PRELIMS: ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 111 • Volumetric Method

- the amount of analyte is determined by measuring the

LESSON 01 volume of solution of known concentration (titrimetric).
INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY • Instrumental Method
- employs the use of complex machines and instruments.
LESSON SUMMARY: - ex: Electroanalytical, Spectroscopic, Chromatographic
I. Introduction To Analytical Chemistry
II. Research Analysis
• Classification of Methods of Analysis Titrimetric Analysis
• Based on Extent Analysis - is a method of analysis in
• Classification of Analytes which the solution of the
III. Quantitative and Qualitative Analysis substance being determined
IV. Analytical Analyst or Analytical Chemist is reagent of exactly known
• Training of Analytical Analyst concentration. The reagent
• Fields Affecting Chemical Analysis is added to the substance
until the amount added is
I. INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY equivalent to the amount of
What is Analytical Chemistry? substance to be determined.
- also known as “Science of Chemical Measurements”
- deals with the operation and analysis of a chemical BASED ON EXTENT ANALYSIS:
- chemical analysis includes the any aspect of the chemical
• Complete or Exact
characterization of a sample material.
- amount of each constituent of the sample is determined
What Do Chemical Analyst Do? quantitatively.
• Senior Analyst - ex: Blood Analysis (involves determination of glucose,
- develops new measurement methods on existing sodium, potassium, biliburin, alkaline phosphate)
principles to solve new analysis problems. • Ultimate Analysis
• Research Analytical Chemist - amount of each element is determined
- creates and /or investigates novel techniques or - ex: Gasoline Analysis (%C, %H, %O, %Pb)
principles for chemical measurements. • Proximate or Partial Analysis
- conducts fundamental studies of chemical/physical - amount of certain selected constituent in a sample
phenomena underlying chemical measurements. determined.
- ex: partial analysis of aspirin tablets gives amount of
What is Analytical Science? salicyclic acid impurity
- analytical chemistry provides the methods and tools
needed for insight into our material world for answering CLASSIFICATION OF ANALYTES:
four basic questions about a material sample? - desired constituent or a component part of something.
• What? • Analytes - substances measured.
• Where? • Determination - process of measuring the analytes.
• How much? - types of constituent :
• What arrangement, structure, or form? • Major Constituent - >1% of the sample
• Minor Constituent - 0.01 to 1% of the sample
II. RESEARCH ANALYSIS • Trace Constituent - 0.001% to 0.01% of the sample
An analysis involves several steps and operation which • Ultratrace Constituent - <0.001% of the sample
depends on: (a) The particular problem, (b) Your expertise,
(c) The apparatus or equipment available. The analyst should III. QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS
be involved in every step.
Steps in Analysis:
• Define Problem
• Select a Method
• Obtain a Representative Sample
• Prepare the Sample for Analysis
• Perform Any Necessary Chemical Separations
• Perform the Measurement
• Calculate the Results and Report

CLASSIFICATION OF METHODS OF ANALYSIS:

• Gravimetric Method
- the mass of the analyte or some compound chemically
related to it is determined.
 IV. ANALYTICAL ANALYST OR ANALYTICAL CHEMIST
TRAINING OF ANALYTICAL ANALYST:
- training focuses on principles, techniques, and multiple
disciplines for solving measurement problems such as:
• Physical • Biology Chemistry
• Organic • Inorganic
• Physics • Math
• Biology • Electronic
• Computers
- focuses on developing proficiency with quantitative
analysis laboratory procedures and exposure to role of
chemical analysis in a broad of modern science.

FIELDS AFFECTING CHEMICAL ANALYSIS:

• Physical, Organic, Inorganic
- theory guides but experiment decides.
• Biotechnology
- distinguishing isomers with differing bioactivities.
- ex: Biosensors
• Materials Science
- high temperature superconductors.
• Manufacturing
- quality control of packaged foods specifications.
• Forensics
- chemical features for criminal evidence.
 PRELIMS: ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 111 III. TWO TYPES OF EXPRESSING ERROR
SYSTEMATIC ERRORS
LESSON 02
- or determinate error, arises from flaw in equipment or the
ERRORS AND STATISTICAL DATA
design of an experiment.
IN CHEMICAL ANALYSIS - ex: a pH meter that has been standardized incorrectly
LESSON SUMMARY: produces a systematic error.
I. Introduction to Errors and Statistical Data Ways To Detect Systematic Error
II. Accuracy Versus Precision 1. Analyze a known sample, such as a certified reference
III. Two Types of Expressing Error material. Your method should reproduce the known answer.
IV. Samples and Populations 2. Analyze blank sample containing no analyte being sought.
• Standard Deviation If you observe a nonzero result, your method responds to
• Error Propagation in Arithmetic Calculations more than you intend.
• Confidence Limit: How sure are you?
3. Use different analytical methods to measure the same
I. INTRODUCTION TO ERRORS AND STATISTICAL DATA quantity. If results do not agree, there is error in one or
WHY DO WE NEED STATISTICS IN ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY? more of the methods.
- scientists needed a standard format to communicate 4. Round robin experiment: Different people in several
significance of experimental numerical data. laboratories analyze identical samples by same or different
- objective mathematical data analysis methods needed to methods. Disagreement beyond estimated random error is
get the most information from finite data sets systematic error.
- to provide a basis for optimal experimental design.
RANDOM ERROR
WHAT DOES STATISTICS INVOLVE? - also called indeterminate error, arises from uncontrolled
- defining properties of probability distributions for infinite (and maybe uncontrollable) variables in the measurement.
populations. Application of these properties to treatment of - has an equal chance of being positive or negative and
finite (real-world) data sets. always present and cannot be corrected.
- probabilistic approaches to:
• Reporting Data • Finite Sampling 1. Absolute Error - difference between true value and
• Data Treatment • Experimental Design measured value.
2. Mean Error - difference between true value and
SOME USEFUL STATISTICS TERMS: mean value.
1. Mean - average of a set of values. 3. Relative Error - absolute or mean error expressed as a
2. Median - middle point of a set of values. percentage of the true value.
3. Population - collection of infinite number of measurement
- infinity = N (m-x/m)*100 = % Relative Error
4. Sample - finite set of measurement represent population
4. Relative Accuracy - measure or mean value expressed as
5. True Value / Mean - mean value of population (m)
percentage of the true value.
6. Observed Mean - mean value of the sample set (x)
(x/m)*100 = % Relative Accuracy
II. ACCURACY VERSUS PRECISION
ACCURACY IV. SAMPLES AND POPULATIONS
- the degree of agreement between measured value and the Samples
true value or a degree of agreement between measured - subset of measurements selected from the population.
value and accepted true value. Populations
- absolute true value is seldom known - collection of all measurements of interest to experimenter.
PRECISION STANDARD DEVIATION:
- degree of agreement between replicate measurements of What Does a High Standard Deviation Mean?
the same quantity. - a large standard deviation indicates that there is a lot of
• Repeatability of a Result variance in the observed data around the mean. This
• Standard Deviation indicates that the data observed is quite spread out. A small
• Coefficient of Variation or low standard deviation would indicate instead that much
• Range of Data of the data observed is clustered tightly around the mean.
• Confidence Interval about Mean Value

You can’t have accuracy without good precision, but a

precise result can have a determinate or systematic error
- example problem with solution: 2. STANDARD DEVIATION OF A PRODUCT OR QUOTIENT

Every measurement has an air of uncertainty about it, and

not all uncertainties are equal. Therefore, the ability to
properly combine uncertainties from different measurement
is crucial. Uncertainty in measurement comes about variety
of ways: instrument variability, different observers, sample
differences, even time of day. Typically, error is given by the
standard deviation ( σx ) of a measurement.

ERROR PROPAGATION IN ARITHMETIC CALCULATIONS:

3. STANDARD DEVIATION IN EXPONENTIAL CALCULATIONS

1. STANDARD DEVIATION OF A SUM OR DIFFERENCE
 CONFIDENCE LIMIT: HOW SURE ARE YOU?

EXAMPLE PROBLEM WITH SOLUTION:

3. STANDARD DEVIATION OF ANTI- AND LOGARITHM

WATCH TO UNDERSTAND:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uq-IMq31qaE
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JqF3rOB7mkw
 PRELIMS: ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 111 II. INTRODUCTION TO EQUILIBRIUM

LESSON 03 Equilibrium
- constant expressions are algebraic equations that describe
BALANCING EQUILIBRIUM the concentration relationships among the reactants and the
LESSON SUMMARY: products at equilibrium.
I. Introduction to Balancing Dynamic Equilibrium
• Mass in Chemical Reactions - exists once a reversible reaction occurs.
II. Introduction to Equilibrium - substances transition between the reactants and products
at equal rates, meaning there is no net change. Reactants
I. INTRODUCTION TO BALANCING
and products are formed at such a rate that concentration of
neither changes.
Constant Equilibrium
- value of its reaction quotient at chemical equilibrium.
- a state approached by a dynamic chemical system after
sufficient time has elapsed at which its composition has no
measurable tendency towards further change.

MASS IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS:

- equations are balanced in terms of atoms and molecules in
the reaction.
- law of conservation of mass, in any reaction, the amount
of matter in the reactants are equal to the amount of
matter in the products.
- stoichiometry calculations deal with relative quantities of
reactants and products and value of products are critical.