N8f a greater area
soil water to the soil solids. Also called Primary Compression.
• Tie Beanv' Footing Tie Beanv' Grade Beam
A reinforced concrete beam distributing the horizontal forces Secoridary Consolidation
from tfl eccentrically loaded pile cap or spread footing to other A reduction in volume of a soil mass under the action of a
pile caps or footings; a reinforced concrete beam supporting a sustained load, due chiefly lo adjustment of the internal
superstructure at or near a ground level and trc11sferring the structure of the soil mass after most of the load has been
load to isolated footings, piers, or piles. transferred from the soil water to soil solids.
• Superstructure • Settlement
That part of a building or structure which is above the level of The gradual subsiding of the structure as the soil beneath its
the adjoining ground or the level of the foundation. foundation consolidates under loading.
• Substructure • Differential Settlement
The underlying structure forming the foundation of a building The relative movement of parts of a structure caused hy
or other construction. uneven settlement underlying soil or failure of its foundatic11.
• Substratum All owable Bear1ng Ca1pacit'Ies o Various soils
Something that underlies or serves as a base or foundation. Soil POlllds Kgs/rn2 Kilopascal Tons
Also called Substrate. Classification per ff KPa Per tt2
(psQ
• Soil Pressure/ Contact Pressure Alluvial Soil 1,000 4,891 54 0.5
The actual pressure developed between the footing and the Solt Clay 2000 9,782 107 1
sup·porting soil mass, equal to the quotient of the magnitude Firm Clay 4,000 19,564 215 2
of the forces and the area of contact. Wet Sand 4,000 19,564 215 2
Sand &Clay 4,000 19,564 215 2
 FOUNDATION

' ·--·--- --· . . ... .... ____ .....

-- + --+---I

SETTLEMENT

□□□□□
n
. '// . : ... . ..

SHALLOW FOUNDATION

DIFFERENTIAL SETilEMENT

PASSIVE EARTH PRESSURE FROST HEAVE

�- -----
 Mixed by dropping a 60 kg. hammer into a drill hole from a height ol 700 mm,
Firm Dry, Sand 6,000 29,345 322 3 the number of blows to make a penetration of 300 mm is regarded as
Coarse Oly 8,000 39,128 430 4 the penetration resistance.
Sand
Gravel 12,000 58,690 644 6 • Dutch Gone Penetration Method
Gravel & Sand 16,000 78,256 860 8 A 60 de!Jee cone with a base area of 100 sq. mm is used in this
Well Cemented method. This is attached to the lip of a rod and protected by a casing.
Hardpan or 20,000 97,818 1,073 10 The cone is pushed by the rod into the ground, the cone is slightly
Hard Shale larger than the pipe in order to minimize friction between the tool and
Medium Rock 40,000 195,636 2,146 20 the surrounding soil.
Rock Under 50,000 244,545 2,681 25
Caissoos • Vane She..- Test
Hard Rock 160,000 782,545 8,580 80 The vane device for shear testing of clay soil in place consist of four
vertical rectangular blades at right angles to vertical shaft. The vane is
then pushed into the soil and twisted until the soil is ruptured in a
• Soil Test cylindrical form, shear strength is computed from the maximum
Foundation design is primarily based on the result of subsurface moment needed to rupture the soil and thereby obtaining soil sample.
investigation. The technical personnel has to make a reasonably
accurate cooceptlon of the physical properties and arrangement • Standard Load Test
of this underlying soil. The following is an outline of the load test procedure as follows:
• Dug lo the depth of the soil to be tested usually
• Types of Soil Testing and Investigation Methods the proposed tooting level.
• The pit width should be at least five times � 1e
• Auger Boring M!lhod load piae width.
An auger is used for this purpose where a hole is bored on the ground. • The square load plate with a general dimension
Two types of auger may be used, the Helical or Post Hole Auger. of 300 mm x 600 mm is set oo a leveled bottom
Portable helical augers are available from BO to 300 mm. In diameter of the pit
and used for making deeper holes. • Load on top of the plate must be placed on the
pit bed and a plalform loaded with concrete
• Wash Borilg M!thod blocks or bags of cement on lop must be
This method employs 1he use of a piece of metal tube 50 mm to 100 provided.
ITYTl in diameter, used to bore hole with depths ranging from 1.50 m to
3.0 m. The tube or casing is cleared of the soil sample by chopping bit . General Guidelines in Foundation Systems Design
to the lower portion of the wash pipe inserted inside the tubing or • Depth must be adequate to avoid lateral expulsion of material
casing. Water is then used to wash do'M1 lhrough the wash pipe by from beneath the f oundalion. particularly footings and mats.
means of a high velocity pump to rinse the fragments of soil through • Depth _must be below temperature volume changes or within
the ainul<ll' space between the tube and the wash pipe. This method is the zone of active organic materials.
similar to the process of instal I ing an underground water pump where
• System must be safe against overturning, rotation, sliding or
the pipe is cleaned by wash pipe a-id water.
soil rupture (shear strength failure).
·• Hollow Stern Auger Boring M!thod • System must b·e safe against corrosion or deterioration due to
A truck mounted driving rig turns the auger lo a depth of more lhai 60 harmful materials present in the soil.
meters using continuous flights of auger with a hollow stem where • System should be adequate to sustain some changes in later
samples of soil ca, be retrieved. It has an auger with sizes·r<llging from site or oonslruction geometry or be easily modified should
60 mm to 80 mm diameter. later changes be major in soope.
• The foundation should be economical in terms of the methods
• Rotary Drilling of installation or construction.
Employed as ooe of he most efficient and convenient method of soil • Total earth movements (generally settlements) and differential
sample retrieval method and used for soil strucb.Jre characterized by
high resistait materials such as rocks, clay as well as S<lld. Rotary movements should be tolerable for the foundation element
boring diameter ranges from 50 mm to 200 mm. and/ or any superstructure elements.
Types of Footings and Foundation Systems
• Percussion Drilling Method
Sometimes called Cable Tool Drilling Method, used when boring or • Isolated Footing
auger method is not possible due to diliiculty in penetration of soil A single spread footing supporting a freestanding column or
especially hard soil strata. pier.
• Penetrometer Spread Fooling
This is a device used to investigate the consistency of cohesive deposit A concrete fooling extended laterally to distribute the foundation
or relative density of cohesionless strata without the necessity oi load over a wide enough area that the allowable bearing �acity
drilling and obtaining samples. Stalic penetration is characterized by of supporting soil is not exceeded.
consistent and uniform force or pressure application and Dynamic
penetration when driven into the soil. StaidaJ'd penetration test is done

II
 TYPES OF FOOTINGS & FOUNDATION SYSTEMS
CONTINUOUS FOOTING

ISOLATED FOOTING

STRIP FOOTING

RIBBED MAT GRILLAGE

FLOATING FOUN DATION TIEBEAM PtLECAf>

UNC PILE PIER

R.OATING FOUNDATION
SOCKETED
CAISSON
 • Square Block Fooling
• Mid-Footing
• Corner Footing
• Edge Footing
• Square Sloped Footing
A type of isolated footing having inclined top, sloping
towards the edges.
• Stepped Footing
A type of footing that changes levels in stages to
accommodate a sloping grade and maintain the required
depth at all points around a building with the center
having the thickest part of the footing.
• Reclangular Footing
A footing, reclangular in plan and supporting load of
unequal magnitudes in both axes.
• Combined Footing
A reinforced concrete footing for a perimeter column or
foundation wall extended to support an interior column
load.
Rectan!JJlcr Corrilined Footing
A type of combined footing rectangular in plai .r,d
supporting two colurms. Column loads are assumed to
be of the same magnitude.
Trapezoidal Combined Footing
Columns loads on this type of footing are assumed to be
of une(Jlal mag,itude.
• Footing Tie Beam
A type of beam-like fooling placed underneath the
ground in order to transmit and provide additional
rigidity to two or more columns.
• Grade Beam
Reinforced concrete beam supporting a bearing wall al
or near the ground level and transferring the load to
isolated footings, piers or piles.
• Continuous Footing
A reinforced concrete footing extended to support a row
of columns.
• Strip Footing
The continuous spread footing of a foundation wall.
• Strap/ Cantilever/ Connected Footing
A reinforced concrete footing connected by a tie beam
to another tooling in order to balance an asymmetrically
imposed load, as at the perimeter of a building site.
• Mat Foundation
· A thick. slab-like heavily reinforced concrete fooling
supporting a number of columns or an entire building.
• RibbedM.i
I
A mat foundation reinforced by a grid of ribs above or below
the slab.
• Cellular Mat
A composite strucbJre of reinforced coocrete slabs and
basement walls serving as a mal foundation.
• Raft Foundation
A mat providing a footing on yielding soil, usually for an
entire building, placed so that the weight of the
displaced soil exceeds the weight of the coostruclion.
• Grillage/ Grid Foundation
A framework of crossing beams for spreading heavy
loads over large areas.
• Floating Foundation
A foundation used In yielding soil, having for its fooling a
raft plared deep enough that the weight of excavated soil
is equal to or greater than the weight of the construction
supported.
• Pile Foundation
A system of piles, pile caps, and tie beams for
transferring building loads down to a suitable bearing
stratum, used esp. when the soil mass directly below the
construction is not suitable for the direct bearing of
footings.
• PileCap
A fooling-like member which joins the heads of a cluster of
piles in order to distribute the load from a column or grade
bmi equally among the piles.
• Precast Socket Foundation
A type of precast footing provided with a socket to
receive a precast column.
• Wall Fooling
A continuous type of fooling intended to support as well
as transmit the load imposed by the wall directly to the
ground.
' '
Pipe Pile
Heavy steel pipe driven with the lower end either open or

.....,.., ____, closed by a heavy steel plate or point and filled with
concrete

Precast Concrete Pile

Has a round, square or polygonal cross section and
sometimes an open core; often prestr essed.

Cased Pile
Pile constructed by driving a steel pipe or casing into the
ground until it meets the required resistance and then
filling it with concrete.

Uncased Pile
Pile construded by driving a concrete plug into the ground
along with a steel casing until it meets the required
resistance, and then ramming concrete into place as the
.... casing is withdrawn.

Classification of Piles According to Use

• Bearing Pile
Used in foundation construction and caries
c::,uc,1 ......r superimposed loads.

• Pile Foundation
A type of foundation system used when foundation bed is
too weak to support the raft or mat or any other type of
footing; used to transter excess load to a greater depth
and strab.lm having suitable foundation characteristics.
• Pile
A long slender column of wood, steel, or reinforced
concrete, driven or hammered vertically into the earth to
fonn part of a foundation system.
• End bearing Pile
A pile depending principally on the bearing resistance ol soil or
rock beoealh its foot for support The surroundiflg soil mass
provides a degree of lateral stability for the loog compression
merooer. Also called Point-bearing Pile.
• Friction Pile
A pile lhat depends principally oo the frictional resistance of
surrounding earth for support
Kinds of Piles
• Batter Pile
Driven at an inclination to resist forces that are not
vertical
• Guide Pile
Used in cofferdcrn coostruction to support the horizontal
waJ I that in turn supports vertical sheet piling
• Fender Pile
Driven at wharves or in front of a large masonry structure.
· to protect them from suddal blows.
• Sheet Pile
Used to resist laleral pressure of the e.r1h and to form a
wall that is intended to be watertight it consists of timber,
steel or precast concrete planks <iiven vertically side-by­
side to retain earth and prevent water from seeping into
an excavation.
• Soldier Pile
A H-seclion steel pile driven vertically into the ground to
support horizontal lagging.
�ging
It refers to the heavy ti1TDer plc11ks joined together side­
by-slde to retain the face of ai excavation.

Timber Pile Pile Eccentricity

The deviation of the pile from its plan location or from the
log driven usually as a friction pile, often fitted with a steel vertical which may result in a reduction of its allowable
shoe and a drive band to prevent their shafts from splitting load.
or shattering.
Types of Piles
H-Pile • Cast-in-Place Pile
A steel H-secUon, sometimes encased in concrete to a • Tapered Pile - Standard (Raymond)
point below the water table to prevent corrosion. • Taper fluted Pile (Unioo)

1-t
 ·�

�!
. not usually over 12m long t· �V,

(VoO
>0
E;O

lfi
a;,,;
t.1 \�f•i!;);;,/;i\��i%','i;€:i ,i,\\l'i\\C�¼!" �
®
z

� .....
at be used for lmited headroow Hl rax length up to 30m or ove$ � .�V�J ?;�
nm
�
!
and driven lo any depth

· ct��t?'�h;: ;�:nii:J�t��n:.&N�t���-5.ti? m� I\\\\\\\\\W:�H��t�\\\\\\\\i1 I :-T�Jt

i
.. :: ...
:;!
'\•
,::•:=.,. ()

�
Any length up to 45m. May be ,� .,,
j tapered on vClious cross section , >
ny Ieng�.
;�::,;
uage sheni "u
m

i
""0
,, '���11���:�•tii���·��'� �
li�\
,=
t m
..-:·"'··
_,....f"
�!�;.:<-J�:; 0
• i' '" m
� �q
�u.a�
Iii
� �
U)
Iii
0
over 11.50m long '"rj
8
i
up to 22 m long
!:J>

§ .,,
=F >-'Cl

ti .
Sll>ffce to keep alignment, prevent broomi g �
�
O
z
tH:;
& separoflon doe to heovilg �
�
�¾@#f;�BHJ.����\\\\\\l � :�,}'-{/�\•;)i•i:(•:;.ijii)- g
�
0 I U)

Leng� up to 30 m
�
not usually over 12m long r· � Xi{.

m
5m ;l�f�·
Cit .

t T § T ·•':.\'l,.
�
..,·...

�---...;::....=
-�--">-'
�...::: �
I 1 1 1 11¥i,J�1J��,QI 11111 111 1 �
�1 111 111 1 1 1 1 1
�
i:;_�!:\i €1)(1]@ ?.'t:�
!,'',

f)

Length up to 53 rr, z
..�: .,,
"'
j:::2Q� not usually over 12m long £ ,,� ·':',,l
{

12morovernospiice.
$:eJ --- §z
V,

:,tJ
..·:::,.:..:,,.. ..:�.
.:�_ �.•�.��?�1.t;:��(.f�:�fZ,:��&�:}��l�:·ti:� �5�-
spfice should develop ful strengt Iii � ;;.�
?�ff.}. '
't�- o;:.:;;::
4 ----- - - .,.

....________.@
""0
:!j�
G)
�

ui
 • Button Bottom Pile (Western) 6. Use water jet whenever applicable and make an adequate soil
• Cased Concrete Pile (McArthur) exploration o f the ground to be penetrated before actual
• Uncased Straight Shaft (McArthur and Western) driving.
• Simplex Pile
• Steel Pipe Pile Pier
• Precast Pile A cast-in-place concrete foundation formed by boring wilh a
• Composite Pile large auger or excavating by hand a shaft in the earth to a
• Wood Pile suitable bearing stratum and filling the shaft with concrete.
• H-Section Pile
Caisson
Pile Driver A pier, esp. when the boring is 610 mm (2 ft.) or larger in
A machine for driving piles, composed of a tall framework diameter to permit Inspection of the bottom.
supporting machinery for line in position before driving, a
hammer and vertical rails for guiding the hammer. Socketed Caisson
A caisson that is drilled into a stratum of solid rock rather
Type:s of Pile Drivers than belled.

Drop Hammer Rock Caisson

A type of pile driver which is raised by means of a rope and then A socketed caisson having a steel H-section core within a
allowed to be dropped. My drop hammer pennitted shall weigh concrete-filled pipe casing.
not less than one-hatt of the pile to be driven. Gravity hammer
should weigh not less than 2000 pounds. Heights of all Types of Caisson
hammers shall not be more than 6 meters. 1. Box Caisson
A watertight box made of timber and concrete, having a
Steam Pile Hammer bottom, but no top.
A type of pile driver that is automatically raised and dropped a 2. Open Caisson
short distanre by the action of the steam cylinder and the piston A self-contained box structure made of timber, metal and
supported in a frame which follows the pile. concrete.
3. Pneumatic Caisson
Types of Steam Hammer A type of caisson having opening at the bottom and
1. Single Acting Steam Hammer closed at the top or it may be an inverted box into which
The steam is applied to raise the striking part of the compressed air is introduced to keep the water and mud
hammer, then allowed to fall by gravity. The force of the from coming into the box enclosure and which forms
blow depends on the length of the stroke and the movable part of the integral part of the foundation.
weight. The number of blows per minute depends on the
steam pressure. Cofferdam
A temporaiy enclosure in a river, lake, etc. to keep water from
2. Double Acting Steam the enclosed area prior to the construction of a permanent
The steam pressure raises the hammer and also reinforces structure or structures.
the action of gravity during descent. Double acting
hammers are more compact, lighter and operates with Common Types of Cofferdams
rapidity. • Cantilever Sheet Piles
• Braced Cofferdam
Measures to be taken in driving piles • Earth Embankment
1. The butt of the pile is cut off square so that impact of the • Double Wall Cofferdam
hammer may be distributed uniformly over the surface. • Cellular Cofferdam
2. Use rings or pile caps to protect the head of a limber pile • Diaphragm Type
from brooming and splitting. • CloverteafType
3. To facilitate driving the pile true to line or position, the foot • Modified Type
should always be cut off perpendicular to lts axis.
4. The timber should be protected by using metal shoe to Pier
prevent the pile from splitting upon striking an obstruction. A cast-in-place concrete foundation formed by boring with a
5. Use steam hammer as much as possible instead of a drop large auger or excavating by hand a shaft in the earth to a
hammer lo reduce lose of energy and brooming and splitting. suitable bearing stratum and filling the shaft with concrete; it
also refers to a large cross-sectional dimension, each capable of

I
TYPES OF CAISSONS PARTS OF PNEUMATIC CAISSON
AIR LOCK

PRESSURE
GAUGE

BOX CAISSON

Em
-.--.¼!Ta-- MAN SHAFT AND
MATERIAL SHAFT

OMPRESSED
IR-UNE

BLOW-OUT LINE

OPEN CAISSON

lE3 REINFORCED CO CRETE

OR CONCRETE F IN
STEEL CAISSON

-.

· CUTTING EDGE

PNEUMATIC CAISSON

11
 - -- - --------��

transmitting the eniire load from as ingle column down to a (shafts 75 cm than for piles tut surface soils; soil of high
stable stratum. or more in eliminates pile cap bearing capacity (point
diameter) by using caissons bearing on) is 8- 50 meters
• Caisson generally as column below ground surface.
bearing or extension.
A pier, esp. when the boring is 610 mm (2 ft.) or larger in combination
diameter to permit inspection of the bottom. of bea-ing c11d
skin
Types of Caisson resistance
• Box Caissoo Retaining Permanent retaining My type of soil, but a
A watertight box made of timber aid concrete, having a bottom, walls, bridge strucb.Jre specified zone in back of wall
but no top. abutments usually of controlled backfill.
• Open Caisson Sheet-pile Temporary retaining My soil: waterfront structures
A self-contained box structure made of timber, metal and Structures structures as require special alloy or
concrete. excavations, corrosion protection.
• Pneumatic Caisson waterfront Cofferdams require control of
A type of caisson having opening at the bottom and closed at the structures, fill material.
.top or it may be c11 inverted box into v.tlich compressed air is cofferdams
introduced to keep the water c11d mud from coming into the box
enclosure and Ylt1ich forms part of the integral part of the
foundation.

• Coffenlam
A temporary enclosure in a river, lake, etc. to keep water from
the enclosed area prior to the construction of a permanent
structure or structures.

Foundation System Selection

Fotlldation Use/ Applicalion Applicable Soil Caldition
SystemTwe
Spread Individual columns, Any condition v.tlere bearing
Footing, Wall walls, bridge piers capacity is adequate foe
Footings applied load. May be used on
single stratum: firm layer over
soft layer or soft layer over
firm layer. Check immediate
differential and consolidation
settlements.
Mat Same as spread and Generally soil bearing value
Forndation wall footings. Very is less than for spread
heavy column footings; over one-flail area
loads. U&ialiy of building covered by
reduces differential
settlements and settlements. .
individual footings. Check
total settlements
Pile
Fotridalion
Floating In groups (al least Poor surface and near surface
2) to carry heavy soils. Soils of high bearing
colurm, wall loads; capacity 20- 50 meters below
requires pile cap basement or ground surface,
but by distrlbuUng load along
pile shaft soil strength is
adequate. Corrosive soils
may require use of timber or
concrete pile.
Bearing In groups (al least Poor surface and near-
2) to rary heavy surlace soils; soil of hi(#)
colurm, wall loads; bearing capacity (point
requires pile cap. bearing on) is 8- 50 meters
below ground surface.
Caissoo Larcier column loads Poor surface and near-
 Excavation, Fonnworks, Scaffolding and Staging
Excavation
The digging and removal of earth from its natural position, or the
cavity resulting from such removal.
Minor Excavation
Excavation characterized as having independent and hollow
block wall footing where the digging of the soll for the footing
extend to a depth from 1.0 to 5.0 meters and about 0.5 meter
for wall footing.
Major Excavation
An excavation which requires wide or total extraction of the
soil.
Shoring
The process of providing temporary supports to the structure
or ground during excavation.
Underpinning
The process of rebuilding, strengthening or stabilizing the
foundation of an existing building.
Tieback
These consist of steel cables or tendons that are inserted into
holes pre-drilled through the sheet piling and into the rock or
a suitable stratum of soil, grouted under pressure to anchor
them to the rock soil, and post-tensioned with a hydraulic
jack.
Foundation Wall
Part of the foundation system which provides support for the
superstructure above and enclose a basement or crawl space
partly or wholly below grade; it must be designed and
constructed to resist active earth pressure and anchor the
superstructure against wind and seismic forces.
Slurry Wall
A concrete wall cast in a trench to serve as sheeting and often
used as a permanent foundation wall.
Dampproofing
A method of foundation system protection applied to a
foundation wall when a subsoil conditions indicate that
hydrostatic pressure from the groundwater table will not
occur.
Formworlcs
A system of temporary boarding, sheathing or pans used to
produce the desired shape and size of concrete mass. Forms
are generally used in concrete construction since concrete is
formable and assumes the shape of the enclosing material.
Forms should be watertight, rigid and strong enough to
sustain the weight and pressure of concrete and other external
and internally induced forces. The design of forms should be
simple and economicall'f designed to allow ease of removal
and reassembling without damage to itsett or to the concrete.
Form
Boarding or sheeting of wood, metal, plastic, or fiberglass for
containing and giving a desired shape to newly placed
concrete until it sets and gains sufficient strength to be self­
supporting.
Scaffoldings
A system of temporaiy plalfonn to support workers and
materials on the face of a structure and to provide access to
work areas above ground.
Falsework
Temporary bracing for supporting work under construction
which cannot yet support itself.
Staging
A temporary platform for workers and the materials ltiat they
use in building structures.
Shore
A piece of timber to support a wall, usually set in a diagonal
or oblique position, to hold the wall in plare tempoiarily.
Wale
A horizontal timber or steel beam for reinforcing various
vertical members, as in formwork or sheet piling, or for
retaining earth at the edge of an embankment. Also called
Breast Timber, Ranger, Waler.
Wedge
Any of a variety of slotted devices for tightening formwork and
transferring the force in a form tie to the wales.
Strongback
A vertical support for aligning and reinforcing wales. Also
called Stiffback.
Spreader
A brace, usually of wood, for spacing and keeping wall or
footing forms apart. Also called Spacer.
Grade Strip
A wood strip fixed to the inside face of a form to indicate the
top of a concrete lift.
Bulkhead
A partition closing the end of a form or preventing the
passage of newly paced concrete al a construction joint.
Keyway
 A longitudinal groove or channel formed in a concrete footing
or other member that has set providing a shear-resisting key
for newly placed concrete.
Yoke
A clamping device for keeping column forms or the tops of
wall forms from spreading under the fluid pressure of newly
placed concrete.
Formliner
Material for lining the inner face of a form, specially selected
to impart a smooth or patterned finish to the concrete surface.
Form Tie
A metal tie for keeping wall forms from spreading under the
fll!id pressure of newly placed concrete.
Snap rie
A form tie having notches or crimps which allow its ends to
be snapped off below the concrete surface after stripping of
the forms.
Cone Bolt
A form tie having cones at each end inside the forms which
allow It to also seive as a spreader.
Cone
A small, truncated cone of wood, steel or plastic attached to a
form tie to space and spread wall forms, leaving a neatly
finished depression in the concrete surface to be filled or left
exposed.
She Boll
A form tie consisting of waler rods which are inserted through
the form and threaded onto the ends of an inner rod. After
stripping, the waler rods are removed while the inner rod
remains in the concrete.
Chair
A device for supporting and holding steel reinforcement in
proper position before and during the placing of roncrete.
High Chair
A tall chair for supporting top bars In a concrete beam or slab.
Bolster
A wide chair for supporting and spacing bottom bars in a
concrete beam or stab.
Sonotube
Trademark for a brand of cylindrical column form made of
compressed. resin-impregnated paper.
Types ot Formworks
Design of Formworl<s
1. Form shall result in a final structure that conforms to shape ,
lines and dimensions of the members as required by the
drawings and specifications.
2. Forms shall be substantially and sufficiently light to prevent
leakage,of concrete or mortar.
3. Forms shall be properly braced or tied together to maintain
position and shape.
4. Forms and their supports shall be designed so as not to
damage previously placed structure.
5. Forms for prestressed concrete members shall be designed
and constructed to permit movement of member without
damage during application of prestressing force.
Factors in the Design of Fonnworks
1. Rate and method of placing concrete
2. Construction loads, including vertical, horizontal and impact
loads.
3. Special form requirements for construction of shells, folded
plates, domes, architectural concrete or similar types of
elemenls.
Mixing and Placing of Concrete
Placement
The process of depositing and consolidating freshly mixed
concrete in a form or in the final position where it is lo
harden.
Direct placement
The discharging of freshly mixed concrete into a form from a
mixer, buggy or crane.
Free fall
The descent of freshly mixed concrete into a form without the
aid of a drop chute.
Drop chute
A chute for containing and directing a falling stream of fresh'.y
mixed concrete so as not to cause a segregation.
Agitation
The process of providing gentle motion in mixed concrete,
just sufficient to prevent segregation or loss of plasticity.
Segregation
The separation of coarse aggregate from the mortar of water
from the other ingredients of freshly mixed concrete, resulting
from excessive horizontal movement or free tall of the mix. or
from overvibration after placement
Stratification
The separation of an excessively wet or overvibrated concrete
mix into horizontal layers with increasingly lighter material
migrating toward the top.
]_O
"\ . -
Bleeding
The emergence of excess water oo the surface of newly
placed concrete. caused by settlement of solids within the
mass. Also called Water gain.
Laitance
A milky deposit containing cement and aggregale fines on the
surface of new concrete. caused by the bleeding of excess
mixing water. overworking of the mix. or improper finishing.
7. All concrete shall be thoroughly consol:dated by suitable
means during placement arid shall be thoroughly wortred around
reinforcement and embedded fixtures and into comers of forms.
Curing
1. Concrete shall be maintained at so· F.and in moist condition
for at least 7 days after placement
2. High Early Strength Concrete shall be maintained above so·
F. and in moist condition for al least 3 days.

Dewalering Removal of Fonns and Shores

Pumping or removal of water from construction site to 1. No construction loads shall be supported on, or removed
maintain a relatively dry and stable condition during from, any part of the structure under construction except when
ccinstrudion. that portion of the structure has sufficient strength to support
safely its weight and loads placed thereon.
Preparation of Equipment and Place of Deposit 2. Sufficient strength may be demonstrated by field-cured test
1. All equipment for mixing and transporting shall be clean. cylinders and by structural analysis considering proposed loads
2. All debris shall be removed from spaces lo be occupied by in relation to field-cured strengths and strength of the forming
concrete. and shoring system.
3. Fonns shall be properly coated. 3. No construction loads exceeding the combination of
4. Masonry filler units that will be in contact with concrete shall superimposed· dead load plus specified live load shall be
be well drenched. supported on any unshored portion of the structure under
5. Reinforcement shall be thoroughly clean of any material or construdion, unless analysis indicates adequate strength to
other deleterious coatings. support such additional loads.
6. Water shall be removed from place of deposit before concrete 4. Form shall be removed in such a manner as not to impair
is placed unless a tremie is to be used. safety and serviceability of he structure. All concrete to be
7. All laitance1 and other unsound material shall be removed exposed by form shall have sufficient strength not to be
before additional concrete is placed against hardened concrete. damaged thereby.
1
A layer of weak, nondurable material containing cement and 5. Form support for prestressed concrete members may be
fines from aggregates, which is brought to the surface of removed when sufficient prestressing has been applied to
overwet concrete by the bleeding of water to the top. enable prestressed members to carry their dead load and
anticipated conslruction loads.
Mixing
1. Mixing shall be done in a batch of approved type. Schedule of Formworks Removal
2. Mixer shall be rotated at a speed recommended by the Part of Classification of Time Required
manufacturer. Structure Parts
3. Mixing shall be continued for at least 1 1/2 minutes after all Footings 1. Massive 1. 1 day (24 hrs.)
materials are in the drum, unless a shorter time is shown to be fooongs 2. 5 days (120 hrs.)
satisfactory by the mixing unttormity test. 2.Canti lever 3. 5 days (120 hrs.)
Depositing footing
1. Concrete shall be deposited as nearly as practicable in its 3. Slab footings
final position to avoid segregation due to rehandling or flowing. Walls and 1. Massive walls- 1. Up to 2 m. high - 1
2. Concreting shall be carried on at such a rate that concrete is Plaster 0.30 m thk. or day (24 hrs.), add'l 1 day
at all limes plastic and flows readily into spaces between more for every add'I meter of
reinforcement. 2. Thin walls - less height or fraction thereof
3. Concrete that has partially hardened or been contaminated by than 0.30 m thk. 2. Up to 2 m. high- 2
foreign materials shall not be deposited In lhe structure, 3. Cantilever walls, days (48 hts.), add'I 1
4. Retempered concrete or concrete that has been remixed alter buttresses, 1/2 days for every add'I
initial set shall not be used unless otherwise allowed by the counterforts, meter of height but not
Engineer. diaphragms more than 28 days
5. After concreting is started, it shall be carried on as a 3. Without loads, same
continuous operation until placing of a panel or section is as 2.
completed. Columns 1. Ratio of height 1. 2 days (48 hrs.)
6. Top surfaces of vertically formed lifts shall be generally level. to least diameter 2. Add to the above 1 day
up to 4 for every add'I meter of
2. Ratio of height height but not more than

21
 to least diameter 28 days. restored immediately to its former condition within 48 hours
from 4 to 15 from the start of such excavation and disturbances by whosoever
Slabs 1. 0.91m (3 fl.) to 1. 0.91 m (3 ft.) - 5 days caused such excavation or disturbance.
2.13 m (7 ft) span (120 hrs), add'I 1/2 day
2. Over 2.13 m (7 for every foot add'I span 2. Footings, Foundations and Retaining Walls
ft.) or fractlon tl1ereof
2. 2.13 m (7 ft.) - 7 days 2.1 Footings and foundations shall be of the appropriate type, of
(168 hrs.), add 1 day for adequate size and capacity in order to safely sustain the
every foot add'I span or superimposed loads under seismic or any condition of external
fraction thereof but not forces that may affect the safety or stability of the structure.
more than 28 days
Beams and 1. Side 1. 3 days (72 hrs.) 2.2 Whenever or wherever there exist in the site of construction
Girders 2. Bottom 2. Up to 4.27 m (1411.) - an abrupt change in the ground levels or of the foundation such
14 days (336 hrs.), add that instability of the soil could result, retaining walls shall be of
1/2 day for every foot adequate design and type of construction.
add'I span or fraction
thereof but not more than Protection and Safety Requirements for Construction and
28 days Demolition
Arches 1. Spandrel walls 1. 3 days (12 hrs.)
2. Spandrel arches 2. 14 days (336 hrs.) 1. General
3. Main arches 3. 21 days (504 hrs.) 1.1 The construction, erection. alteration and removal of
Balustrade. 1. Steel and side 1. 1 day (24 hrs.) scaffolds and the application, installation and setting up of
Copings, form safeguards and equipment devices shall be done by skilled
etc. workmen under he supervision of a person qualified by
RC Piles and 1. Side 1. 3 days (/2 hrs.) experience or training for such work.
RC Posts 2. Bottom 2. 14 days (336 hrs.)
1.2 A safeguard, device or piece of equipment which is unsafe
Retaining Wall shall be reported to the superintendent or foreman, who shall
A structure whose primary function is to provide lateral support take immediate steps to remedy such condition or remove
for soil or rock. such safeguard, device or equipment.

Types of Retaining Walls 1.3 SC41tolds. ladders. stairs, fuel gas tanks and other devices
1. Gravity Wall or equipment shall be maintained in a good, safe and usable
2. Cantilevered Wall condition as long as in use.
3. Counterfort Wall
4. Crib Wall 1.4 No scaffolds, ladders, railings or other devices or
equipment or any other part thereof shall be removed, altered.
weakened when required by the woik unless so ordered by the
General Design and Construction Requirements superintendent or foreman in charge.

· Excavation, Foundation and Retaining Walls
1. Excavation and Fills
1.1 Excavation or Iills for buildings or structures shall be so
constructed that they do not endanger life or property.
1.2 Whenever the depth of excavation for any construction is
such that the lateral and subdjacent support of the adjoining or
existing structure thereon would be affected In a manner that the
stability or safety of the same is endangered. the person
undertaking or causing the excavation to be undertaken shall be
responsible for the expense of the underpinning or extending the
foundation or footings of the aforementioned property or
structwe.
1.3 Excavation and other similar disturbances made on public
property, shall unless otherwise excluded by the authority, be
1.5 Scaffolds, temporary floors, ramps, stairway landings,
stair treads and all other walkway surfaces shall be kept free
from protruding nails and splinters. They shall be kept free
from unnecessary obstructions so that the workers may move
about safely. t
1.6 Protruding nails and tie wire ends shall be removed,
hammered In or bent In a safe condition.
1.7 Electric lines. moving ropes and cable gears, or similar
hazards with which a worker might in contact with shall be
encased or protected.
1.8 No person, firm or corporation, either personally or
through an employee or agent of another, shall operate or
move any machinery, equipment, material, scaffolds or
... .
FORM WORKS
. . " . ·. ·� . ·a..
<
�
. ·. ,• . ,., •◄. :.· � : :_� :·... ..
·: .•. ;1. �-
. - -·
.•

YOKE

'--.. ·"
f,':, L
�

...·:-,....
. -·.
:::,
-�
,

C 0
·.
-:·, ·:· SONOTUBE

. ... .
' .. ',.
I • • . ...
..-�
-� -

.
. · ,
,.
J •
... • ••
.

BOLSTER
 SLOPE PROTECTION

. Slopes that are subject to erosion from �e runoff of surface

-..... ...__--------�
· water rt(luire some means of stabilization. The need for
--------- stabilization can be reduced uy diverting the runoff at the top

=====- .------- --
of the slope, or l,y creating a series of terraces to reduce the
velocity of �he runoff.

The principal mechanical means of protecting an embankment

against erosion Is a revetment of riprap or galilons.
--------- Riprap is a layer of Irregularly broken and random-sized
stones placed on the slope of an emvankment to prtvent
erosion.
Depth of layer should be greater than the maximum size of
I sto�.
I. Filter fabric or graded sand and gravel for drainage
• i
i!

Cribbing or bin walls may also be used to hold back and protect
__ steep embankments.
-------. Cri�l,ing is a cellular framework of squared steel. concrete, or
timlier memliers, assemliled in layers at right angles. and

·,·:•,.... fillea with earth or stones.

A bin wall is a type of gravity retaining wall formed by
stacking modular. inr.erloding precast concrete units and
o..·· • •
filling the voids with crushed stone or gravel.

.·;.�.. ,-­
i.

OCP;••�::-••0• • o •
.. . o

Gabions are galvanized or PVC-coated wire baskets filled

with stones and stacked to fonn an aliutment or retaining
structure, o� as riprap to stabilize an embankment.
fil�r fame or graded sand and gravel for drainage

Natural me.ans of staliillzation include soil binders- plant

materials that inhiliit or prevent erosion l,y providing a ground
cover and forming a dense network of roots tliat liind the soil.
- ·- ,....
RETAINING WALLS

Reinforced Concrete Reloining Walls

8" (205) 10· (25�) The proportioning guidelines below are for preliminary design
I
I
only. Consult a structural engineer for final aeslgn, especially
when a retaining wall ls to l,e '1uilt on poor soil or is subject to
surcharge or live loads.

Gravity Woll
(----

A gravity retaining wall resists overturning and sliding t,y the

I._______. · 0.6H I
N.
sheer weight and volume of its mass. Gravity walls may be
used for retaining structure.s less than 10' (3048) high.

(0.9 H w! surcliarge)
------:"'4-L..+---- Hype Cantilevered Woll
Cantilevered walls of reinforced concrete are u5td for
retaining walls up to 20' high. Above this heigh�. counterfort
walls are employed.

Counterfort Woll
A counttrfort wall utilizes triangular-shaped cross walls to
stiffen the vertical slab and add weight to the base. The
counterforts ilre !.ipaced ;it regular in�rval!'> equal to one·half
the wall height.

l·lype Cantilevered Woll

This type of retaining wall is used when the wall aliuts a
. . ·0.6H------r--....
property line or other obstruction.

(1.0 H wl surcharge) �

Batter refers t:o the

backward sloping face of a · Drainage system may !le required to relieve the buildup of
I
wall as it rises. which.can wiltcr pre55urc lichinrl t-hi: wall.
offset the illusion of the /
face leaning forward. ./ Drainage mat w/ filter fabric or porous gravel liackfill
• Temperature steel for walls 2" (51) owcepholcs tv 4'-6' (1220-IB30) o.c., or
more than 10' (255) thick � P.trforated draigpipe sloped to outlet away from wall
Structural steel

2" (51) minimum

· footing should extend 1,elow :;• (75) minimum
the frostll� or 2' (610) lielow
the lower grade level; Provide vertical control joints@25' (7620} o.c.• and
whichever is greater. vertical expansion Joints every fourth control joint.
�·-·-·- __
•___,,,___,
 ---· RETAINING WALLS
When a desired change In ground elevation exceeds the angle of
repose of the soil. a ·retaining wall becomes necessary to hold
back t�e mass of earth on the. uphill side of the grade change.

A retaining wall must Pe designed and_construc�-to resist

the lateral pressure of th� soil being retained. This active
pressure increases proportionally from zero at the upper grade
level to a maximum value at the lowest depth of� wail. The
total pressure or thrust may Pe assumed to_be acting through
the centroid of the triangular distribution pattern, one·third
above the base of the wall.

Surcharge is an additional load, as that of the earth

above a retaining wall. The line of thrust parallels the
:c slope of the surcharge.

. Assume 33• for the angle of repose of most soils.

See 1.05 for the angle of repose _for bare soil embankments.

• T = 0.286x5H2/2 • T_= 0.833 x S{H + H')2/ 2

(for a retaining wall with surcharge) A retaining wall may fail liy overturning. horizontal sliding.
• T = total pressure or thrust or excessive settling.

• 5 ° - weight of retained soil; · Thrust tends to overturn wall aliout toe of base.
100 pcf(1600 kg/�) typical • To prevent a retaining wall from overturning. the reslsting
W = com�osite wefght ofwallacting moment(Mr) of the composite weight of t�e wall and any
; through centroid of the section soil be.iring on the heel of the base (W xd) must countu the

..I R = resultant off and W overturning moment (M ol created by the soil pressure
I

(T x H/3). U5ing a safety factor of 2. Mr;?: 2Mo.

fo prevent a retaining wall from sliding. the composite

weight of the wall times the coefficient of friction for the
soil supporting the wall(W x C.F.) must counter the lateral
thrust on the wall(T). Using a safety factor of 1.5.
W x C.F. � 1.5T.
!::==----
-- The passive pressure of the soil abutting the lower level

I
of the wall aids in resisting the lateral thrust (T).
A key also increases the re�istance of the wall to sliding.
• Average coefficients of friction: gravel. 0.6; silt/dryclay,

I
0.5; sand.0.4; wetclay,0.9

To prevent a retaining wall from settling, the vertic.al force

(W) must not exceed the bearing r.apacityofthe soil(B.C.).

l where W = weight of the wall and any soil �earing on the

vase plus the vertical component of the soil thrust for a wall
with surcharge. Using a safoty factor of 1.5. B.C.;?; 1.5 W/A.

l
I
Philippine Vernacular Terms in Construction

Abang - Dowel
Alahado - Flush
Alero - Roof eaves
Alulod o Kanal - Gutter
Andanyo - Scaffolding
Asinta - Laying of CHB
Asolejos - Wainscoting tiles
Bagad - Wall post
Balangkas - Framework
Banguerahan - Dish rack
Baral de Kadena - Chain bolt
Barandillas - Baluster
Batidura - Astragal / Fillet
Baytang - Stair tread
Biento - Spacing
Biga - Beam
Bisagra - Hinge
Bolado - Projection
Caida - Hall
Canal - Groove
Kaballete - Ridge roll
Kabilya - Reinforcing bars
Kalinya - Alligned
Kantero - Mason
Kanto - Corner
Kanto Mesa - Miter
Kapatas - Foreeman
Kilo - Truss
Kisame - Ceiling
Kontratista - Contractor
Kostilyahe - Ceiling joist
Kostura - Mortar joints
Krokis - Sketch pad
Kuling - girder
De Bandeha - Panel door
Dotal - Floorboards
Dos Aguas - Gable roof
Dulang - Low table
Dutcha - Shower
Escombro - Earthfill
Escondro - Crushed stone
Estanyo - Nicolite or soldering bar
Estopa - Oakum
Guililan - Floor sill
Hamba - Door jamb
Haspe - Wood grain
Hiero - GI Roof
Hulog - Plumb bob
Istaka - Stake
Liyabe - Anchor
Ladrillo - Bricks
Larga Masa - Concrete slab
Lastillas - Sand and gravel
Latero - Tinsmith
Lingueta - GI strap
Madre de Escalera - Closed stringer
Masilya - Putty
Media Agua - Awning
Media Cana - Quarter round
Palitada - Cement plaster
Pasamano - Window sill
Paupo - Mortar
Pendulum - King post
Pergola - Trellis
Pie de Gallo - Brace
Pilarete - Vertical studs
Pitsa - Washer
Piye - Feet
Plantsuela - Wrought iron strap
Poste - Column
Prigadero - Sink
Piyon - Helper
Poleya - Wiring knob
Pulgada - Inches
Rebokada - Scratch coat
Reostra - Purlins
Rimatse - Rivets
Rodapis - Baseboard
Senepa - Facia board
Sepo - Girt
Sibe - Lean-to-roof
Sinturon - Collar
Suelo - Flooring
Sumbrero - Door head
Tabike - Exterior siding
Tabla - Wood plank
Takip Silipan - Stair riser
Tambak - Fill
Tapon - Plug
Tirante - Bottom chord
Trabe Anzo - Horizontal stud
Trangkilya - Barrel bolt
Truerka - Nut
Tubo de Banada - Downspout
Unsinota - Alternative / Staggered
Vaciada - Rabbet