Forensic Ballistics

Chapter 9
Firearms Characteristics
A gun barrel is the tube, usually metal, through which a controlled explosion or rapid
expansion of gases are released in order to propel a projectile out of the end at a high velocity All
barrel irrespective of the type of the weapons for which they are made, are manufactured from a solid
piece of metal. The metal from which the barrel is made is carefully selected for its chemical and
metallurgical properties, thus assuring a high-quality product after the various machine operations
and heat treatment are completed.
The Following are the Stages in the Manufacture of the Barrel
A. Drilling
A special deep-hole is used and through the center of which lubricating oil is forced under
pressure. This operation results to a comparatively rough hole of uniform diameter from one end of
the barrel to other. At this stage the interior surface of the barrel will bear numerous scars and
scratches resulting from the irregular cutting of the drill and the metal chips which mark the finish. It
is also the stage at which the bore diameter (caliber) of the firearm is determined.
B. Reaming
In this process some of the scars or scratches left by the drilling operation are removed. The
reamer removes the metal from the entire surface because it is slightly larger in diameter than the
drill which completes the bore operations. It includes roughly finishing and burnishing reamer to
have a smooth bore barrel.
C. Rifling
This process is necessary for the making of the helical groves inside the barrel and such can
be performed in any of the following methods:
1. Hook-cutter system (cutter)
2. Scrape-cutter system (scraper)
3. Broaching system - (broach)
4. Button-system (button)
Rifling in the bore of the firearm is a helical groove consisting of depressed portion (grooves)
and an elevated portion (lands) which is responsible for the rotation motion of the projectile as it
leaves the gun muzzle.
 Figure 48. Barrel rifing

D. Lapped
This is the polishing operation in which a lead plug closely fitting the inside of the barrel is
drawn back and forth on a rod carrying with it is a polishing compound This will remove large
imperfection on the inside surface of the barrel both to the lands and the grooves. What is important
about this process is that no matter how many times we polish or finish the barrel, only the large
imperfections may be eliminated but not the minute imperfections making a series of striations that
will be impressed on every bullet that will pass through it. This is the basis for which firearms are
identified.
The Breech face
Just like any barrel of every firearm, the breech face also bears with it the same importance.
It is that portion of the firearms against which the shell or the cartridge case and the primer is pressed
backward every time that a cartridge is fired in the chamber. If this happens, the base of the cartridge
will be marked by the breech face of the gun.
Types of Characteristics in Firearms
A Class Characteristics - are those properties or attributes of a firearm which can be determined even
before the manufacture of the gun. This is true for such characteristics are considered to be a
manufacturer's designs or specifications and security.
B. Individual Characteristics = are meant for those characteristics which are being determined only
after the firearm has already been manufactured. They are the product of machine imperfections
while others are subsequently produced after the firearms have been used.
 Figure 49. Bore Diameter Measurement
Class Characteristics of Firearms
1. Bore diameter (caliber or gauge)
It is the diameter to which the bore was reamed; and it is the distance measured between two
opposite lands inside the bore in a hundredths or thousandths of an inch. In most cases, it is
expressed in either caliber in inch or in millimeters such as cal 22, 25, 30, 32, 38, 380, 357, 44, 45,
50 etc. or 5.56mm, 6.35mm, 9mm, 11mm, etc. In shotguns, they are either in gauge or in inch, such
as 10 gauge (.775), 12 gauge (.729), 20 gauge (615), 24 gauge (579), 30 gauge (537) 36 gauge (.506),
and the smallest of which is gauge 410.
2. Number of lands and grooves
The number of lands and grooves inside the barrel of a given firearm are always the same or
equal. It may run from 3 to 8, but the most in the modern firearm are five and six.

 Lands are the elevated portion of the bore of the firearm.

 Grooves-are the depressed portion of the bore between the lands.
3. Width of the lands
It is dependent upon the bore diameter of the gun, grooves, width and number. The lands are
the remainders of the circumference after subtracting all the grooves width
4. Width of the Grooves
It is measured as the shortest distance between the two dies or edge of a groove.
5. Direction of Twist
Rifling inside the barrel of the gun is either twisted to the left or to the right which causes the
bullet to rotate as it passes through the bore, in order to ensure gyroscopic stability in its flight.
6. Pitch of Rifling
The pitch of rifling is the measure of the twisting of the lands and grooves. It refers to the
measure of the distance advance by the rifling in order to make a complete turn inside the barrel.
7. Depth of the Grooves
 The groove's depth is measured on a radius of the bore. Grooves are usually few thousandths
of an inch deep, which is equal to the height of the lands.
Types of Rifling
1. Steyer Type - is the type of rifling having four (4) lands and grooves, right twist and the width of
the lands grooves. (4 RG=L)
2. Carbine Type - rifling having (4) lands and grooves, right twist, the width of the grooves is two (2)
times the width of the lands (4RG2X).
3. Smith and Wesson - rifling having (5) lands and grooves, right hand twist, the width of the land
and grooves are equal. (5RG=L)
4. Colt - type of rifling having six (6) lands and grooves, left twist, the width of the grooves is twice
(2) the width of the lands. (6LG2X)
5. Browning - type of rifling having (6) lands and grooves, right hand twist, the width of the grooves
is twice the width of the lands. (6RG2X)
6. Webley - Rifling having seven (7) lands and grooves, right hand twist, the width of the groove is
three times larger than the boarder of the lands. (7RG3X)
7. Winchester - Rifling having six (6) lands and grooves, right hand twist, the width of the grooves is
three times larger than the width of the lands.
Individual Characteristics in firearms are usually determined by the test firing which will
give us both the test bullet and the test shell that will show the individuality of its property based on
the marks that are left on every bullet and shell fired from it. Such marks are so minute that the use of
the lens with high magnification is necessary to discover individuality.
Marks left on fired shells or fired bullets are generally categorized as either Accidental or
Repetitive. Accidental marks are those marks that bare some importance to the investigation but are
considered to be not of significant value in the identification of a particular firearm or weapon since
they are not regularly formed in the operation of the gun. On the other hand, repetitive marks are
those marks which are very useful in identifying a firearm. They show the identity of performance.
Marks Found on Fired Bullets:
A. Land Marks-marks left on a fired bullet caused by its contact to the elevated portion (lands) of the
bore of the firearm. It appears as slight depressions or scratches the cylindrical surface of the fired
bullet.
B. Groove Marks - marks found on a fired bullet caused by the grooves of the barrel which is the
same number as that of the landmarks.
 Figure 50. Land Mark and Groove Mark
C. Skid Marks = Marks that are generally found on fired bullet from a revolver. It is more or less
located at the anterior portion of the fired bullet due to its forward movement from the chamber to
the barrel of the gun before it initially rotates.
D. Stripping Marks = marks found on those bullets fired from a "loose-fit" barrel wherein the rifling
are already badly worn out. Worn-out in the rifling of the firearms can be caused by either chemical
reaction brought about by rust (corrosion) or through excessive use (erosion)
E. Shaving Marks = marks commonly found on bullet fired from a revolver caused by its forward
movement to the barrel that is poorly aligned to the cylinder.
F. Slippage Marks = marks found on fired bullets passing through either an oily or oversized barrel.
Marks found on Fired Shell
1. Firing Pin Mark = mark generally found at the base portion of the cartridge case more specifically
near center of the primer cup in a center fire cartridge or at the rim cavity of a rim-fire cartridge. It is
considered as one of the most important marks for the identification of firearms using fired shell.

Figure 51. A photomicrograph Comparison of Firing Pin Marks

2. Breech Face Mark = mark found at the base portion of the shell caused by backward movement to
the breech face of the block of the firearm. This is also one of the important marks in shell
identification.
 Figure 52. (a) Breech Face and (b) Breech Face Mark
3. Extractor mark = mark mostly found at the extracting groove of the fired cartridge case caused by
its withdrawal from the chamber.

Figure 53. Extractor Mark

4. Ejector mark - mark generally found on cartridge case fired from an automatic firearms. It is
located near the rim of the case caused by the throwing of the shell from the firearm to the area of
shooting.

Figure 54. Ejector Mark

5. Shearing Mark = sometimes called "Secondary Firing Pin mark" found in the primer near the
firing pin mark.
6. Magazine Lip Mark = marking found at the two sides of the rim caused by the magazine lips
during the loading of the cartridge into the magazine for firing.
7. Chamber Mark = mark mostly found around the body of the fired cartridge case caused by the
irregularities of nips inside the walls of the chamber.
In a fired cartridge case, either of the Firing pin mark and the Breech face marks can be used
as basis for identification. In the absence or non-usage of these two, both the ejector and extractor
marks can be utilized as secondary choices.

Assignment Sheet No. 9

I. What are the stages in the manufacture of barrel? Briefly discuss each?

Il. Differentiate Class from individual characteristics and give examples.

III. What are the various types of rifling characteristics?

IV. What are examples of marks on fired bullets and fired shells? Briefly describe each.

Chapter 10
 The Forensic Ballistics Problems

The problems in forensic ballistics are the summary of the work objectives in the field of
firearm identification. This serves as a general guide to every firearm examiner in determining the
course of action to be undertaken depending on the situation at hand and in the end to serve the ends
of justice.
The forensic Ballistic problem originally composed of the six problems as written in the book
of Gunther and Gunther, however, complexities and advancement in the field of forensic ballistics
and in relation to the applicable laws, more particularly as regards to laws on illegal possession of
firearms, has emerged. As such, the firearm identification divisions adopted seven problems in its
course.
The Forensic Ballistics Problems:
1. Given a fired bullet to determine the caliber, type, make of firearm from which it was fired.
2. Given a fired shell to determine the caliber, type, and make of firearm from which it was fired.
3. Given a fired bullet and a suspected firearm, to determine whether or not the fired bullet was fired
from the suspected firearm.
4. Given a fired shell and a suspected firearm, to determine whether or not the fired shell was fired
from the suspected firearm.
5. Given two or more fired bullets, to determine whether or not they were fired from one and the
same firearm.
6. Given two or more fired shell/cartridge case, to determine whether or not they were fired from one
and the same firearm.
7. Given a suspected firearm, to determine whether it is serviceable or not.
Problem No. 1
Given: A fired bullet.
Objective: To determine the caliber, type and make of firearm from which it was fired.
Procedure:
a. Identify the bullet based on its various features such as type, shape and design.
b. Use a caliper or a micrometer or a torsion balance to measure the caliber of the bullet or use a
standard bullet at hand and match the base of the bullets. In case of fragmented or deformed bullets,
it will be difficult to determine its base diameter. Thus, use the torsion balance in order to get the
equivalent weight of the bullet and its approximate caliber.
c. After determining the caliber of the fired bullet, examine its cylindrical surface for the land marks
and groove marks. Identify the type of rifling by determining the number of lands and grooves, the
direction of twist, the pitch of rifling, the width of the lands and grooves and the depth of landmarks.
Problem No. 2
Given: A fired shell/cartridge case.
Objective: To determine the caliber, type and make of firearm from which it was fired.
Procedure:
a. Determine the caliber of the shell utilizing the caliper to measure its body diameter or the diameter
of the mouth of the shell or simply match it with standard shells.
b. Check on the base of the fired shell for the head stamp. This part of the shell will give the
examiner information as to the caliber, the maker, and at certain case even the date of its
manufacture.
Problem No. 3
Given: A fired bullet and a suspected firearm.
Objective: To determine whether or not the fired bullet was fired from the suspected firearm.
Procedure:
a. Examine the fired bullet as to its caliber, type and make applying the procedure in problem no. 1.
b. Examine the suspected firearm as to its condition and basic characteristics as to whether there is
probability of its being the one used in the fired bullet. (verify the type of rifling)
C. Test-fire the suspected firearm using the bullet recovery box. Use at least three (3) cartridges with
the same caliber and mark as the fired bullet. Make sure to mark the cartridge with letter "t-1, 1-2 and
1-3" as the case maybe plus the last two digit of the serial number of the suspected firearm.
d. Get the test bullet from the recovery box and identify its general characteristics to determine
probability with the fired bullet.
e. Match the fired bullet with the test bullet using the bullet comparison microscope or forensic
digital comparator.
f. If similar individual marks (striations) were observed on each bullet, then we can conclude that the
fired bullet was fired from the suspected firearm. Otherwise another firearm was used in its
discharge.
Problem No 4.
Given: A fired shell and a suspected firearm.
Objective: To determine whether or not the fired shell was fired from the suspected firearm.
Procedure:
a. Examine the fired shell as to its caliber, type andmake;
b. Examine the suspected firearm as to its conditions and rifling characteristics.
c. Test-fire the suspected firearm using the bullet recovery box Use at least three (3) cartridges for
test firing. Make sure to mark the cartridge with letter 11, 12 and 13" as the case maybe plus the last
two digit of the serial number of the suspected firearm.
d. Get all the test shell and identify its general characteristics to determine probability with the fired
shell.
e. Match the fired shell with the test shell using the bullet comparison microscope or forensic digital
comparator.
f. If similar individual marks (striations) were observed on the breech face or firing pin marks, then
we can conclude that the fired bullet was fired from the suspected firearm. Otherwise, another
firearm was used in its discharge. If problem will be encountered as to the use of the breech-face or
firing pin mark, use the combined extractor and ejector mark as a secondary option for identification.
Problem No. 5
Given: Two or more fired bullets.
Objective: To determine whether or not they were fired from one and the same firearm.
Procedure:
a. Identify those bullets as to their caliber, type and make by applying the principle in problem no. 1
(do not forget to mark the fired bullets).
b. Bullets of the same caliber, type and make should be compared at the bullet comparison
microscope.
c. The fired bullets that show a magnified image of similar characteristics will be considered fired
from one and the same firearm, while those that would not match positively were fired from different
firearms.
Problem No. 6
Given: Two or more fired shells. Objective: To determine whether they were fired from one and the
same firearm.
Procedure:
a. Identify each fired shells as to their caliber, type and make applying the procedure in problem no. 2
(do not forget to mark each fired shell)
b. Compare each fired shell of the same caliber, type and make using the bullet comparison
microscope The fired cartridge case having similar individual marks (striations) will prove that they
were fired from one and the same firearm while the non-identity of their individual marks would
mean that they have been fired from different firearms.
Problem No. 7
Given: A suspected firearm.
Objective: To determine whether it is serviceable or not.
Procedure:
a. Examine the suspected firearm, its caliber, type and make and its condition as to whether or not it
is functional.
b. Check its serial number and records of its identification.
c. Mark the suspected firearm for further reference.
A. Basis of Firearm Identification:
1 Firearm identification is actually refined tool mark identification. The basis of identification of
firearm is based on minute imperfection caused by final polishing of the tools involved
2. The natural wear and tear of the tools involved. That every firearm are not permanent for they are
subject to deterioration or worn out.
3. When the softer surface comes in contact with the harder surface, it is always the softer surface
that will be engraved or marked by whatever impression or marks present on the harder surface. This
is true in a sense that every firearm is made up of harder material than any bullet or shell of the
cartridge
4. The fact that no two things are absolutely identical or alike. There can be some sort of similarity in
general properties but not on the individuality or minute imperfections or details.
Principles involved in Bullet Identification:
1. No two barrels are microscopically alike or identical as to the internal bore construction, all barrels
possesses individuality or characteristics marks of their own.
2. When a bullet is fired from a rifled gun barrel, it becomes engraved by the rifling characteristics of
that barrel with varying minute details. It means that a bullet fired from one barrel will have an
engraving different from that of another bullet fired from another firearm and conversely, bullet fired
from the same firearm will bare same engraving as those that can be found on the barrel.
3. Every barrel leaves its "thumbprint" or "fingerprint" on every bullet fired on it.
C. Principles of Shell Identification:
1. The breech face and the striker (or firing pin) of every firearm have microscopic individualities of
their own.
2. Every firearm leaves its "fingerprint" or "thumbprint" on every cartridge it fires.
3. The whole principle of identification of shells is based upon the fact that since the breech face of
every weapon must be individually distinct, the cartridge cases that it fired are imprinted with this
individuality. The imprints of all cartridge cases fired from the same weapon are the same, and those
on cartridge cases fired from different weapon are different.

Assignment Sheet No. 10

I. Enumerate and briefly explain the problems in forensic ballistics.

II. What are the principles involved in firearm identification, bullet and shell identification?