Ham Radio for Technicians, Extras

and General License 2021-2023

The Complete Beginner's Study Guide for Establishing an Amateur
Radio Station and Acquiring Your License

Adams
Jonathan
Copyright © 2021 Adams Jonathan
All rights reserved.
It is not legal to reproduce, duplicate, or transmit any part of this document by either electronic means
or in printed format. Recording of this publication is strictly prohibited
Disclaimer
The information in this book is based on personal experience and anecdotal evidence. Although the
author has made every attempt to achieve an accuracy of the information gathered in this book, they
make no representation or warranties concerning the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this
book. Your circumstances may not be suited to some illustrations in this book.
The author disclaims any liability arising directly or indirectly from the use of this book. Readers are
encouraged to seek Medical. Accounting, legal, or professional help when required.
This guide is for informational purposes only, and the author does not accept any responsibilities for
any liabilities resulting from the use of this information. While every attempt has been made to verify
the information provided here, the author cannot assume any responsibility for errors, inaccuracies or
omission.
 Contents
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER ONE
Understanding Ham Radio
A Ham Radio Station
A Brief History of Ham Radio
The Place you can Operate
How to Tune in to Ham Radio
Tuning in to a radio Frequency
Analyzing the Electronic and Technology Attributes of Hams
Morse Code and Voice Broadcasts
The Social Elements of Hams
How to Relate to Other Hams
CHAPTER TWO
Analyzing Bands and Frequencies
What are BandPlans?
The Different Modes
Using AM Modes
Using FM Modes
Using Morse Code or CW Mode
The CW Mode
CHAPTER THREE
Introduction to Ragchews
How to Use Nets
What is DXing?
Daytime DX-ing
 Nighttime DX-ing
How to Manage Contests in Ham
Receiving Awards
CHAPTER FOUR
Managing Radio Operations
How to Begin a Conversation
How to Extend your Range with Repeaters
Using Operating Simplex
Handling Emergency
Operating Satellites
How to Use Computers
How to Clean Up the Signal
Radio Design
Things to Consider while Designing a Ham Radio Station
CHAPTER FIVE
Introduction to Electronic Theory
What is Ohm’s Law?
Analyzing Ohms, Amperes, and Volts
Moving Decimals
Using Decibels
How to Prepare for the Hams Exam
How to Find a Useful Material for Study
How to Discover the Right Classes for Licensing
CHAPTER SIX
What is a Volunteer Licensing System?
Using the Volunteer Examiner Coordinator
How to Find a Test Session
How to Sign Up for a Test
Engaging in Public and Private Exams
CHAPTER SEVEN
How to go through the Licensing Process
How to Understand Call Signs
How to Obtain your License
Ways to Complete your Documentation or Paperwork
How to Locate your New Call Sign
 How to Register Online with the FCC
Getting FCC Radio Station License
CHAPTER EIGHT
Using the Privileges of General Class Frequency in Ham Radio
The Basics of Radio Waves
What is Radio Spectrum?
The Necessary Radio Gadgetry
Feedlines and Filter Gadgetry
Accessing Ham Radio on Air
What are Filters?
Bandstop Filters
Bandpass Filters
Highpass Filters
Lowpass Filters
CHAPTER NINE
Understanding Ionosphere
How Ionosphere Absorbs Radio Signals
The Ways Sunspots Affects Radio Propagation
Analyzing Sunspots
What is Critical Frequency?
How to Use Optimum Working frequency
Using LUF, MUF, and Critical Frequency
Lowest Usable Frequency (LUF)
Maximum Usable Frequency (MUF)
CHAPTER TEN
How to Maintain your Station
How to Repair and Build Equipment
How to Build an Equipment for your Amateur radio station
Using an Oscilloscope
What are the Basic Controls for an Oscilloscope?
The Basic Controls
Vertical Controls
Horizontal Controls
Trigger Controls
Acquire Controls
 Selector Buttons
Miscellaneous Buttons
How to Start Using an Oscilloscope
Operating an Oscilloscope
Resetting the Default Settings
How to Display Traces
CHAPTER ELEVEN
How to Allocate Amateur Radio Frequency
The Size of the Radio Station
The Power of the Frequency
The Safety of Amateur Radio Station
CHAPTER TWELVE
How to Propagate a Ham Radio
Sky Waves
Open Field Waves
Ground Waves
Free Space Waves
Using 75 Meters Band and 80 meters Band
Operating the 60Meters Band
Using the 40 Meters Band
What are ITU Regions?
Explaining the Differences between VHF and UHF
Using Ultra-High Frequency (UHF)
Using Very High Frequency (VHF)
CHAPTER THIRTEEN
What is a Multimeter?
Measuring AC Voltage with a Digital Multimeter
How to Measure Frequencies
Using a Digital Multimeter to Measure Capacitance
CHAPTER FOURTEEN
Building Equipment and Measuring Values
Using Antennas
Directional Antennas
What are Antenna Analyzers and SWR
Coaxial Cables
 The Length of Antennas
How to Use Batteries
What is Polarization?
CONCLUSION
 INTRODUCTION

If you are a Ham Radio operator with extensive knowledge in the field, you
can design various radio stations such as temporary (field) stations, mobile
stations, and permanent ground stations. Also, you can create a space station
according to your capability and experience.
Most people are eager to broadcast on-air, and the governments, including
necessary agencies in nations all over the world are interested in allocating a
portion of the radio spectrum to broadcasters.
You need to demonstrate your capability and willingness to comply with
existing guidelines in broadcasting before you will be allocated a portion of
the radio spectrum. However, in the United States, the agency in charge of
assigning radio spectrums to hams is the Federal Communications
Commission (FCC).
They are in charge of issuing licenses to ham radio operators and
broadcasting houses. The licenses include technician license, general license,
and extra license. Moreover, the technician license will require you to answer
thirty-five questions on basic ham radio safety, electronics theory, and
regulations. This test will give you the right to do presentations in Ultra High
Frequency (UHF), Very High Frequency (VHF), and MicroWave frequency
(MWF) bands.
The General license will prepare you to communicate in High-frequency
bands. But the extra license requires the operator to pass over seven hundred
questions. This will require intensive and extensive research and study. With
this test, you will enjoy all the privileges of the General license and
technicians.
 CHAPTER ONE
Understanding Ham Radio

A Ham Radio Station

Ham radio is also known as amateur radio. As the name implies it is not a
popular media organization for broadcasting information, although there are
many operators of this type of radio station.
But it is a popular means of broadcasting among radio enthusiasts, who know
the nitty-gritty of radio operations. Ham radio is the act of using radio
frequency spectrum for exchanging messages that are non-commercial. Other
reasons for engaging in amateur radio operation include emergency
broadcasts, radiosport, wireless experimentation, personal recreation,
contests, and self-education or training.
Amateur radio operation involves engaging in licensed and authorized radio-
electric practice with self-interest but no financial gains attached to the
exercise. This type of broadcasting is different from those engaged in two-
way broadcasting such as commercial broadcasts, public safety, and other
professional services. Most persons use it as a hobby but it brings people and
electronics together for the purpose of disseminating information all over the
world without internet connectivity or even mobile phones.

A Brief History of Ham Radio

 A Ham Radio
Ham radio began in the nineteenth century when the term was a coinage from
the ham-fisted persons, who were radio operators with poor Morse code
handling skills. Even after the introduction of commercial radio broadcasting,
several persons continue experimenting with this wireless telegraphy. This
operation was regarded as a nuisance in the society since ham radio amateurs
handled them.
The Wireless Association of America published several wireless telegraph
stations in the United States and Canada in 1909 during the First Annual
Official Wireless Blue Book. They also published about eighty-nine amateur
radio stations. However, in 1936 there were about forty-six thousand licensed
amateurs.
Amateur radio stations are mostly handled by amateur experimenters,
presenters, and hobbyists. But during the middle of the twentieth century, the
radio community decided to rebrand the term from its derogatory name. This
rebranding gave it a new name, HAM RADIO.
HAM radio was coined from the names of Albert S. Hyman, Bob Almy, and
Poogie Murray. They were the amateur radio operators that ran the first
amateur wireless radio station in 1908. At the beginning, they called their
radio station Hyman-Almy-Murray.
Therefore, the station CALL at that time was HAM representing Hyman-
Almy-Murray. These amateurs were of the Harvard Radio Club. Then, this
self-styled call sign HAM was used to denote all amateur radio stations
operated by hobbyists, experimenters, and other radio enthusiasts.
The Place you can Operate
Operators of Ham radio could be doctors, politicians, missionaries, cab
drivers, students, and even kids. You can operate from anywhere like your
home, the top of a mountain, behind the wheel of a car, etc., with no internet
connection and not even a cellular network.
This type of radio communication is very profitable during calamities or
disasters when normal broadcasting channels may be disconnected. Ham
radio operators could use this opportunity to transmit information and contact
emergency agencies or public service institutions.
The efforts of amateur broadcasters were helpful during the 9/11 attack in
New York City. Humanitarian agencies were able to contact each other using
the Ham radio. Also, during flood disasters such as Hurricane Katrina and
others, amateur radio operators were helpful in contacting emergency
agencies.
Ham radios can operate from above the AM band to the microwave region in
gigahertz range. Some of these radio channels are located above the AM
radio band of 1.6 MHz to above the citizens band of 27 MHz. Transmission
during night-hours is between 1.6 MHz to 15 MHz while daylight
transmission could take place from 15 MHz to 27 MHz.
In most cases, these bands are known as Short Wave Bands for Short Wave
Radio. It is the best band for long-distance broadcasting compared to
frequencies used by FM radio stations, which are limited to forty miles or
fifty miles.
Shortwave transmission bounces off the ionosphere from the transmitter to
the receiver’s antenna. If the frequency is higher the wavelength will be
shorter. Amateur radio broadcasters use Morse code while other operators use
voice. Morse code is known for beeping and connects to transmitters when
the voice cannot. Therefore, ham radios broadcast in various directions.

How to Tune in to Ham Radio

Tuning in to a radio Frequency

All over the world, hams broadcast using different frequencies on various
types of radios with assorted antennas. Ham radio broadcasting has become a
source of recreation, hobby, entertainment for family and friends, and for
transmitting information during emergencies.
Amateur broadcasters use radio instruments and radios for performing
experiments.
They communicate using computers, satellites, lasers, telegraph,
microphones, Morse keys, and cameras.

A computer Monitor for Ham Radio Broadcasting

Analyzing the Electronic and Technology Attributes of Hams

Amateur radio broadcasting requires various electronics and technology—the
act of transmitting and receiving radio signals needs high-quality electronics
and technological skills, and equipment. When you have indicated interest in
the profession, you need to know everything from basic electronics to direct-
current electronics, including exclusive radio frequency management
techniques.
That means you will understand how to handle analog electrical equipment,
including the trending digital signal reception and processing. Also,
computing processes are necessary and required in amateur radio
transmission. You could have been in the business for decades and yet to see
an expert on the system. It is ever-growing with new skills, equipment, and
knowledge.
You may create and design equipment for your ham radio or build a radio
station using factory-made devices just like amateurs could do. All the
information you need and professional guidance are available on the web and
stores.
Ham radio operators are best known for homebrewing. This is a do-it-
yourself culture that encourages hams to assist each other in establishing and
maintaining their broadcast houses. In the same vein, hams could design their
own apps and use internet connectivity together with radios to build hybrid
radio stations.
Amateur radio operators can build packet radio by modifying data
transmission protocols applied over computer networks to the links with ham
radio. This is applied in various commercial networks. If they combine GPS
radiolocation technology together with Amateur mobile radios and the Web,
they can produce the APRS - Automatic Position Radio System. Several
hams are producing and using the APRS in their
transmissions.
Morse Code and Voice Broadcasts
Nowadays, hams can communicate with each other using voice and morse
code communication technologies. However, computerized digital
operations are trending in the industry. One of the easiest and popular home
radio station I a hybrid of the radio and computer.
Some recent amateur radio stations are using a technologically-based
software-defined radio (SDR). This enables a configuration of the wires used
for processing radio signals under software control. In addition to the use of
equipment and computers, hams are learners using antennas for broadcasting.
Thus is the system through which radio signals are transmitted from one
place to another.
Hams are useful in sunspots, solar cycles and how these features influence
the ionosphere of the earth. Weather elements are the factors that determine
how hams transmit information. The weather produces fronts or static
through radio signals are conveyed over long distances.
The experimenter or amateur radio station builder takes advantage of
antennas through which signals are released for their broadcasts to offer a
better world. Experimenting with antennas is the hub of activities for the
amateur radio presenter.
New designs of antennas are produced daily based on recommendations from
ham radio operators. These designs could be small patches of printed circuit
board materials. They could also be multiple towers decorated with big
revolving arrays. To couple and handle this unit, you need a soldering iron, a
feedline, and wires.
Amateur radio operators apply radio technology to promote activities such as
meteorology, model rocketry, and radio control (R/C). There are unique
frequencies for radio control operations within the six-meter band. This is
separate from the several unlicensed radio control frequencies.
Also, smaller video transmitters used for ham radio operations are carried by
rockets, model aircraft, and balloons. These devices capture and release
pictures taken from thousands of feet high above the earth’s surface. Again,
data links from amateur radios are used to support aviation, astronomy,
rallies, and auto racing, including several recreational activities or hobbies.
The Social Elements of Hams
Ham radio enables a person to communicate across towns, cities, countries,
continents, and around the world. But some factors such as level of sunspot
activity, time of the day, time of the year, the kind of equipment used, and
atmospheric conditions determine the communication range's effectiveness.
This is evident in long-range bands or high frequencies ((HF).

How to Relate to Other Hams

Hams meet on-air and through personal contacts. They could also meet
through radio clubs and organizations for the purpose of achieving success as
amateurs in broadcasting.
There are host conventions for hams, including exclusive ham radio flea
markets. Small hams and large ones have been in existence for hundreds of
years, even before radio licenses were introduced for hams.
Most operators have a technical background, while others do not have any
experience. A common ground existing between these different individuals is
the passion and interest in broadcasting that could be expressed in various
ways.
The three crucial aspects of Ham radio most persons are passionate to
experiment include the social aspects of ham broadcasting, the technological
features, and the operations. Therefore, everyone going into amateur radio
operation could be doing that based on a specific reason. As I explained
before, it could be for fun and recreation, to get a technical background, or to
use the system for a specific purpose. If you have any of the above reasons,
you need to obtain a radio license for your operations.
 CHAPTER TWO
Analyzing Bands and Frequencies
Bandwidth is the range of frequencies for transmitting the information. It also
involves the range of radio frequencies received or sent when the power is
not zero. This RF signal uses a definite range of radio frequencies to carry
data like a series of audio frequency signals. These signals represent the voice
of an operator.
Whenever you are talking into the microphone on the FM transmitter over
your ham radio station, the transmitter releases a range of thousands of hertz
of various frequencies. It is not just that particular frequency value that you
tuned your transceiver.
The value displayed is a reference value known as carrier frequency. The FM
band releases signals that are lower and higher than the carrier frequency
figure by thousands of hertz.
Therefore, the bandwidth is the total range of frequencies released, defined
by the highest frequency value minus the lowest value of frequencies.
However, if you speak louder into the microphone, you will raise the
amplitude of the modulating audio signals. This will cause the FM frequency
deviations from the carrier value to increase, and your transmitter will
generate a larger range of frequencies.
Therefore, if you scream into the mic, the signal will have bigger bandwidth
but if you whisper, the bandwidth is reduced to nothing.
But in circumstances, where you may be screaming too loudly, the
modulating circuit may exceed the regular limits of the FM bandwidth. This
situation may cause distortions in signal. It could lead to interferences in
other channels in the band of the phone.
As a ham radio operator, you can analyze the radio bands and frequencies
using a handheld digital spectrum analyzer. An example of such a device is
called LATNEX Spectrum Analyzer Combo and RF Signal Generator RF-
SG6.

Handheld Analyzer for Ham Radio Stations

What are BandPlans?

BandPlans are voluntary divisions of a band to prevent modes that are not
compatible from interfering with each other. It is also called a frequency plan
or wavelength plan. The plan helps you to use a particular band of radio
frequency. This becomes part of the electromagnetic spectrum.
The plans determine how channels are to be analyzed, and the frequency
ranges to be added. With this, you will be able to ascertain the type of data to
be transmitted on such designated channels.
BandPlans involve numbering schemes that determine the channel letters or
numbers to be assigned. It also stipulates the bandwidth defining how far
each channel will be. These plans determine the procedures for securing
licenses from the regulatory agencies. With this, you will ascertain the type of
content that will be allowed or disallowed for transmission on your radio
station.
However, the approved radio frequency bands are determined by the local
regulatory authorities like FCC, Federal Communications Commission in the
United States of America, and the ITU (International Telecommunication
Union).

The Different Modes

In amateur radio operation, a mode has double variations, which are often
confused together. It could be applied to a unique type of signal modulation
or general radio operation.
But amateurs use different voice, image, data, and text modes of
communication over the radio. New modes could be used but regulatory
authorities need a disclosure of a new mode to allow licensing agencies to
monitor broadcasting.
In ham radio, encryption is not allowed due to satellite vehicle control
uplinks. Some of the lists of communication used include
Morse Code Modes – this is the foremost digital mode. It is formulated for
machine-to-machine interaction. It is the direct on or off keying of a
continuous wave carrier of Morse code symbols. These symbols are usually
regarded as amplitude-shift keying or ASK.
Therefore, ham radio managers can input the code manually with a telegraph
key and use their ears to decode it. They may also use computers to transfer
and receive the code.
Examples include continuous wave, prosigns for Morse code, Modulated
continuous wave, and Frequency shifting continuous wave.
Text and Data Modes – amateurs transmit digital modes by inserting audio
into a radio's microphone input. Then, they use an analog scheme such as
Single-Sideband Modulation (SSB), Frequency Modulation (FM), and
Amplitude Modulation (AM) to effect signals.
Spread Spectrum – this involves analog or digital modes. It is the spreading
of signals over a larger bandwidth.
Analog Voice Modes – Morse symbols were used to design digital
amplitude-shift keying (ASK of radio carriers. Also, radio technology has
evolved different forms of analog modulating waveforms used for radio
carriers when humans' voice signals are captured by sensors of microphones
and used on the carrier waveforms. Examples of analog voice modes include
Phase Modulation, Single-sideband, Amplitude Modulation, Independent
sideband, Frequency Modulation, Compatible Sideband transmission, and
Double-sideband suppressed carrier.
Image Modes – involves sending still images or video. Examples include
Facsimile, amateur television, and slow-scan television.
Digital Voice Modes – before transmission, digital voice modes encode
voice into a stream of data. Examples include D-STAR, DMR, FreeDV,
APCO P25, and System Fusion.
Using AM Modes
AM modes mean Amplitude Modulation, which is the first form of
modulation for bearing sound, especially voice communication over radio
carrier wave. However, it is not as efficient as other forms of modulation.
In AM radio, the signal changes strength or amplitude to integrate the sound
information of the message signal like the audio signal. This method changes
with angle modulation, in which the frequency of the carrier wave varies with
angle modulation. Therefore, the frequency of the carrier wave changes as in
frequency modulation while the phase varies as in phase modulation.
However, the initial form of AM is known as double-sideband amplitude
modulation. This is because the original method generates sidebands on each
side of the carrier frequency. But single-sideband modulation uses bandpass
filters to remove one of the sidebands, including the carrier signal. This
improves the ratio of message power to overall transmission power. Also,
power handling requirements of line repeaters are reduced as it allows proper
application of bandwidth of the transmission medium.
Using FM Modes
The FM mode is known as Frequency Modulation. It is a mode of
broadcasting with various advantages for ham radio operators. FM mode
helps in minimizing variations in signals and noise during transmissions.
With this mode final amplifiers will be run in class C enabling you to achieve
high levels of efficiency.
The FCC has apportioned some frequencies for amateur radio operators. This
set of frequencies begins at the AM radio band at 1.6 MHz and concludes at
1240 MHz. This range comprises two radio frequency bands, which are Ultra
High Frequency (UHF) and Very High Frequency (VHF).
Moreover, you can produce FM modes with direct frequency modulation or
indirect frequency modulation. Direct frequency modulation is established by
feeding messages into the input of a voltage-controlled oscillator. But indirect
frequency modulations could be established if the message signal is added to
produce a phase-modulated signal.

Using Morse Code or CW Mode

Morse code is a ham radio digital mode used in two-way radio transmission.
It was first used in 1844 and relevant in landline telegraph systems. However,
Morse code is much less than it used to be. The lower end of ham radio bands
still applies Morse codes in transmitting signals.
Operators of radio communications continue training their staff on the use of
Morse code in case it is needed as a last option to broadcast messages during
emergencies. But in terms of technology, these days, Morse code has been
superseded due to the upsurge of new technologies.
Morse code uses strings of dashes and dots to denote various numbers, letters
of the alphabet, and notations. If you want to send Morse codes, simply turn a
signal on and off in a way to show the dashes and dots.
If it was a telegraph message, you can use a single wire and earth return. But
turning the transmitted signal on and off is the way to effect radio
transmission.
Morse code involves two factors, which are a dash and a dot. Other
characters include numbers and letters combined to form the codes.

The CW Mode
On the other hand, the CW is used to represent Morse transmissions with
radio signals. CW here stands for Continuous Wave or Carrier Wave. This is
often interrupted but the breaks are caused by Morse characters; if not, there
is no modulation in these modes.
CW is Morse transmission that breaks the carrier to produce the necessary
Morse characters. You may also use the term MCW to represent Modulated
Carrier Wave, although the terms Morse and CW are interchangeable, as you
can quickly send the code CW than Morse.
The Morse code is useful in amateur radio broadcasting. But it can still be
used in aviation for locating directional beacons. The Morse code involves
codes and abbreviations, but beginners in ham radio may find it difficult to
understand and use. However, they can learn these codes easily and quickly.
With this, operators can send short codes instead of long letters. These codes
enable them to interact with other ham radio stations. Morse codes are useful
when there is low signal strength.
 CHAPTER THREE
Introduction to Ragchews
Whenever you are tuning your radio across ham bands, you will hear the
hams engaging in conversations with their contacts. This involves simple
discussions to on-air meetings, and contesting. It also involves recording the
highest number of contacts.
A very common activity carried out by hams involves engaging in
conversations called chewing the rag. This type of contact is known as
Ragchews. It could occur across the town or between continents.
You do not have to know another ham before starting a conversation or
ragchew with them. This is a friendly interaction that makes no class
distinctions. It is super-easy. Just make contact with another ham and begin
chewing the rag – start discussing.
How to Use Nets
Nets are the short form of networks. This involves organized on-air meetings
established for hams with similar and peculiar purposes and interests.
Examples of some nets you may see around you include
1. Emergency Service Networks – In amateur radio broadcasting,
emergency service nets meet most of the time for training and practice. Most
times, if there are emergencies or disasters, these hams meet in these
networks to proffer crucial communications in the affected areas. They
continue communicating with the contacts and affected masses until
normalcy is restored and broken links start working again.
2. ALE Mailboxes and Bulletin Boards – ALE means Automatic Link
Establishment. It shows that a computer system is checking and accessing a
frequency every time in a way others can link up or connect with it. This will
help them to send or receive messages.
Whenever you listen to internet systems, they make contacts and transmit
information in the same order. They use tones to transmit messages instead of
using zeros and ones to represent voltages on wires. Therefore, tourists,
sailors, and other voyagers use amateur radio if there is no internet
connectivity.
3. Col2mark*tabmark Traffic Networks – Text messages and traffic could be
transmitted over the ham radio. This is according to the North American
system of communication. Occasionally, amateur radio operators meet to
exchange information and deliberate on crucial issues daily. They usually
discuss issues relating to health, welfare, social, and emergencies.
4. Swap Networks – Ham radio operators could meet to list commodities for
sale or items they need in a weekly swap net. This happens among the flea
markets and in-person hamfests. This process is controlled and moderated by
a net control station. The business is carried out over the phone if the parties
involved have been contacted.
5. Technical Service Networks – Radio call-in programs could be organized
by amateur radio stations to tackle some problems, especially to help new
hams in setting up their stations. The net control station helps in providing
answers to the issues but another listening ham can also offer solutions to the
issues raised. However, some are made to offer technical assistance to
startups.
What is DXing?
Dx means distance, and DX-ing means distancing. This is one of the major
attractions of ham radio stations, reaching farther distances away from home.
Amateur radio broadcasters compete to make contacts in faraway places and
even to have contacts in every nation. Their zeal is to reach islands and make
friends with foreigners.
If the band is full of foreign accents at the right conditions over a ham radio
station, the aim of DX-ing has been actualized.
There are two types of DX-ing. These include daytime DX-ing and nighttime
DX-ing.

Daytime DX-ing
The ionosphere can absorb signals or reflect it on the horizon, depending on
the hour of the day. But you must account for the fluctuations in the
ionosphere if you are DX-ing.
The high bands are open in the daytime. These include 20 meter bands, 17
meter bands, 15 meter bands, 12 meter bands, and even 10 meter bands.
They promote transmission to distant radio stations.
Before dawn, radio signals are released from the east, starting with 20 meters
and increased to higher bands after a few hours. But at dusk, the radio signals
delay in the south and west for many hours as the highest frequency bands
close in reverse order.
Daytime DX-ers operate using the MUF - Maximum Useable Frequency.
This is the highest signal shown or reflected by the ionosphere. The
reflections are at a low angle and moves over the long distance at a single
reflection. A reflection is known as a hop with the highest signal strength.
Nighttime DX-ing
Nighttime DX-ing is called low bands and ranges from 30 meters, which
shows a reduction in frequency. Other nighttime bands include 40 meters, 60
meters, 80 meters, and 160 meters. During daytime hours, these bands are
absorbed in the bottom layers of the ionosphere. The bands come alive when
the sun begins to set.
The first nighttime bands of 30 meters, 40 meters, 50 meters, and 60 meters
begin to come alive in the late afternoon. They remain open somehow after
sunrise at 80 meters and 160 meters. During dawn and dusk hours, there is a
fairly rapid transition.
There is a short peak in signal strength among radio stations in the
easternmost parts closer to sunrise at about fifteen to thirty minutes. This
period is regarded as dawn enhancement and suitable for ham radio stations
with good equipment to be on air transmitting messages. Therefore, they take
advantage of the stronger signals on these difficult long range bands.
The longest wavelength of any ham radio is 160 meters band, which is
regarded as a top band. This long wavelength needs large antennas.
Therefore, professional DX-ers prefer top band DX-ing.
How to Manage Contests in Ham
Contest management in ham radio broadcasting involves making as many
contacts as possible. This could be seen in amateur radio’s version of rugby.
They can make thousands of contacts during the contest by transmitting and
receiving short messages.
The exchange in communication is based on the purpose of the contest. This
could be to contact everyone or contact a particular area using a typical band
and locating a unique ham radio station.

Receiving Awards
In addition to contests, various special-event stations and awards are provided
for distinguished achievements and accomplishments. These awards could be
on contacting different states or nations. An example of an award for
excellence was given to a radio station called W4B in 2003. This was done in
Kitty Hawk, North Carolina during the centennial first flight of the Wright
Brothers. The station was set up to operate during this event.
 CHAPTER FOUR
Managing Radio Operations
Before you can operate a ham radio station, you need to get a license from
the regulating bodies such as the Federal Communication Commission (FCC)
for hams based in the United States of America.
In ham parlance, it is known as “getting your ticket. If you want to get
certified, you need to pay some amount of money and write an exam. You
can get a site that can test your knowledge and skills before you obtain the
certificate through the Amateur Radio Relay League (ARRL).
How to Begin a Conversation
If you want to start conversation on a ham radio, you must know how to
initiate a conversation. Talking to a person on your radio is called a contact.
Another word for it is QSO. At first time, it can be scary but when you add a
few contacts and start conversation with them, it becomes enjoyable. Then,
you will want to add more people.
You can create a QSO using voice communications (phone), teletype (data or
RTTY), and Morse code (CW). But before you begin a conversation, here are
some necessary requirements to put in place:
a. The license – get licensed to manage amateur radio frequencies, although
it needs some learning processes and a basic knowledge of the operations.
Purchase study materials and learn online.
Types of licenses include Technician license, General license, and Extra
license. But you need a technician license to operate a range of frequencies.
b. The Equipment- you need an array of equipment that can handle your
transmissions such as an antenna, transceiver, key or microphone, antenna
tuner, and a source of power.
c. The QSO – this involves switching on your radio to locate an available
frequency. Tune your antenna tuner close to 1:1. Then, you check if an
operator is using the frequency.
To check if someone is using a frequency, send QRL indicating “Is this
frequency available?”If you are using voice, say “This is Your Callsign” Is
this frequency in use? Ask two times; if you get a response, move on to
another frequency. Continue trying this until you get no response. Then, you
can start your conversation there.
Also, if you are using CW mode, place a call to an available ham by sending
“CQ.” After sending it, another amateur radio operator will hear and answer.
The call sign will be like this: CQ, CQ, CQ, DE (Your callsign) (Your
callsign) K. This “K” stands for “Back to you.”

How to Extend your Range with Repeaters

Extending your range with repeaters incorporates a two-way radio range that
could be affected by a number of factors such as weather elements, indoor
use, outdoor use, and terrain. Determining the outcome of a two-way radio
range is difficult since it can be affected by many factors. It can easily range
from five miles to twenty miles or even more distances.
Here are the various ways to improve and extend your range with repeaters:
1. Use a repeater – Easily extend your range with signal repeaters. A typical
repeater can receive and send signals from your radio using great power.
First, respondents use repeaters to improve and extend the network coverage
of their two-way communication equipment. However, if you want to get the
best result, install signal repeaters on a tower or a high building.
2. Extend your antenna – with large antennas, you can extend and improve
the range of a two-way radio. You can connect radios inside cars to large
antennas to enhance their ranges and stop interferences from limiting ranges.
To improve range, most persons prefer to buy ham radios with large-size
antennas. This has been proven to boost range and signal strength. You will
also keep your radio where it can receive the best signal. But to ensure that
you maintain a suitable range, move to a high area such as hills, towers, or
high buildings and use your ham radio at that height.
3. Use good batteries to enhance the strength of your signals – the batteries
of ham radios can deplete slowly than the batteries of your mobile devices.
Overtime, they may lose strength, and low battery can affect the signal
strength. You can use a power tester to determine the level of energy in your
radio batteries.
Using Operating Simplex
When amateur radio stations use the word simplex operation, it means that
they are communicating directly on the same frequency. In this case, both
stations receive messages and respond to each other in turns. There is no
other device or repeater in between them.
This operation could be simplex, duplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex.
Duplex operation involves a situation whereby a radio station transmits on a
frequency and receives on another frequency. Also, half-duplex is when the
radio station operates duplex but changes from sending to receiving. Another
operation is the full-duplex, whereby the ham radio operator can send
messages out and receive at the same time.
Most times, simplex and duplex operations are about FM transmissions on
the Very High Frequency (VHF) band and Ultra High Frequency (UHF)
band. Therefore, simplex operation occurs when you are conversing with one
ham directly on one frequency with no repeater involved.
Handling Emergency
Emergencies are different in nature due to the forces of occurrence.
Therefore, there is no systematic procedure for operating a ham radio. But
you can follow these principles to transmit messages during an emergency:
a. Before responding to an emergency as an emcomm volunteer (emergency
communications volunteer), ensure that you and your family are safe.
b. Check and assess your primary emergency frequencies.
c. Respond to the instructions or guidelines given to you by the other
emergency official or the net control on the frequency.
d. If you are requested to check-in, simply check-in.
e. To get further instructions, contact your designee or local emergency
transmission leader.
During emergency situations, here are ways to make a distress call on a ham
radio:
a. Send SOS, which is a Morse code signal for emergencies.
b. Also, to get a fast response during an emergency, say “Mayday.” It could
just be “Mayday, this is Ken”
c. Then, proceed by the address of the situation or emergency. State the
location, including latitude and longitude.
d. Also, state the nature of the emergency and situation.
e. State the type of aid you need, such as transportation aid, food aid, medical
aid, etc.
f. Continue repeating your distress signal or call sign for some minutes
until you get a response.
g. In most cases, you may not get an answer immediately, but someone will
definitely hear you.
h. You can also try other frequencies for a possible response.
i. When you are changing frequencies, announce the frequency you are
changing to, so your followers can switch over to the new one.
However, if you get a distress signal on the air, follow these steps to respond:
a. Register the frequency and time of the call.
b. Then, respond to the call.
c. Make statements such as: “The call sign of the radio station,” “This is
your call sign” I heard your distress call. What is the emergency over there?
d. After this, record the following information about the situation: the address
or location of the emergency, the nature of emergency, the type of assistance
that is required, such as medical aid, food aid, clothing, or transportation aid.
Then, ask for any other information that could help the responders.
e. Request that the radio station in distress should maintain the frequency. It
should not be changed.
f. Call 911 or any other public emergency number including other public
agencies.
g. If you get a response from them, tell them that you are a ham radio
operator and that you got a distress call. The dispatcher may request for more
information or transfer you to the right agency that can handle the issue.
h. Follow the guidelines of the dispatcher meticulously. In most cases, you
can act as a relay to the station in an emergency situation.
i. Send feedback to the person or station in an emergency.
j. Remain on the frequency since the persons in distress, or the agencies
may need your help.

Operating Satellites
A ham radio station can function with a satellite built by amateur operators.
This is an artificial satellite integrated into the Amateur satellite service. It
uses amateur radio frequency allocations to enhance interaction between ham
radio stations.
These ham radio satellites got a designation tagged OSCAR meaning
Orbiting Satellite Carrying Amateur Radio. This term is given by an agency
that promotes the development and establishment of amateur radio satellites.
Therefore, these satellites used for ham radio stations are known as OSCARs.
If you are a licensed ham radio operator, you can use these satellites free of
charge for voice such as SSB and FM, including data communications such
as APRS, A.225, and packet radio. According to a recent record, more than
eighteen ham radio satellites are fully in operations.
How to Use Computers
 A Computer Monitor
If you want to set up your amateur radio station, you need a computer, radio,
and an interface to connect both devices.
Now, before using a radio to setup your ham broadcasting service, you
should consider the switching speed and frequency stability of the radio. Any
digital device must maintain frequency stability.
Also, some radios are made with digital modes as some have data port or
accessory port. You can connect an interface to the data ports. These ports are
designed with pins for keying, transmitting and receiving audio signals. Due
to the volume setting of the radio, the audio pins do not change.
But if there is no data ports or accessory ports, microphone and audio out can
be used. Also, audio cables between your computer and radio can send and
receive audio signals. However, these won’t key the radio CAT ports. It helps
to update memory, change frequency, change settings in the radio, and other
functionalities.
Another way to configure the system is using the soundcard for audio in or
out to the audio out or mic-in on the radio. A different cable between the
computer and radio offers CAT commands through a computer port. Again,
using an all-in-one interface solutions make the connection between the
computer and radio easy and possible.

How to Clean Up the Signal

You can decide to clean up your signal if there are interferences on the
network. This could be due to overlaps of communication on the frequency.
However, some of the major causes of interference include
a. Much listeners accessing and hooking up to your radio frequency.
b. No license for operations.
c. Poor installation of equipment.
d. Electric fences with broken insulators.
e. Vulnerability to natural electro-magnetic interferences.
f. Interference from domestic or industrial machines.
Here are the ways to clean up the signal from interferences
1. Use your amateur radio license to prevent overlap of frequencies.
Licensing helps regulators to distribute frequencies safely over certain
locations at different intervals. This helps in reducing interferences.
2. Ensure that the antenna of your ham radio station is connected to the radio
properly. Also, check the type of antenna and its position on the device.
3. The coaxial connectors including cables should be compatible with the
type of radio and the frequencies.
4. Maintaining your electric fences can help in keeping away disturbances or
interferences during radio communications.
5. Use double-screened cables, isolators, filters, and other parts if you want
to co-site with other ham radio operators. This will cleanse and purify your
transmitter spectrum and enhance its performance.
6. Minimize congestion on the radio frequency. If too many people are
accessing your radio frequency regularly, this could cause inconveniences in
your transmission making some of your messages unclear and inaudible. This
may be caused by the weather and landscape of your vicinity.
7. Reduce electromagnetic disturbance leading to interferences in your radio
broadcasting. They are caused by electromagnetic emissions on the spectrum
of your radio frequencies. It could terminate your radio communications.
8. Ensure a safe distance from household machines and electrical equipment.
These gadgets could cause unnecessary noise during your transmissions.
These equipment include sewing machines, furnace fans, AC motors, and
vacuum cleaners. Others include computers and game consoles, televisions,
and cable TV, electric switches, speed controllers, or dimmers.

Radio Design
If you want to set up a ham radio station, you need to mark out a place for the
equipment. A room designated for amateur radio was called a ham radio
shack. An amateur radio room may contain some important items such as
receivers, transmitters, and other necessary things.
Things to Consider while Designing a Ham Radio Station
1. Create enough access for the antenna feeders.
2. Make enough provision for the mains power.
3. Ensure the room is not too hot in summer or too cold in winter.
4. Provide adequate security for the equipment.
5. Create enough space for constructions.
6. The space designed for your amateur radio station, even if it is the corner
of a room should be convenient to use at all times.

After creating a suitable space for your ham radio, here are some necessary
equipment to consider buying:
a. QRP Instrument – used for low power operation and for building your own
facility. It is a basic necessity, since it uses Morse code for operation.
b. Ancillary Equipment for the Station – these include antenna switches for
handling various antennas. Others include VSWR meters that monitor the
function of antennas including power supplies to power different rigs used for
this construction.
c. HF Transceivers – Various HF equipment are available. These help in
maintaining frequencies ranging from 1.8 MHz to 50 MHz. It covers the
lower part of the VHF spectrum.
d. Ultra High Frequency (UHF) / Very High Frequency (VHF) Equipment –
you may opt for mobile or handheld transceivers. These equipment are
designed for FM, since the operation is portable, mobile, and suitable for
Frequency Modulation.
 CHAPTER FIVE
Introduction to Electronic Theory
In basic terms, electronics is the aspect of science that deals with the
movement of electrons through a specially formulated network of passive and
active devices to give you an expected result. This involves an
interconnection of carefully selected electronic components that forms an
electric circuit.
These electronic components are active and passive in behavior. These active
components play active parts in optimizing the movement of electrons within
them according to their specifications. These could be seen in devices such as
transistors, SCR, Triac, LED, IC, and diode. Also, the passive components
constitute chemical electrolytes such as carbon that integrate with the active
elements and complement them properly. Examples of passive components
include capacitors, inductors, resistors, etc. These respective components
play crucial parts in the formation of an electronic circuit.
Examples of some electronic components include
1. LED – used as indicators for lighting purposes, since they can emit rays of
light.
2. Transistors – designed for increasing small electrical signals and purposes
of switching.
3. Capacitors – a passive electronic device used in electronic circuits. It is
designed for blocking direct current and permitting alternating current.
4. Diode – a two terminal component identified by a ring or band at one ends
is a diode. It permits a positive voltage to go through its anode to the cathode
and block the other point. It is useful for converting alternating current (AC)
to direct current (DC).
5. Resistors - used for blocking or resisting the flow of current through
semiconductor devices sensitive to high currents.
What is Ohm’s Law?
Ohm's law defines the interaction between electric current and potential
difference. It explains that the current flowing through most conductors is
directly proportional to the voltage applied to it. The person that verified
Ohm’s law experimentally was Georg Simon Ohm, a German physicist. This
is one of the primary laws of electric circuits.
Therefore, Ohm’s law states that “the voltage across a conductor is directly
proportional to the current flowing through it, provided all physical
conditions and temperature remain constant.”
This statement could be mathematically represented as:
V = IR
R stands for Resistance with units of ohms
V stands for Voltage
I stand for the current flowing through the conductor.
Ohm’s law is applied to verify the static values of circuit components such as
voltage drops, current levels, and voltage supplies.
Analyzing Ohms, Amperes, and Volts
Ohms is the unit of resistance ( R) and it is the property in a material that
restricts the flow of current. Also, Amperes is used in measuring current,
which is the flow of electricity through an object like wire. Then, volt is a
unit for measuring voltage, which is the electrical pressure or driving force
behind the flow of current. Voltage is also known as electromotive force or
the potential difference.
Moving Decimals
Moving decimals in radio frequencies will definitely take you to a different
radio station. For example, if you are tuned in to a ham radio station with a
frequency of 6294.6 kHz and for any reason you tune in to 629.24 kHz, you
will be directed to another radio station.
Using Decibels
Decibels are units used for determining the performance of antennas and
radio signals. It is represented with a dB. In simple terms, deci stands for one-
tenth while –bel is used for denoting levels of sound. This is coined from the
name of Alexander Graham Bell.
Therefore a decibel is 1/10 th of a bell. Decibels are common in wireless
communications. They are used to show signals without using notations
including several zeroes. If you can understand the dee-bee, you will easily
know your radio signals including the systems or networks that generated
them.
In radio station transmitters, spurious emissions could cause interferences
that will bring distortions if the transmitted signal is produced by mistake and
is higher than 26dB. Also, if the transmitter is over-modulated, it will cause
additional sidebands to be displayed on both sides.
How to Prepare for the Hams Exam
If you are willing to pass your radio licensing tests, here are ways to prepare
for the exam:
a. Believe that the exam is easy and invest your time in studies.
b. Challenge yourself to study harder.
c. Focus on your studies and learn to pass the tests for your license.
d. Answer all the questions if you want to get a good score. But if you don’t
have enough time, you can skip Math questions.
e. On the choose topics screen, enable all the topics but limit a study session
to a particular subject.
f. Adjust the Repetition delay on the My Options screen.
g. During every VE session, take multiple exams in a session.
Using an Effective Study Plan
Develop an effective study plan for yourself. You can use HamRadioPrep’s
free online study plan and even participate in their test session.
Other ways to have a great study plan include:
1. Setting aside the necessary time for your studies. Schedule the time daily
or weekly and concentrate during studies.
2. Be consistent with your scheduled study plans.
3. Engage in amateur radio test sessions in your area.
4. Learn the material and know all the information you need to succeed in
your exams.
5. Again, you can concentrate on the relevant details that can help you to
pass your licensing tests.
6. Join Ham Radio clubs in your area. They offer ham radio classes once or
two times every year. Radio clubs have curriculums they use in the classroom
that are loaded with building kits, soldering, and how to operate radio
equipment.
7. You can cram necessary tips that can help you to excel in your exams.
How to Find a Useful Material for Study
If you want to find a useful material to study, you can obtain such from
online sources such as HamTestOnline™. These platforms can also organize
these tests for you, but you need to participate in an exam session organized
by a Volunteer Examiner team.
These organizers use Zoom and other online communication tools for testing
their candidates. Another way is through in-person testing.
How to Discover the Right Classes for Licensing
If you want to obtain a license for your amateur radio operation, you need to
undergo some tutorials. These lessons are divided into three classes, which
are the Technician class, General class, and Extra class. These are the right
classes that can prepare a radio enthusiast to obtain a license for operation.
Here are the license classes and the benefits of passing the exams.
a. The Technician class – Receives all the benefits of those in amateur classes
above 50 MHz. The operator also receives limited CW, phone, and data
privileges under 30 MHz.
b. The General class – operators in this class receive the benefits of those in
Technician class plus some amateur High-Frequency benefits. The General
class exams have thirty-five questions. You only need to pass twenty-six
questions to get your license.
c. The Amateur class – receives the benefits of amateur operators with
added sub-bands on 15 m, 20 m, 40 m, and 80 m. They operate at the lowest
segments of High-frequency bands. This class has fifty multiple-choice
questions, and you need to answer thirty-seven correctly to pass and get your
license.
However, it is advisable for all hams to begin their licensing classes from the
Technician class. This will give them all the benefits of the three ham bands.
They will be given access to all the bands having frequencies of 50 MHz and
above. The benefits include operating at the highest legal power. Also, they
can use different means of communication in broadcasting.
 CHAPTER SIX
What is a Volunteer Licensing System?
Volunteer licensing system is organized by the Federal Communications
Commission for Volunteer Examiner Coordinators. Prospective new ham
radio operators consult them to get the radio license for their operations. If
you already have the initial license from the regulators, which is the
technician license, they will organize exam sessions for you to be upgraded.
The FCC has authorized VEC agencies to supervise the activities of
Volunteer Examiners. They work as middlemen between the FCC and
applicants.
Using the Volunteer Examiner Coordinator
Volunteer Examiner Coordinators for amateur radio service support the
efforts of Volunteer Examiners while preparing and handling exam sessions
for ham radio service operator license examinations. They help in screening
the data of applicants. Settle disputes and other issues arising from the
sessions. They also send all applicants’ data electronically to the Federal
Communications Commission for ratifying, issuing licenses, and offering
radio frequencies to successful candidates.
How to Find a Test Session
You can find a test session at HamTestOnline™. But they don’t handle the
amateur ham radio exams. The Volunteer Examiner Team will be handy to
take you through the exam sessions if you want to obtain a higher license.
They may be located in your neighborhood and you don’t have to travel far
before realizing your dreams. You can be tutored online.

How to Sign Up for a Test

Signing up for the ham radio lessons online does not enable you to write the
amateur radio exams. You have to attend classes physically and write the
tests with your pen and paper. But if you register online for radio licensing
exams, you should attend the exam sessions organized by a VE – Volunteer
Examiner team. Most times, these sessions are conducted over the internet.
You don’t have to travel far before you engage in the classes.

Engaging in Public and Private Exams

If you want to engage in public and private exams as a ham radio operator, it
will open you up to a world of possibilities and endless discovery and
friendship. The ham radio club is a community of radio enthusiasts and
hobbyists that want to create fun and entertainment with their families and
friends on the go.
Concerning ham radio operations, there are only three exams an enthusiast
can take. As I said earlier, you have the Technician Class License Exam,
General Class License Exam, and Amateur Extra Class License Exam. These
exams are made for public and private individuals that want to exploit the
opportunities in ham radio operations.
If a person fails the technician exam, he can retake the two higher grade
exams. But if he fails the General Class Exam, he will take the Extra Class
Exam.
 CHAPTER SEVEN
How to go through the Licensing Process
Before you can get a radio license for your amateur station as an enthusiast,
you must pass the licensing exam. You are expected to enroll for the exams
with Volunteer Examiners. They are supported and supervised by Volunteer
Examiner Coordinators appointed by the FCC for regulating the activities of
the examiners.
They file the results with the FCC. This process facilitates quick issuance of
call signs by the authorities compared to when the Federal Communications
Commission managed all the processes of testing and licensing together by
themselves.

How to Understand Call Signs

Amateur radio operators all over the world are allocated with call signs. This
serves as a legal means of identification for ham radio operators and their
stations. Some nations prefer calling it an operator call sign while others call
it a station call sign.
Amateur radio stations receive call signs beginning with all the letters of the
alphabet such as A, K, N, and W. Prefixes starting with A are used for United
States Army stations, but others beginning with N are used for United States
Navy stations.

How to Obtain your License

There are three licenses every intending ham radio operator should have by
sitting and writing the licensing exams. To get your ham radio technician
license, you need to answer and pass thirty-five questions based on radio
theory, practices, and regulations.
With this license, you can have access to all Amateur radio frequencies that is
over 30 megahertz. Therefore, each operator can broadcast locally and
internationally.
Ways to Complete your Documentation or Paperwork
Completing the paperwork or your documentation involves studying and
writing your exams. The Volunteer Examiners will send all your papers and
documents to the FCC for documentation before you will be given a license
to operate.
When your documents are sent to the regulatory authorities, you will be given
a Federal Registration Number (FRN). Then, you will get a new call sign
when your documents are completed and you have been your license.
The Federal Communications Commission has a database for aspiring
licensees. The database is called the Universal Licensing System (ULS).
Every applicant with a license has an FRN – Federal Registration Number.
This number serves as a source of identification in the database of the
agency.
How to Locate your New Call Sign
After taking the radio license exam to upgrade the license, you already have
your call sign. However, it is necessary that you should change it temporarily.
As a new operator with a new license, simply navigate the database of the
Federal Communication Commission to get your new call sign. This is
usually displayed on the site if you have completed your exams successfully,
and the papers are forwarded to the FCC for documentation.
The FCC has a database for applicants called the Universal Licensing System
(ULS). Every applicant with a license has an FRN – Federal Registration
Number. This number serves as a source of identification in the database of
the agency.
Here are ways to locate your new call sign easily.
a. Navigate to the ULS System and log in.
b. Go to the search section, and tap on the Licenses button.
c. Tap on the Amateur link in the Service Specific Search column in the
middle of the page.
d. Scroll to the Licensee menu and type in your last name including the zip
code in the necessary boxes.
e. Visit the lower right side and tap the Search button.
f. After entering all these details, it may take a few seconds for your request
to be processed. Then, the search result will be displayed.
g. Now, you can browse the result page if there is more than one page.
How to Register Online with the FCC
If you want to get the FCC registration number online, visit CORES, the
Commission’s Registration System. Then, tap on the Register button.
Specify if the registration number is for an individual or business. Then, state
if the contact is within the United States. Tap on Continue. Enter the
registration information and tap on Submit.
Getting FCC Radio Station License
Log in to the ULS Online filing and type in your Federal Communications
Commission registration number (FRN). Then, input your password. Go to
the left side of the screen and tap Apply for a New License.
Scroll to the popup menu and choose the Radio Service for the new license.
Then, click on Continue to access the application.
 CHAPTER EIGHT
Using the Privileges of General Class Frequency in Ham Radio
As I said earlier, the first class exam to be taken by intending radio operators
is the Technician Class exam. But you can upgrade to the General Class
license by taking the exams. And this gives you the privileges of the General
Class frequency in ham radio operations.
These include the data expressed in this table.

S/N Band Frequencies Mode

1. 160 m, 60 m, and All the privileges of Amateur

30 m operator

2. 80 m 3.525 CW,
– RTTY, Data
3.600 CW, Phone, Image
3.800 – 4.000

3. 40 m 7.25 CW, RTTY, Data

– CW, Phone, Image
7.125
7.175 – 7.300

4. 20 m 14.025 – CW, RTTY, Data

14.150 CW, Phone, Image
14.225 –
14.350

5. 15 m 21.025 – CW, RTTY, Data

21.200 CW, Phone, Image
21.275 –
21.450
 6. 17, 12, 10 m All Amateur privileges

7. 50 MHz and above All Amateur Privileges

From the table above, these codes CW represent Morse code while RTTY
represent radioteletype.
The Basics of Radio Waves
Radio waves are a form of electromagnetic waves, which is a type of energy
waves. They have both magnetic field and electric field. These waves vary
from mechanical waves since they can release energy and flow through a
vacuum.
Among all the electromagnetic waves, radio waves contain the longest
wavelengths. They are measured from a foot long to various miles long.
They are used for transmitting data and are valuable for different sorts of
application such as computer networks, radar, radio, and satellites.
What is Radio Spectrum?
Radio spectrum is a set of frequencies beginning at the AM radio band at 1.6
MHz. It also ends at 1240 MHz. The range involves two radio frequency
bands such as Ultra High Frequency band (UHF) and Very High-Frequency
band (VHF). These frequencies are allocated to amateur radio operators after
they have successfully passed their licensing exams and got their registration
numbers and licenses.
The Necessary Radio Gadgetry
Setting up a ham radio could be done using the following gadgets:
a. Antenna – this can send out signal in every direction making it
omnidirectional. It could also be directional, when it sends signals to a single
path. Some radio operators can have antennas installed on their cars to get
signals on the go.
b. Receivers –enables you to listen to various bands. It comes in desktop or
handheld designs. Some have a memory module enabling you to save your
favorite frequencies.
c. Transceivers – this involves a receiver and transmitter designed in a box.
It is available as single band and two-meter models. There are dual band
transceivers and tri-band transceivers, which you may need if you decide to
upgrade your broadcasting license.
Feedlines and Filter Gadgetry
Feedlines are used to connect the antenna to the transmitter. Depending on
the quality of cables, your feedline can lose an amount of transmitter output
including received signals. New feedlines are recommended for your ham
radio station.
Connectors are needed for the ends of feedlines. They can handle various
levels of power. Some feedlines are waterproof making them suitable for
outdoor projects.
Filters applied for radio frequencies are designed to allow or prevent selected
frequencies or signals. This will help to reduce or remove noise from the
system. If you want to remove filters exclusively, choose from the exclusive
selection of FR filters produced by reputable companies.

Accessing Ham Radio on Air

You can access your ham radio on the air like never before. High-quality
research, engineering, and planning have been carried out to provide
operators with quick accessibility to stations all over the world.
Amateur operators must have a call sign starting with K, N, and W. It could
also begin with AA or AL. Again, all the radio licenses issued by FCC are
acceptable by the authorities for the issuance of frequency bands.
You can use ham radio for on-air meetings. In this case, ham operators may
send and receive messages using a computer and transceivers. These
components are connected to VPNs and used on–air.
What are Filters?
An electric circuit enabling some frequencies to pass through but restricts
other unnecessary frequencies or attenuates is called a filter. There are four
types of filters such as bandstop, bandpass, highpass, and lowpass
Bandstop Filters
These filters are designed to stop specific bands and permit others over and
under to pass.

Bandpass Filters
Bandpass filters permit the transmission of a certain band of frequencies but
restrict all the other ones over and under.
Highpass Filters
This allows the transmission of high-frequencies and restricts the
transmission of frequencies below the stipulated frequency.

Lowpass Filters
A filter designed to pass low-frequency signals and restrict those over a
certain frequency is called low pass filter. It is used in amateur radio station
setup to block the harmonics of Very High Frequencies. It is also used for
restricting High Frequency transmissions interfering with television
reception.
 CHAPTER NINE
Understanding Ionosphere

The ionosphere
The ionosphere is the region forming a boundary or bridge separating the
earth’s atmosphere. It is the region where the space and lower atmosphere of
the earth, where human’s live and breathe meet. Therefore, the ionized part of
the earth’s atmosphere is called ionosphere.
Furthermore, when ultraviolet rays of the sun collide with atoms in this
region, it causes the electrons to be loose. This situation produces ions and
atoms without electrons. This electromagnetic condition gives birth to the
term ionosphere. It is a region with a large concentration of ions under the
earth’s surface. These free electrons cause the absorption and reflection of
radio signals.
The ionosphere covers more meteorological areas. It covers the
thermosphere including the mesosphere. In the ionosphere, ionization is
produced by radiation from the sun. At high temperatures and low pressures,
the gases in the upper part of the atmosphere exist only in monatomic form.
How Ionosphere Absorbs Radio Signals
The ionosphere is the ionized part of the earth’s atmosphere. In this case,
ultraviolet light from the sun collides with the atoms in the region. Therefore,
they break the electrons loose giving the ionosphere its name. These free
electrons cause the reflection and absorption of radio signals.
The ionospheric regions absorb and dampen radio signals. They also bend
radio waves by reflecting the signals. Another factor that could trigger this
effect is the attributes of the ionospheric regions involved and the frequency
of the radio signals.
The Ways Sunspots Affects Radio Propagation
Sunspots affect radio propagation by disturbing the ionosphere, which is a
layer of the atmosphere. The ionosphere is loaded with electrified layers of
ions. Therefore, if the surface of the sun is covered with sunspots, it has a
positive effect on radio propagation in High Frequency bands.
If sunspots increase radiation will increase leading to greater ionization in the
ionosphere. This affects the propagation of High Frequency bands. Therefore,
the maximum frequencies that are reflected will increase greatly.
Having more sunspots on the surface of the sun will ultimately lead to solar
flares increasing the geomagnetic storm activity experienced on the earth.
With this reaching a dreaded maximum, the earth will encounter an increase
in the Northern and Southern lights. This feature causes a disruption of power
grids and especially, radio transmissions.
Therefore, radio waves like light waves are influenced by diffraction,
reflection, refraction, polarization, scattering, and absorption of radio signals
by ionospheric factors.

Analyzing Sunspots
Radio signals, which are forms of electromagnetic waves, interact with
objects as the move in the atmosphere. During this movement, the signals
could be reflected, diffracted, or refracted. With these interactions, the radio
signals are bound to change directions getting to areas that are not ordinarily
possible assuming they were flowing in a straight line.
The state of the ionosphere influences all forms of radio communications
such as maritime mobile radio broadcasts, two-way radio broadcasts, ham
radio broadcasts, and commercial radio transmissions. The reason is that
high-frequency bands and ionospheric radio propagation rely so much on the
state of the ionosphere.
Research has proved that the number of sunspots on the sun affect the degree
of radiation released on the ionosphere, which in turn influences the
ionosphere.
Therefore, sunspots are cool areas viewed on the surface of the sun. The
temperature of sunspots on the sun’s surface is 3000 degrees Celsius
compared to other surfaces that may have 6000 degrees Celsius. Sunspots can
remain visible for hours or weeks.
There is a great magnetic activity in these areas and it disrupts and disfigures
the face of the sun. There is a feature called a plage around the sunspot. It is
brighter compared to other areas and known for radiating x-rays, cosmic rays,
and ultra-violet rays. The plage contributes immensely to the radiation
experienced on the earth.
What is Critical Frequency?
The greatest magnitude of frequency on which the waves penetrate the
atmosphere and below which they are reflected back from the ionosphere
during transmission is known as critical frequency. It depends on the
electronic density of the atmosphere and its symbol is (fc).

If the frequency increases, it gets to a point that the signal will cross the layer
into the second on and onto the outer space. This frequency causing this
occurrence is known as critical frequency.
But when the frequency is higher than the critical frequency, the two most
vertical rays pass into space. The next double rays encounter refraction in the
F layer showing that the frequency of the signal is lower than the MUF for
these angles, although it is greater than the E layer.
How to Use Optimum Working frequency
Using an optimum working frequency depends on the ionosphere for
reflection since the propagation of radio waves is influenced by changes in
the ionosphere. The best approach for the time of the day is that the higher
frequencies (HF) are optimum during the daylight. That is between 10 MHz
to 29.9999 MHz. In addition, the optimum working frequencies for lower
frequencies is at night between 2 MHz to 10 MHz.
However, long distance broadcasts occur due to ionization of the F layer. The
most useful radio bands in the High Frequency for long-range
communications are 3.5 MHz, 7 MHz, and 21 MHz respectively.
Using LUF, MUF, and Critical Frequency
If you want to use the lowest usable high frequency (LUF) on your ham radio
for broadcasting, you should know that it is the frequency in the High-
frequency band at which the intensity of the received field is enough to offer
the necessary signal-to-noise ratio for a particular period.
Also, the maximum usable frequency (MUF) is the greatest radio frequency
used for transmission between two points through a reflection from the
ionosphere within a given time. This does not affect the power of the
transmitter.
While the critical frequency (fc) is the greatest magnitude of frequency on
which the waves penetrate the atmosphere and under which the waves are
reflected back from the ionosphere is the critical frequency. This symbol for
critical frequency is fc and it is based on the electronic density of the
ionosphere. Also, its value is not fixed.
Lowest Usable Frequency (LUF)
In radio transmission, the lowest usable frequency (LUF) is the frequency in
the High Frequency band at which the received field intensity is enough to
offer the necessary signal-to-noise ratio for a particular period. This could
mean that for some days of the month with no disturbance, you may have
0500 to 0600 UTC on 80 percent.
In the same vein, if your signal is lower than the lowest usable frequency, the
signal is totally absorbed by the ionosphere. It does not reflect the signal back
to the earth and the signal will be overtaken by noise in the atmosphere.
However, the greatest magnitude of frequency over which the waves
penetrate the ionosphere and under which the waves reflect back from the
ionosphere is the critical frequency. This is represented as fc, but depends on
the electronic density of the ionosphere.
Critical frequency is based on the electron density of the ionosphere. Also, its
value is not fixed.
Maximum Usable Frequency (MUF)
Despite the power of your transmitter, maximum usable frequency (MUF) in
radio transmission is the greatest radio frequency that can be applied between
two points through reflection from the skywave or ionosphere within a
specific time.
But if your signal is lower than the lowest usable frequency, the ionosphere
attenuates or absorbs the signal instead of reflecting the signal back to the
earth. In this way, the signal will be swallowed up by the noise in the
atmosphere.
The ionosphere reflects some frequencies of radio waves. This will cause the
waves to bounce between the ground and ionosphere and move through the
planet. The ionization of the atmosphere changes with solar conditions,
seasons, and time of the day. This feature makes it possible to get some radio
stations clearer at night since the reflection qualities of the ionosphere are
stronger at night.
 CHAPTER TEN
How to Maintain your Station
Regular and routine maintenance of your amateur radio station will help to
keep your equipment safe, secured, and useful for a long time.
Here are different ways to engage in a routine maintenance of your radio
station:
a. Keep a station notebook for routine maintenance. Open the notebook and
jot down information such as whenever you wire equipment, add a new
gadget to the station, detect problems with the system, and fix any problems.
b. Update the notebook with new additions or issues cropping up in the
station regularly.
c. Set a little time to monitor, test, and check all the installations and
equipment.
d. Get to the system and check everything happening between the amateur
operator and the cables, ropes, masts, wires, power supplies, and the
ionosphere.
e. Inspect all RF cables, switches, grounds, and connectors. Always keep
contacts clean by rotating switches or cycle relays. Access damages or kinks
to feedlines.
f. Check transmitters and amplifiers for full power output on all your
bands. These include antennas, RF cables, keying lines, microphones, control
signals, etc.
g. Examine levels of received noise on all bands to know if they are too low
or high.
h. Vacuum and clean the operating table and other equipment for dust and
debris.
i. Assess standing wave ratio (SWR) on all antennas. Monitor changes in the
frequency of minimum standing wave ratio. Any variance in the frequency is
an indication that water is getting into the feedline connectors or antenna.
This will pose a connection problem in the system.
j. Use a pair of binoculars to check the antennas and outside feedlines.
Check for loose connections, open tapes, twists, ties, and cable jackets to fix
connection problems.
k. Form the habit of inspecting ropes and guy wires.
l. Trash loose papers and magazines to keep your surroundings tidy.
m. Examine antenna mounts, masts, and towers. Check tower and clamp bolts
with a wrench.
n. Use cold galvanizing spray paint to tackle rusts.
o. Create a checklist for routine maintenance.
How to Repair and Build Equipment
If you want to repair and build equipment for your ham radio station, here are
some tips to practice and follow:
a. Maintain flexibility while handling the equipment. Avoid the habit of using
a specialized instrument in repairing your gadgets.
b. Use software or computers to handle some digital modes.
c. Create a budget for exigencies.
d. Use bonding and grounding for the equipment layout. This is one of the
first things to do before proceeding with installations. It will give you room
to change the layout later.
e. Be ready to modify the layout to accommodate new features that could
come up.
f. Learn about other stations. How their structures are designed and
equipment arranged.
After the step above, learn about some additional functions on your device.
These include
1. Adjustable Filters – You can adjust your filters using DSP. They are easily
adjustable and can be located over or under your operating frequency.
2. Morse and Voice Messages – Several radio stations can store messages
and replay them. This feature is useful during contests.
3. Noise reduction and blankets – you can control the sensitivity and degree
of the operations helps in customizing the buttons for handling noise in your
location. Also, you can switch them on or off.
4. Monitor – this is next to the PTT switch of your handheld receiver. You
can listen to a faint station without adjusting the squelch level.
5. Memory Channel – Practice using memory write for transferring your
VFO settings to a memory channel. This is good for handling public service
demands on very High Frequencies or Ultra High frequencies.

How to Build an Equipment for your Amateur radio station

a. Begin small by building some accessory projects such as filters, keyers,
and audio switches.
b. Soldier an iron for your transmitting equipment.
c. Before, you begin, purchase a working it and books with tutorials to help
you.
d. Optimize the equipment using keyer, microphone, sound card, etc.
e. Examine your audio settings such as the transmitters and receivers,
including the digital modes.
Using an Oscilloscope
 An Oscilloscope

Oscilloscope is used for measuring waveforms, direct current voltage, and

frequency including amplitude. As a radio enthusiast and hobbyist, you need
an oscilloscope. It helps you to monitor signals and time.
It is useful for working on an electronic circuit. You can also use this device
for measuring the duty-cycles of pulse-width-modulated (PWM) signals, rise
or fall of signals, propagation delay, and bouncing switches. You will be able
to know if there are glitches in your bouncing or logic switches.
If you want to use your oscilloscope optimally, check the Examples section in
the application, Controls sub section, and Front Panel menus.
Another way to handle your device is to build a circuit to check and hook up
the probes. The steps include
a. For the function cable, the red clip stands for the generated signal while the
black clip is ground.
b. The capacitor and resistor have optimum values as 0.002uF and 430K
Ohm.
c. It has probes that remove from the sides, always connect it to the ground.
d. Apply channel 1 if the function generator has multiple outputs.
e. Connect the tip of the oscilloscope to the signal you want to check. You
can also use the pin tip instead of the hook tip. But don’t unscrew the sheath
or tip.
What are the Basic Controls for an Oscilloscope?

The Basic Controls

The three basic controls in an oscilloscope include vertical controls,
horizontal controls, trigger controls, and acquire controls.

Vertical Controls
The vertical controls handle the vertical alignment of the traces.
Horizontal Controls
These controls handle the time scale and position. All traces are affected at
the same time by these controls.

Trigger Controls
If you want to manage the triggering, use this button. It is great for aligning
the repeat signal with itself.

Acquire Controls
This control helps to control the manner for acquiring samples. It is designed
with an auto-setting that enables the system to select that can show the latest
waveforms.
Selector Buttons
These buttons are along the right and lower part of the screen. It helps you to
choose menus that display on the lower and right side of the screen.
Miscellaneous Buttons
On the upper part of the control panel is the Miscellaneous button. It manages
advanced functions that are not tied to any given waveform. It also houses the
General Purpose Knob.

How to Start Using an Oscilloscope

Operating an Oscilloscope
If you want to use an oscilloscope you need to carry out the following
operations on the device.

Resetting the Default Settings

This will clear the memory of the device, since it can recall the last state
before you turn it off. Follow these steps to reset it:
· Tap on the Save or Recall Button.
· Choose the Recall Factory Setup Menu from the options at the lower
part of the screen.
· Click on OK Confirm Factory Init from the list at the right of the
window.
· Tap on the Menu Off button.
· After these steps, you will notice a yellow square wave at the center of
the window. This represents the signal appearing on Channel 1.
How to Display Traces
Now, you will notice a channel coming in on Channel 2. To display it, tap the
button bearing Ch 2 button. This will display Channel 2 well-aligned on the
upper part of Channel 1 data.
Fix this by tapping the Autoset button.
 CHAPTER ELEVEN
How to Allocate Amateur Radio Frequency
The radio frequency (RF) is an aspect of the radio spectrum of an
electromagnetic spectrum. If you live in the US, allocation of the radio
frequency is divided role between the Federal Communications Commission
and the National Telecommunication and Information Administration
(NTIA).
The FCC provides radio spectrum for commercial, personal, local, and state
government uses. It is an independent regulatory agency issuing spectrums
for non-federal use.
Also, the NTIA, is a functional unit of the Department of Commerce. It
issues radio frequencies for the use of federal agencies such as radio
frequencies to be used by the army, FBI, Nave, FAA, and other bodies.
However, globally, the International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
supervises how radio spectrum is released for ham radio operations.
The Size of the Radio Station
The size of a ham radio station should be two-meter radio band and a portion
of the Very High Frequency radio spectrum. The frequencies in this aspect
range from 144 MHz to 148 MHz according to the International
Telecommunication Union regions.
The ITU regions consist of ITU region 1 ranging from 144 MHz to 146 MHz,
where you have Europe, Russia, and Africa. ITU region 2 includes South and
North America including Hawaii. ITU region 3 comprises of Asia and
Oceania.
The privilege of being licensed includes the use of frequencies in this band
for telecommunications purposes locally within a range of 160 kilometers,
which is 100 miles.
The Power of the Frequency
A ham radio is designed as a transmitter and a receiver together. It is also
called a transceiver. Beginners may be comfortable using older transceivers
with simple controls because newer transceivers are designed with complex
controls that may require sometime to master them.
Hand-held transceivers are made with their own antennas but if you are
transmitting from your vehicle, you can use a magnetic mount antenna
attached to a hand-held radio or under-dash transceiver.
The power of a ham radio is determined by the size of the radio. It can range
from a hand-held device to a desktop. Therefore, power output can range
from some milliwatts to 1,500 watts. Most hams began transmitting with the
Citizens band (CB) radio, which has about 5-watt limit.

The Safety of Amateur Radio Station

You may want to know if it is dangerous to run a ham radio station. There are
several evidences that radio frequencies can cause injury to human body
tissues. Heat from radio frequencies can lead to blindness, sterility, and other
health issues. The ailments caused by heat from RFs are known as thermal
effects.
Therefore, working with radar equipment, radio antennae, and radio operators
generally are at risk of suffering from cancer-related sicknesses. Radio
frequencies from the ranges of 300 MHz to 3 GHz could be harmful for
humans. Moreover RFs of 7 MHz can kill a person as it is regarded as the
most dangerous radio frequency.
On the other hand, you can ground an amateur radio station to enhance safety
by connecting each piece of gadget to a copper pipe or strap and join them
with a short wire for grounding purposes. After this, connect the bonding
pipe to your alternating current safety ground rod using a heavy wire.
 CHAPTER TWELVE
How to Propagate a Ham Radio
Propagation of ham radio involves the study of how radio signals travel from
one end to another. If the wave moves from the transmitting antenna to the
receiving antenna, it is regarded as line-of-sight propagation.
You can propagate radio signals in four ways such as sky waves, open field
waves, ground waves, and free space waves.
Sky Waves
Propagation using the sky waves is dependent on the reflection from the
ionosphere. These are ions formed in the atmosphere over the earth. Long
distance broadcasts in high-frequency bands are enabled by the ionosphere.
This occurs between 3 MHz and 30 MHz. it depends on the time of the day,
season, longitude on the earth, and sunspots occurring on the surface of the
sun. With low power transmitters, you can initiate long-distance
communications for sky wave propagations.
Open Field Waves
In open field waves propagation, the received signal is a vector of the sum of
a direct-line-of-sight signal. Also, it is a signal from a similar source but
reflected off the earth. When there is no reflections from the ionosphere or
the earth, the range-of-line-signals is a function of the scattering of the waves
occurring in the transmitter antenna.

Ground Waves
Ground waves propagation are suitable for vertical polarization generated by
vertical antennas. This occurs when the transmitting and receiving antennas
are close to the surface of the earth. This radiation produces current in the
earth. In this case, the signals travel over the earth’s surface and gets
attenuated by the energy from absorbed by the conducting earth.
Horizontal antennas are not effective for ground wave propagation due to the
fact that the earth will short circuit the horizontal electric field they formed.
Free Space Waves
In free space waves propagation, the signal strength reduces in inverse
proportion to the distance outside the transmitter antenna. If you know the
radiated power, the field strength is by an equation such as:
P = transmitted power measured in watts
G = antenna gain
d – distance measured in meters
E = measured in volts
Using 75 Meters Band and 80 meters Band
The 80 meters radio frequency is also the 3.5 MHz band. This band is
allocated to ham radio operators starting from 3.5 MHz to 4.0 MHz,
especially in IARU region 2. This region is for the Americas. Also, in ITU
region 1 and region 3, the frequency is allocated to amateur radio operation
using 3.5 MHz, 3.8 MHz, or 3.9 MHz.
The 75 meters band is allocated for voice communication that is for phones.
It is a shortwave radio band in Europe. Several national radio services are
operating between 3.9 MHz and 4.0 MHz.
The 8metmers band is designed for Ragchews among ham operators. It can
cover a range of 500 miles per 800 kilometers. If there is any type of contest,
the band will be filled with activity starting from dawn all and through the
night.
Operating the 60Meters Band
If you are operating the 60 meters band, you also have the 5 megahertz
frequency. This is a new band allocated to ham radio operations and started
in 2002. It was only available in the US, Finland, Iceland, Denmark, United
Kingdom, Ireland, and many other nations.
Several countries have started allocating this frequency to their ham operators
for broadcasting.
Using the 40 Meters Band
The 40 meters band is also the 7 MHz frequency band. In ITU region 2, it
spans about 7.000 MHz to 7.300 MHz. Also, in region 3, it spans about 7.000
to 7.200 MHz.
This is the primary radio frequency band allocated to ham radio operators
globally. It is also designed for shortwave transmission including land mobile
usage. It is done in such a way that ham radio stations must share the
frequency with the users. The band is one of the best for long distance
broadcasting and dependable in all seasons of the year.

What are ITU Regions?

ITU International Telecommunication Union has International Radio
Regulations that divided the world into three ITU regions. The purpose is to
be able to manage the radio frequencies in the world.
Every region of the world has its own frequency allocations, which is the
reason for splitting the regions.
The three regions include
1. ITU Region 1- made up of Europe, Russia, Mongolia, Africa, Middle East,
Iraq, and Persian Gulf.
2. ITU Region 2 – involves North and South America, Greenland, and Pacific
Islands,
3. ITU Region 3 – comprises of Iran, Oceania, and non-FSU Asia.
Explaining the Differences between VHF and UHF
The difference between the VHF and UHF radio frequencies include
1. Very High Frequencies are designed for long distance broadcasts, for
indoor and outdoor uses. But Ultra High Frequencies function at a higher
frequency.
2. UHFs are suitable for wireless communications and can penetrate
buildings, concrete, and walls.
3. UHF radios are ideal for indoor communications where they can
surmount obstacles easily.

Using Ultra-High Frequency (UHF)

Ultra-High Frequencies (UHF) are used for GPS, satellite communications,
cell phones, and television broadcasting. It is also applied for personal radio
services such as cordless phones, walkie-talkies, Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, and
several apps.
The UHF radar band has frequencies between 300 MHz and 1 GHz according
to the IEEE. The International Telecommunications Union (ITU) has
designated UHF for radio frequencies. The RF ranges are between 300 MHz
to 3 GHz.
Most persons call it the decimeter band since the wavelengths range from one
meter to one-tenth of another meter. But if the radio wave has frequencies
above the UHF band it is said to be microwave frequency (MWF) or super
high frequency (SHF)
Using Very High Frequency (VHF)
The International Telecommunications Union has designated Very High
Frequency radios from 30 MHz to 300 MHz. The corresponding wavelengths
are ten meters to one meter. But frequencies below VHF are regarded as High
Frequencies (HF).
In the VHF, radio signals are used for FM radio transmission, digital audio
broadcasting (DAB), two-way land mobile radio communications, and
television broadcasting. It is also used for emergency broadcasts, business
and private broadcasts, including in military organizations.
VHF radio signals are suitable for long distance broadcasts, amateur radio
stations, air traffic control, marine communication, and air navigation
systems.
 CHAPTER THIRTEEN
What is a Multimeter?
Multimeter is a hand-held digital multimeter represented as (DMM). It is
common but necessary tool for ham radio operations. As the name implies,
multimeter is a combination of several meters such as ohmmeter, ammeter,
and voltmeter. Therefore, it is designed to handle the functions of these three
meters simultaneously. It is three meters in one device.
It is easy to use, since it is a digital device.
Here are the uses of the multimeter:
a. it is used for checking the level of the power line voltage in the amateur
radio station.
b. For accessing direct current continuity between the ends of the TNC cable
after soldering them.
c. It helps to determine if your AA batteries are dead,
d. Multimeter enables you to know that your coax is not shortened between
the center conductor and the shield.
e. Examine fuses to know if it is bad.
f. Check the bag of resistors.
g. Assess your broken rig and check bias voltages.
h. Check if your HT battery pack is charged.
i. Assess the voltage of the power supply on your new power supply.

Measuring AC Voltage with a Digital Multimeter

You can measure AC voltage with a digital multimeter in the following ways:
· Turn the dial to v. Some digital Multimeters have m v.
· Put the black head into the COM jack.
· Next put the red lead into the VΩ jack.
· Connect the test leads to the circuit. Put black lead first and red lead
second.
· Check the screen for the measurement.

How to Measure Frequencies

Frequencies are measured in hertz. It is also measured in cycles per second.
The wavelength is also measured in centimeters or meters.
Radio waves are electromagnetic waves that move at the speed of light in free
space.
Frequency and light are joined by an equation to give you
Speed of light ( C) = frequency x wavelength
Using a Digital Multimeter to Measure Capacitance
To measure capacitance, you need a DMM. This means digital multimeter. It
is a test device for measuring electrical values such as resistance, voltage, and
current. This device is invaluable in every electronic laboratory.
Also, the latest digital multimeter can measure temperature, capacitance,
frequency, and continuity. It provides accurate and affordable ways of
determining values of different quantities using one device. DMMs can
calculate ohms, amps, and volts.
Here are some steps that can guide you towards achieving an accurate
measurement:
a. Switch on the meter.
b. Put the probes into the proper connections. You may notice other
connections but select the right ones to connect the probes.
c. Choose the proper measurement range to set the device depending on the
quantity you want to measure.
d. For the best reading, optimize the range. Ensure that the digits will not read
zero.
e. After setting the readings right, put the probes into the voltage
measurement sockets. Then, turn the range to maximum voltage.
f. Do not allow the probes to slip during measurements.
 CHAPTER FOURTEEN
Building Equipment and Measuring Values

If you want to build your own equipment from scratch, you can search online
for tutorials that can teach you how to design and create your ham radio kit.
If you are successful, this project will give you joy and fulfillment as a radio
enthusiast.
Another way is by joining a radio club in your area, you will get help from a
community of enthusiasts and hobbyists,
Using Antennas
As a ham radio operator, you need a B-channel 4 antenna for use in the four
meter ham radio band, which has frequencies between 70 MHz to 70.2 MHz.
A ham radio antenna is mainly for high-frequency bands and similar to each
other. On this note, it can operate as a multiple number of half wavelengths
on these bands. AN antenna is connected with 50Ω coaxial cable. It provides
a suitable match to this including a step-up impedance.
The antenna positioned at the transmitter produces the radio wave. But the
voltage across the antenna elements and the current passing through them
generate magnetic and electric waves. However, at the receiver, the
electromagnetic wave moving through the antenna generates a little voltage.
You can destroy the outcome of transceiver by operating it without an
antenna. In this case, the signals will be lost.
We have directional antennas and omnidirectional antennas.

Directional Antennas
If you need maximum distance and less interference for your Verry High
Frequencies or Ultra High Frequencies, you need directional antennas. For
VHF radio bands, they are regarded as compulsory for operators to install
them. They are also valuable for satellite operations.
Antennas used for UHF and VHF are similar in various ways to High
Frequency antennas. The only difference is that UHF and VHF antennas are
smaller compared to the HF. Also, poor feedlines and elevated SWRs result
in much loss in the system.
Directional Antennas focus your reception and power in one direction. It
restricts the energy moving to the back and re-directs it to the front. This
results in a beam of radio frequency power.
However, an omnidirectional antenna scatters your signal over a large area.
What are Antenna Analyzers and SWR
Antenna analyzer is also known as British aerial analyzer or Noise Bridge.
Other terms use to classify this device are R analyzer, RF analyzer, and RX
bridge. It is a device used for measuring the input impedance of antenna
systems in radio electronics applications.
It enables you to change the design of your antenna within the antenna, and
you don’t have to connect it to the radio. It provides instant feedback if you
need to shorten or lengthen the elements including the tuning knob.
This device is used in broadcast houses for fine-tuning antennas and handling
feedlines. It also estimates complex impedance as the transmitter is
functional. You can troubleshoot issues with your antennas using an antenna
analyzer.
Types of analyzers include SWR meter, Antenna Bridge, and Noise Bridge.
Also, SWR stands for standing wave ratio. It involves a measure of the
impedance matching of loads to the characteristic impedance of a waveguide
or transmission line. Impedance has the attribute of mismatching result in
standing waves along the transmission line.
Therefore, SWR is the ratio of the amplitude of the fractional
standing wave at an antinode to the amplitude at a node along the
 line. It is calculated based on the minimum and maximum AC
voltages along the transmission lines. Then, it derived its name from
this feature to be voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR). It is
pronounced as vizwar.
Coaxial Cables
Different persons use coaxial cables in their projects. These include telephone
companies, internet operators, and cable companies. They are used for
transmitting videos, voice communications, and data to users. Coaxial cables
are relevant in various domestic projects.
You can also use these cables as TV antenna for your cable TV. It transmits
the cable signal into your home, after connecting the antenna from outside
with other wires.
The Length of Antennas
The length of antennas should be at least ¼ the size of the wavelength you
intend to use. If you are using a UHF 70 cm band, you only need a 7-inch
antenna for your ham radio. But the 11 inch Citizens Band radio will use an
antenna measuring over one hundred inches.
Also, a regular antenna measuring 2 meter that is 146 MHz is designed like a
19-inch quarter-wave whip. Therefore, a wavelength at 146 MHz is
approximately double. This is 300 divided by 146 meters. A quarter wave of
2 meters is 19 inches.

How to Use Batteries

Ham radios are usually hand-held radios that use rechargeable batteries.
These batteries should have between 5 watts to 8 watts of power.
What is Polarization?
Polarization result when a radio wave consisting of a magnetic field and an
electric field are orthogonal or ninety degrees apart and radiates outside from
the antenna. Therefore, polarization is the alignment of the electric field
relatively to the horizon of the earth.
Also, I can say that polarization is the direction through which the electric
field of a radio signal vacillates as it propagates in a medium. It is seen by
imagining standing at the back of a radio antenna and gazing in the direction
it is focused.
When waves are polarized, the electric field of the radio wave is oriented.
These waves have constant orientation and fixed. Therefore, the radio signals
design a path that is patterned like a flat plane as they travel through space
with linear polarization.
 CONCLUSION
This book is written to enlighten radio enthusiasts on how to start an amateur
radio station with a ham radio license and a ham radio kit. You have learned
about the history of amateur radio and how its second name was coined.
Amateur radio was designed for emergency broadcasts and other non-profit
mass communication purposes. It could be done behind the wheels as you
drive, in the office, at home, and almost everywhere using devices such as
mobile phones.
But you need to read and pass radio licensing exams if you want the
authorities to give you an operational license with a radio frequency for
broadcasting. There are three classes or stages of the licensing exam such as
the Technical class, General class, and amateur class.
However, obtaining a license for an amateur radio station opens you up to a
world of friendships and public service. You make friends in your locality,
across the continent, and all over the world by signing up for a radio license
class online.
Ham radio operation helps you to save lives during emergencies, participate
in contests with other amateur radio stations.