Allama Iqbal open university,Islamabad.

Name: Rehana Kousar

Program/Level: MA Special Education
Title/Course : Non-Formal Education(844)
Semester : Autumn 2022

Assignment -01
Q.1 Discuss the reasons for the emergence of Non-Formal Education in
Pakistan.
Ans-
The present study was aimed to assess the performance of the non-formal
basic education (NFBE) schools project initiated in the province of Punjab with
the assistance of Japan International Co-operation Agency (JICA). The study
was conducted in 120 NFBE schools in four districts of Punjab. It was a survey
study in which data were collected from female teachers, officers of NFBE,
students and their parents. 100 NFBE school teachers, 20 officers of NFBE
schools and 500 students and their parents participated in the study. Data
were collected through questionnaires and interviews. It was found that the
project is achieving its targets as planned. It was also found that drop-out rates
were higher and the teachers were not satisfied with their job structure. It was
further concluded that a proper media campaign may be initiated to mobilize
the community. The study recommended that learning materials may be
developed in the regional languages.

Emergence of Non-Formal Education in Pakistan

Pakistan is a developing country with limited resources and high population
growth rate of 2.6 % per annum. The increase in the enrollment rate is not in
line with the increase in the rate of population growth in the country, and each
year millions of children school-age are deprived from getting admission to
formal schools due the shortage of schools.
During the first decade of the 21st century – since the policy focused on rural
areas – the number of primary schools increased sharply for both boys and
girls, although the proportion of girls’ schools remained constant. The Pakistan
Social and Living Standards Measurement Survey, conducted by the
Government of Pakistan in 2006-07, revealed that every year dropout rates for
girls are increasing.

A look around neighboring countries in South Asia shows that at the start of
the new millennium, Maldives and Sri Lanka had both achieved literacy rates of
well over 90 %, considerably higher than the regional average of 54 %. Similarly
many countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America have quite successfully
adopted non-formal education and are offering different programs. Developed
countries like Japan, Norway, the Netherlands, France, UK and USA and
developing countries like India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Nepal and Bhutan have
seized upon its advantages to meet pressing educational needs and social
needs (Haq, 2002). Non-formal systems of education are being used effectively
in different parts of the world in order to solve the long standing problems of
mass illiteracy and creating social awareness. It was realized that through the
formal system alone, illiteracy and other problems of education cannot be
solved. Therefore, many countries of the world, both developed and
developing, realizing the advantages of the non-formal system, have adopted it
and made it an integral part of their national system of education. However, in
Pakistan there is dire need to launch a national movement for literacy. The
country is far behind the target of 100 % literacy as set by the Dakar
Declaration (2000).
The need for NFE in Pakistan has arisen because not only is the formal system
unable to cope with the rising demand of education in the country with its rigid
nature but also because the costs of formal education are higher. In several of
his writings, Ghafoor (1997) identified two factors for low progress of primary
education, and these include inside school factors and outside school factors.
The inside school factors include the poor physical facilities, dearth of teaching
and learning materials, shortage of trained and qualified teachers, inadequate
training of teachers, inadequate learning climate, high pupil/teacher ratio,
overemphasis on subject matter rather than personality development, rigid
educational policies and practices and urban based curriculum. The outside
school factors, as identified, include low socio-economic background of the
child, malnutrition among children and socio-cultural problems related to
female education.
A report by UNESCO in 1999 on Basic Education in Pakistan points out that al-
ready in the past several years non-formal education programs had been
initiated. The Non-Formal Basic Education program (NFBE) was initially
launched in Pakistan in the 1950s under the title of “Adult Basic Education
Program”. Several non-formal education programs have been started but no
effort has yet been made to launch a non-formal education program on a
national level, although this may be changing.
Major initiatives towards “Education for All” were the Social Action Program
(SAP), the Education Sector Reforms (ESR) and the National Plan of Action
(NPA) which have specially targeted girls’ education and have allocated
significant funds for this purpose. This factor encouraged gender equality in
education. The NPA (2000) is a roadmap to meet the education for all (EFA)
targets. This plan represents the will and determination of the nation to fight
against illiteracy and universalize primary education. It aimed to achieve 100 %
participation in basic education (grade 1-5) by the year 2015 both for male and
female students.

Non-Formal Basic Education Schools

Non-Formal Basic Education Schools (NFBES) were first established in 1996
under the Prime Minister Literacy Commission Islamabad. The concept of
these schools is based on the philosophy to involve parents, community and
the non-governmental organizations in the promotion of education through
non-formal means. Some of the objectives of the NFBE schools include the
universalization of primary education, increased involvement of the
community and NGOs, provision of employment opportunities to the educated
persons and empowerment of rural women. The NFBES are based on
the “Home school” model. The selected community provides a teacher with a
fixed salary of Rs.1000 per month. The five years primary curriculum is taught
in three and a quarter years. The government provides funds to the
community through intermediary non governmental organizations (NGOs).
Accordingly, the NFBES were established all over the country, covering urban
slums, small towns and remote villages. The target of the NFBES are the
dropouts of the formal schools of age group 10 to 14 for whom the completion
period to cover primary level education is to be 2-3 years while students
attaining the level of the school grades 5-9 have to complete this course in 3-4
years instead of 5-6 years, the time specified for formal schools. According to
the Planning Commission of the Non- Formal Basic Education Schools (1998),
these schools have to complement the formal school by offering education in
those areas where regular primary schools do not exist and where children are
out of schools for various reasons. This school model required fewer resources.
The community provides the school building and manages the school. The
teachers of NFBES do not have to worry about transfers and, therefore, work
with a missionary zeal. According to PMLC (1996), the program of Non-formal
Basic Education Schools is implemented through NGOs and community-based
organizations that identify sites for schools, supervise them, give inputs and
teaching aids, and pay remuneration to the teachers. These NGOs also manage
to provide training to the teachers, form parent-teacher committees at local
levels and hold meetings with the teachers and communities. In turn they are
paid Rs.200 per school per month in addition to getting awards for the best
performance.

Assessment of the Performance of NFBE Schools in Punjab

Presently, a number of schemes and projects have been initiated in the
country. In this connection a five year program has been chalked out for
imparting education and skill development for rehabilitation and providing
economic opportunities to illiterates in jails and working in factories. A scheme
of literacy under the title “Model Districts for Literacy Campaigns to Achieve
100 % Literacy” has been launched with the assistance of Japan International
Cooperation Agency (JICA) in four districts of Punjab. The scheme was
approved in 2004. Its major components included the establishment of adult
literacy centers and non-formal basic education (NFBE) centers and awareness
campaigns. The targets of this scheme are to achieve 100 % literacy in four
districts (Khushab, Khanewal, Mandi Bahauddin and Dera Ghazi Khan) of
Punjab.

Objectives of the Study

The following were the objectives of the study:

 To investigate the role of non-formal basic education in promoting

women’s education
 To assess the effectiveness of NFBE schools by exploring their strengths
and weaknesses
 To examine the strengths and weaknesses of NFBE schools

Design of the Study

It was a survey study. It was conducted in the literacy schools of the project
entitled “Model Districts for Literacy Campaigns to Achieve 100 % Literacy” in
four districts of Punjab. Questionnaires and interviews were used as tools for
data collection.

Sample of the Study

The sample of the study comprised of:
  100 female teachers of non-formal basic education schools
 500 students studying in NFBE centers along with their parents
 20 officers of NFBE schools

Instrument of the Study

Two questionnaires were developed for data collection. One questionnaire
comprising of 21 items was designed for female teachers of NFBE schools. The
second questionnaire was developed for officers of NFBE schools and it
included 12 items. A structured interview was conducted with students and
their parents.

Analysis and Interpretation of Data

After collection of questionnaires, data were analyzed, and the summary is
presented below:
1. Summary of Teachers Questionnaire

 Teachers of the formal system are not equally beneficial for NFBE as it
has a different philosophy.
 Parents are reluctant to educate their daughters.
 Teachers were not satisfied with the pay structure and the physical
environment of NFBE schools.
 Dropout rate was higher in NFBE schools.
 Teachers sent progress report regularly but the parents did not agree
with them.
 Teachers did not have prior training in non-formal education.

Summary of the Suggestions by Teachers of NFBE Schools

 Proper training for teachers

 School should be easily accessible for teacher/students
 Proper community mobilization techniques be used
 Appropriate pay structure for teachers
 Teaching materials in regional language

Q.2 Identify the prevailing practices and major shortcomings between formal
and non-formal education programs in Pakistan.
Ans-
It is mandated in the Constitution of Pakistan to provide free and compulsory
education to all children between the ages of 5-16 years and enhance adult
literacy. With the 18th constitutional amendment the concurrent list which
comprised of 47 subjects was abolished and these subjects, including
education, were transferred to federating units as a move towards provincial
autonomy.

The year 2015 is important in the context that it marks the deadline for the
participants of Dakar declaration (Education For All [EFA] commitment)
including Pakistan. Education related statistics coupled with Pakistan’s
progress regarding education targets set in Vision 2030 and Pakistan’s lagging
behind in achieving EFA targets and its Millennium Development Goals(MDGs)
for education call for an analysis of the education system of Pakistan and to
look into the issues and problems it is facing so that workable solutions could
be recommended.

What is Education System?

The system of education includes all institutions that are involved in delivering
formal education (public and private, for-profit and nonprofit, onsite or virtual
instruction) and their faculties, students, physical infrastructure, resources and
rules. In a broader definition the system also includes the institutions that are
directly involved in financing, managing, operating or regulating such
institutions (like government ministries and regulatory bodies, central testing
organizations, textbook boards and accreditation boards). The rules and
regulations that guide the individual and institutional interactions within the
set up are also part of the education system.

Education system of Pakistan:

The education system of Pakistan is comprised of 260,903 institutions and is
facilitating 41,018,384 students with the help of 1,535,461 teachers. The
system includes 180,846 public institutions and 80,057 private institutions.
Hence 31% educational institutes are run by private sector while 69% are
public institutes.
Analysis of education system in Pakistan
Pakistan has expressed its commitment to promote education and literacy in
the country by education policies at domestic level and getting involved into
international commitments on education. In this regard national education
policies are the visions which suggest strategies to increase literacy rate,
capacity building, and enhance facilities in the schools and educational
institutes. MDGs and EFA programmes are global commitments of Pakistan for
the promotion of literacy.

A review of the education system of Pakistan suggests that there has been
little change in Pakistan’s schools since 2010, when the 18th Amendment
enshrined education as a fundamental human right in the constitution.
Problems of access, quality, infrastructure and inequality of opportunity,
remain endemic.

Issues
A) MDGs and Pakistan
Due to the problems in education system of Pakistan, the country is lagging
behind in achieving its MDGs of education. The MDGs have laid down two
goals for education sector:

Goal 2: The goal 2 of MDGs is to achieve Universal Primary Education (UPE)

and by 2015, children everywhere, boys and girls alike, will be able to complete
a full course of primary schooling. By the year 2014 the enrolment statistics
show an increase in the enrolment of students of the age of 3-16 year while
dropout rate decreased. But the need for increasing enrolment of students
remains high to achieve MDGs target. Punjab is leading province wise in net
primary enrolment rate with 62% enrolment. The enrolment rate in Sindh
province is 52%, in Khyber Pakhtunkhawa (KPK) 54% and primary enrolment
rate in Balochistan is 45%.
Goal 3: The goal 3 of MDGs is Promoting Gender Equality and Women
Empowerment. It is aimed at eliminating gender disparity in primary and
secondary education by 2005 and in all levels of education not later than 2015.
There is a stark disparity between male and female literacy rates. The national
literacy rate of male was 71% while that of female was 48% in 2012-13.
Provinces reported the same gender disparity. Punjab literacy rate in male was
71% and for females it was 54%. In Sindh literacy rate in male was 72% and
female 47%, in KPK male 70% and females 35%, while in Balochistan male 62%
and female 23%.

B) Education for All (EFA) Commitment

The EFA goals focus on early childhood care and education including pre-
schooling, universal primary education and secondary education to youth,
adult literacy with gender parity and quality of education as crosscutting
thematic and programme priorities.

EFA Review Report October 2014 outlines that despite repeated policy
commitments, primary education in Pakistan is lagging behind in achieving its
target of universal primary education. Currently the primary gross enrolment
rate stands at 85.9% while Pakistan requires increasing it up to 100% by 2015-
16 to fulfil EFA goals. Of the estimated total primary school going 21.4 million
children of ages 5-9 years, 68.5% are enrolled in schools, of which 8.2 million
or 56% are boys and 6.5 million or 44% are girls. Economic Survey of Pakistan
confirms that during the year 2013-14 literacy remained much higher in urban
areas than in rural areas and higher among males.

C) Vision 2030
Vision 2030 of Planning Commission of Pakistan looks for an academic
environment which promotes the thinking mind. The goal under Vision 2030 is
one curriculum and one national examination system under state
responsibility. The strategies charted out to achieve the goal included:

(i) Increasing public expenditure on education and skills generation

from 2.7% of GDP to 5% by 2010 and 7% by 2015.
(ii) Re-introduce the technical and vocational stream in the last two
years of secondary schools.

(iii) Gradually increase vocational and technical education numbers to

25-30% of all secondary enrolment by 2015 and 50 per cent by 2030.

(iv) Enhance the scale and quality of education in general and the scale
and quality of scientific/technical education in Pakistan in particular.

Problems: The issues lead to the comprehension of the problems which are
faced in the development of education system and promotion of literacy. The
study outlines seven major problems such as:

1) Lack of Proper Planning: Pakistan is a signatory to MDGs and EFA goals.

However it seems that it will not be able to achieve these international
commitments because of financial management issues and constraints to
achieve the MDGs and EFA goals.

2) Social constraints: It is important to realize that the problems which

hinder the provision of education are not just due to issues of management by
government but some of them are deeply rooted in the social and cultural
orientation of the people. Overcoming the latter is difficult and would require
a change in attitude of the people, until then universal primary education is
difficult to achieve.

3) Gender gap: Major factors that hinder enrolment rates of girls include
poverty, cultural constraints, illiteracy of parents and parental concerns about
safety and mobility of their daughters. Society’s emphasis on girl’s modesty,
protection and early marriages may limit family’s willingness to send them to
school. Enrolment of rural girls is 45% lower than that of urban girls; while for
boys the difference is 10% only, showing that gender gap is an important
factor.
4) Cost of education: The economic cost is higher in private schools, but
these are located in richer settlements only. The paradox is that private
schools are better but not everywhere and government schools ensure
equitable access but do not provide quality education.

5) War on Terror: Pakistan’s engagement in war against terrorism also

affected the promotion of literacy campaign. The militants targeted schools
and students; several educational institutions were blown up, teachers and
students were killed in Balochistan, KPK and FATA. This may have to contribute
not as much as other factors, but this remains an important factor.

6) Funds for Education: Pakistan spends 2.4% GDP on education. At national

level, 89% education expenditure comprises of current expenses such as
teachers’ salaries, while only 11% comprises of development expenditure
which is not sufficient to raise quality of education.

7) Technical Education: Sufficient attention has not been paid to the

technical and vocational education in Pakistan. The number of technical and
vocational training institutes is not sufficient and many are deprived of
infrastructure, teachers and tools for training. The population of a state is one
of the main elements of its national power. It can become an asset once it is
skilled. Unskilled population means more jobless people in the country, which
affects the national development negatively. Therefore, technical education
needs priority handling by the government.
Poverty, law and order situation, natural disasters, budgetary constraints, lack
of access, poor quality, equity, and governance have also contributed in less
enrolments.

An analysis of the issues and problems suggest that:

The official data shows the allocation of funds for educational projects but
there is no mechanism which ensures the proper expenditure of those funds
on education.
  The existing infrastructure is not being properly utilized in several
parts of the country.
 There are various challenges that include expertise, institutional
and capacity issues, forging national cohesion, uniform standards
for textbook development, and quality assurance.
 The faculty hiring process is historically known to be politicized. It
is because of this that the quality of teaching suffers and even
more so when low investments are made in teachers’ training. As
a result teachers are not regular and their time at school is not as
productive as it would be with a well-trained teacher.
 Inside schools there are challenges which include shortage of
teachers, teacher absenteeism, missing basic facilities and lack of
friendly environment.
 Out of school challenges include shortage of schools, distance –
especially for females, insecurity, poverty, cultural norms, parents
are reluctant or parents lack awareness.

Q.3 Discuss the main aims of UNESCO to contribute the peace and security by
promoting collaboration among the nations through Education.
Ans-

UNESCO's Purpose,
as stated in article 1 of its Constitution, is 'to contribute to peace and security
by promoting collaboration among the nations through education, science and
culture in order to further universal respect for justice, for the rule of law, and
for the human rights and fundamental freedoms which are affirmed for the
peoples of the world, without distinction of race, sex, language or religion, by
the Charter of the United Nations'.

UNESCO's Mission

UNESCO, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.

Its constitution was adopted by the London Conference in November 1945,

and entered into effect on 4 November 1946 when 20 states had deposited
instruments of acceptance.

It currently has 186 Member States.

The main objective of UNESCO is to contribute to peace and security in the
world by promoting collaboration among nations through education, science,
culture and communication in order to further universal respect for justice, for
the rule of law and for the human rights and fundamental freedoms which are
affirmed for the peoples of the world, without distinction of race, sex,
language or religion, by the Charter of the United Nations.

To fulfill its mandate, UNESCO performs five principal functions :

 Prospective Studies : what forms of education, science, culture and

communication for to morrow's world?
 The advancement, transfer and sharing of knowledge : relying primarily
on research, training and teachig activities.
 Standard-setting action : the preparation and adoption of international
instruments and statutory recommendations.
 Expertise : provided to Member States for their development policies
and projects in the form of "technical co-operation".
 Exchange of specialized information

Constitution of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural

Organization

Preamble

The Governments of the States Parties to this Constitution on behalf of their

peoples declare:

That since wars begin in the minds of men, it is in the minds of men that the
defences of peace must be constructed;

That ignorance of each other's ways and lives has been a common cause,
throughout the history of mankind, of that suspicion and mistrust between the
peoples of the world through which their differences have all too often broken
into war;

That the great and terrible war which has now ended was a war made possible
by the denial of the democratic principles of the dignity, equality and mutual
respect of men, and by the propagation, in their place, through ignorance and
prejudice, of the doctrine of the inequality of men and races;

That the wide diffusion of culture, and the education of humanity for justice
and liberty and peace are indispensable to the dignity of man and constitute a
sacred duty which all the nations must fulfil in a spirit of mutual assistance and
concern;

That a peace based exclusively upon the political and economic arrangements
of governments would not be a peace which could secure the unanimous,
lasting and sincere support of the peoples of the world, and that the peace
must therefore be founded, if it is not to fail, upon the intellectual and moral
solidarity of mankind.

For these reasons, the States Parties to this Constitution, believing in full and
equal opportunities for education for all, in the unrestricted pursuit of
objective truth, and in the free exchange of ideas and knowledge, are agreed
and determined to develop and to increase the means of communication
between their peoples and to employ these means for the purposes of mutual
understanding and a truer and more perfect knowledge of each other's lives;

In consequence whereof they do hereby create the United Nations

Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization for the purpose of advancing,
through the educational and scientific and cultural relations of the peoples of
the world, the objectives of international peace and of the common welfare of
mankind for which the United Nations Organization was established and which
its Charter proclaims.

Article I. Purposes and Functions

1. The purpose of the Organization is to contribute to peace and security by

promoting collaboration among the nations through education, science and
culture in order to further universal respect for justice, for the rule of law and
for the human rights and fundamental freedoms which are affirmed for the
peoples of the world, without distinction of race, sex, language or religion, by
the Charter of the United Nations.

2. To realize this purpose the Organization will:

(a) Collaborate in the work of advancing the mutual knowledge

and understanding of peoples, through all means of mass communication and
to that end recommend such international agreements as may be necessary to
promote the free flow of ideas by word and image;

(b) Give fresh impulse to popular education and to the spread of culture:
  By collaborating with Members, at their request, in the development of
educational activities;

 By instituting collaboration among the nations to advance the ideal of

equality of educational opportunity without regard to race, sex or any
distinctions, economic or social;
 By suggesting educational methods best suited to prepare the children
of the world for the responsibilities of freedom;

(c) Maintain, increase and diffuse knowledge:

 By assuring the conservation and protection of the world's inheritance of

books, works of art and monuments of history and science, and
recommending to the nations concerned the necessary international
conventions;

 By encouraging co-operation among the nations in all branches of

intellectual activity, including the international exchange of persons
active in the fields of education, science and culture and the exchange of
publications, objects of artistic and scientific interest and other materials
of information;
 By initiating methods of international co-operation calculated to give the
people of all countries access to the printed and published materials
produced by any of them.

3. With a view to preserving the independence, integrity and fruitful diversity

of the cultures and educational systems of the States Members of the
Organization, the Organization is prohibited from intervening in matters which
are essentially within their domestic jurisdiction.
Q.4 Explain the Colombian multi-media rural Education programme using
various mass media.
Ans-
Media is a vehicle or means of communication that disseminates information
from the source to the target public. Any media intended for a larger audience
is called Mass Media. From pictorial representations at the early age, massive
production of newspapers, and fancy videos on television to high-tech media
combining the Internet and computers, there are variations in the type of mass
media. Being the prime source of
information, entertainment, marketing, advertising media, and motivation for
everyone and everywhere in the world, you will, through this blog, learn about
the different types of mass media and how it influences us!

What is Mass Media?

To put it simply, Mass Media can be defined as a technology which is
intended to communicate or reach a mass audience. Mass media is the
primary means of communication for the general public to communicate with
each other as well as on a grander level. The most popular types of mass media
include Newspapers, Radio, Television, Internet, Magazines and more!

Mass Communication refers to the process of disseminating and exchanging

information through diverse media platforms to reach the masses. Mass
Communication is different from Mass Media because various forms of mass
media like TV, Radio, the Internet, Print Media, Outdoor Media, etc. are used
to facilitate mass communication, i.e. communicate certain information to the
masses.

The most common types of Mass Communication are:

 Journalism
 Social Media
 Films
 Television
 Radio
 Advertising
 Public Relations
 Books, Magazines, Newspapers and Journals
 Photography
 Audio Media like Community Radio, Podcasts
 Interactive Media like websites, video games, digital ads, etc.

Why is Mass Media Important?

Mass media is a vital part of our daily lives and includes your favourite movies
on streaming services like Netflix, Hulu, and Amazon Prime Video; news on TV
and radio, and articles in newspapers and magazines. Brands employ a variety
of channels to reach their leads and consumers and pitch their products
because it has such a large global impact.

Companies use the media to assist them to run a continuous marathon to

success. Brands engage with their target audience using conventional or digital
media to increase brand recognition. To project a company’s image and build a
solid reputation, business owners take into account a variety of platforms.
Brands may successfully market their products and services through mass
media, reach a wider audience, raise brand engagement, and enhance sales
volume.

Functions of Mass Media

The general public is significantly impacted by mass media, whether it be in
written, spoken, or broadcast form. Brands may raise their profile via social
media, TV commercials, and outdoor advertising. When it comes to branding,
businesses look for the best platforms to communicate their message,
including websites, social media platforms, blogs, and forums. They may
express their ideas and run branding campaigns after they choose the best
kind of mass media outlet for their companies.

People are informed, educated, and entertained by the media in several ways.
Users can be educated by brands on how to make the most of their products.
Nowadays, most businesses discuss their greatest qualities, the issues their
goods can address, and offer step-by-step instructions via social media
platforms, blogs on their websites, and YouTube advertising.

Characteristics of Mass Media

Because of the advancements achieved over time, mass communication now
has a far greater influence. Therefore, it’s important to understand the primary
traits of mass media, which are as follows:

 A large target audience may find it appealing; a public message is sent;

there is a gap between the source of the information and the people
who receive it;
 It may be broadcast by a variety of media, including television, the
internet, radio, and newspapers;
 It draws a diverse audience;
 Television, radio, and print media cannot provide comments on news or
information that has been distributed.

Advantages of Mass Media

There are numerous advantages of mass media in the contemporary world.
From being the watchdog of a democratic country to ensuring faster
communication, different types of mass media have various advantages and
benefits such as:
  Giving Voice to the Voiceless
Mass media plays an essential role in shining the spotlight on the masses
as the general public can express their views and opinions freely. This
way, it becomes the voice of the voiceless thus giving the right platform
for the people to use their right to express themselves freely.
 Effective and Wider Communication
It is through different types of mass media from social media to digital
platforms that the world has transformed into a global village. This way,
mass communication has become useful for the people, businesses,
governments and the whole world to stay connected with each other.
 Diffusion of Diverse Cultures
Mass media also plays a colossal part in spreading arts and cultures to
every nook and corner of the world. With the help of the internet,
anyone can learn a new language, know about a different culture or
even travel the whole world without physically going from one place to
another.
 Encyclopedia of Information
The internet is truly a massive open source of information and different
types of mass media from search engine platforms to social media
platforms and learning websites play a greater role in helping anyone
learn anything anywhere.

Apart from these, there are certain disadvantages of mass media such as the
easier spread of fake news, compromised privacy, health issues, glamorizing
censored content and topics, and the possibility of fraud and hacking, amongst
others.

Examples of Mass Media

Whenever do you want to listen to your favourite music, watch the latest
movie, an event or a cricket match, where do you go? While earlier, television
was the only source, the modes of staying updated with the happenings
around you have expanded. Here are the most common examples of Mass
Media:

 Television
 Radio
 Newspapers
 Magazines
 Social Media
 Digital media
 The internet, etc
These sources of disseminating information and news are considered ‘mass
media. It is a medium that is used to communicate with the masses or a large
number of heterogeneous audiences with different kinds of information.

Functions of Mass Media

Mass media has been one of the most significant forces in modern culture. All
types of mass media communication whether written, broadcast or spoken
reach a larger audience thus creating a massive impact. Here are the important
functions of Mass Media:

 Mass media plays a crucial role in shaping how we view the world.
 The intensive use of mass media has resulted in the world appearing
smaller and closer.
 It also promotes the distribution of goods and services.
 The fundamental objectives of mass media are to inform, educate and
entertain the masses.
 It is known to be an important player in democracy and the smooth
functioning of the nation.
 The media is the watchdog of society.
 Mass media works to transmit heritage and cultural values.
 The rise of new mass media creates a global platform to bring people
together.

Types of Mass Media

When it comes to the different forms of media, there are varied formats of
modern media such as print media (newspapers, books, magazines), broadcast
media (television, radio), digital media (internet) as well as video games, music,
cell phones, films, amongst others. All these types of mass media comprise
content as well as a device or object which is the medium for delivering the
content.

There are 6 main types of Mass Media:

1. Traditional Media
2. Print Media
3. Electronic/Broadcasting Media
4. Outdoor Media or Out of Home Media (OOH)
5. Transit Media
6. Digital Media/New Media/Internet
Q.5 What you understand by the term "quick method" explain its different
process of helping Adults with reference of China.

Ans-Nowadays, typewriting has become an important mode of written

communication. A report that typewriting may hinder Chinese children’s
reading development has sparked substantial concern about whether typing
on electronic devices would increase the rate of reading disorders, wherein
children used a pronunciation-based input system that associates alphabet
letters with phonemes in standard Chinese (Putonghua) and may conflict with
the traditional visuomotor-based learning processes for written Chinese. If
orthographic-based input methods that require good awareness of the
orthographic structure of characters are used, different outcomes might be
observed. This study examined the impact of participants’ experience in
different typewriting methods on the literacy abilities of fluent Chinese-English
bilingual readers. We found that orthographic-based typewriting measures
correlated positively with Chinese reading measures, whereas pronunciation-
based typewriting measures did not correlate with Chinese reading measures
but correlated positively with English reading and spelling performance.
Orthographic-based typewriters also performed better than pronunciation-
based typewriters in Chinese reading and dictation when their age, typewriting
skills and pre-University language ability were statistically controlled. Our
findings based on two contrastive writing systems suggest that typewriting
methods that tally with the learning principles of a writing system should be
used to promote and preserve literacy skills in the digital era.
Introduction

In the digital age, information is transmitted electronically, and

communications are achieved digitally by texts, instant messages and video
calls using various communication tools and social networking platforms.
People at the present time seldom write by hand, as keyboarding techniques
allow easy editing and saving of texts and offer useful and convenient tools
such as spelling and grammar checks, text and stylistic formatting, translation,
speech-text conversion, text sharing and simultaneous editing with others via
the internet. In schools, electronic-based learning is promoted, and students
are encouraged to use the internet to search for information and expand their
knowledge. They are sometimes, or even often, required to complete
assignments using computers and to submit them online or in printed form.
Therefore, children nowadays are expected to have some basic typing or
keyboarding skills when they start primary school, and handwriting is used less
and less as a form of communication and literacy learning. This raises a key
question: how do the increasingly used keyboarding techniques coupled with
reduced handwriting affect people’s reading and writing skills?

Extensive experimental studies using alphabetic languages such as English have

shown that phonological processing skills play a central role in reading
acquisition, with impaired reading caused by phonological deficits, but writing
or hand-copying skills have not been found to predict reading outcomes.
Handwriting and typewriting in alphabetic languages entail similar perceptual
and cognitive processes but different attentional and sensory-motor skills.
Specifically, both writing modes start from either phonological (generated
externally for dictation or internally for composition) or visual inputs (written
or printed texts for copying or typewriting), and may involve processes such as
speech or visual word recognition, idea formulation, semantic or lexical
retrieval, phoneme-grapheme conversion (or spelling process), orthographic
long-term and working memory, visual analysis, graphic-motor planning and
motoric hand movements. Furthermore, given these two writing modes both
require eye-hand coordination (or visual-motor integration), handwriting
requires fine motor skills to trace and reproduce letter shape carefully,
whereas typewriting requires searching and touching of the right key on a
keyboard when letters are differentiated by the visuospatial location of the
keys instead of the graphomotor demands. Handwriting may therefore offer
an additional informative memory trace for letter-shape and visuomotor
representation and lead to better letter representation and recognition.
Indeed, the neural substrates underlying letter recognition learned by
handwriting and typewriting have been found to be different. Handwriting
involves stronger activity in the left inferior frontal regions , left anterior
cingulate cortex, bilateral inferior parietal lobule left posterior fusiform
gyrus and dorsal precentral gyrus, and in contrast typewriting involves
additional or stronger brain activity in the left posteromedial intraparietal
cortex and the more rostral part of the left premotor cortex, and the right
posterior fusiform gyrus. The left Broca’s area is found to be responsible for,
beyond verbal language functions, perceptual and motor sequencing21, the
anterior cingulate cortex for conflict monitoring, the bilateral inferior parietal
lobule for hand–objects interactions , and the left posterior fusiform and
dorsal precentral gyrus for letter perception and letter writing. The existence
of dystypia (a lesion in the left frontal lobe that leads to typing impairment
without writing or language disorders) further suggests that typewriting and
handwriting are dissociated functions

These differences observed during the two writing processes have led to
contrastive views on the impact of reduced handwriting on literacy
development. Some argue that handwriting enables the establishment of more
precise orthographic representation and accommodates an additional visual-
motor memory of letter sequences and letter representation, which better
enhances visual recognition of graphic shapes and letters than typewriting in
children and adults. It was reported that children receiving handwriting
training had better spelling (but not reading) skills than those who received
typewriting training (but a study found no significant difference between
handwriting and typewriting skills in spelling acquisition). To the opposite,
Masterson and Apel argued that the reported impact of handwriting and
typewriting skills on spelling could have been caused by confounding factors
such as insufficient proficiency in keyboard skills in some children When
keyboard proficiency was included as a covariate, handwriting and typewriting
training did not lead to differential spelling skills among grade 2 to 6 students.
Similar findings were reported by a study1 which found an interaction between
practice mode (handwriting or typewriting) and pre-existing keyboard skills in
second graders.
In sum, compared with typewriting, handwriting may lead to better letter
representation and recognition, yet its advantageous influence on spelling
skills and its correlation with reading abilities have not been clearly
established. As handwriting and typewriting of an alphabetic script share
similar perceptual and cognitive processes, increasing use of keyboarding
techniques may cause less harm or even bring benefits to alphabetic learners.
Young and disabled learners with motor immaturity or difficulties may be
attracted to the colorful, interactive multimedia displays and encouraged to
read more using digital devices, and the ease of typewriting will motivate them
to write more; as such learners may otherwise be reluctant or even avoid
reading and writing all together, any negative impact that typewriting may
bring is outweighed by the possible advantages. Indeed, young and at-risk
learners have been found to show faster literacy development by typewriting
than handwriting trainingand a positive correlation between computer usage
and letter knowledge was observed in pre-school learners

What will the impact of typewriting experience be on literacy development in

the logographic Chinese system, a writing system fundamentally different from
alphabetic ones? Written Chinese uses the character as a basic writing unit
that is composed of unpronounceable strokes. Each character has a similar-
sized square configuration irrespective of the number of strokes it contains,
and maps onto a syllable and a morpheme without further decoding
phonemes. The syllable-character mapping is not systematic and grapheme-
phoneme correspondence rules that exist in all alphabetic languages are
impossible in Chinese. Children need to be explicitly taught the pronunciation
of each character and to rote memorize the stroke configuration and associate
the visual form with its pronunciation and meaning. This visual-orthographic
demand of written Chinese necessitates a prevalent teaching strategy: copy
repeatedly the newly-instructed characters Through writing, children become
aware of the orthographic structure of a character and learn to construct
characters based on a unique pattern of strokes and components. This type of
decoding is supposed to occur at the visual-orthographic level and will enhance
children’s awareness of the character’s internal structure (a type of
orthographic awareness). Hand copying skills and object drawing skills have
been found to be in significant positive correlation with reading and writing
skillsin native Chinese speakers as well as Chinese-as-foreign-language learners

A pronunciation-based input method based on Hanyu Pinyin is the

predominant Chinese input method in mainland China, which makes easy use
of the QWERTY keyboard that was originally designed for alphabetic languages
(the word QWERTY corresponds to the first six keys of the top letter row of a
keyboard). Pinyin was adopted in the 1970s as a learning aid to help children
and foreign learners pronounce modern Chinese characters. Pinyin is
essentially a phonemic representation system, using the alphabet letters to
represent sounds in standard Chinese, i.e., Putonghua. A similar system is used
in Taiwan called Zhu-Yin-Fu-Hao. Once children have acquired the Pinyin
principle, they are able to derive the sounds of characters through Pinyin
printed above them and to match these sounds with the phonological codes
that already exist in the mental lexicon. Thus, the Pinyin system links print with
speech in Chinese and plays a role resembling the grapheme-phoneme
correspondence rules in alphabetic languages. When people use the pinyin
input method to type Chinese characters, phonological codes of characters
(i.e., syllables) will be activated and converted into Pinyin phonetic
pronunciation, and letters on the keyboard that correspond to the Pinyin
symbols (ignoring tone marks) will be pressed. Thus, the production process
relies on the pronunciation of words but not the visual-orthographic properties
of characters that are indispensable to Chinese reading. As there are many
homophones in Chinese, inputting the Pinyin string of a syllable (e.g.,/dong/)
will retrieve a list of characters that share the same syllable
(e.g., ) and the right character will need to be selected
from these options. The list of characters is arranged based on frequency of
use. The selection process will be speeded up if the full pinyin code of two-or-
more-syllable words is typed (e.g., dong-wu-yuan for , meaning zoo), as “
” will pop up as the first and only three-character-word choice, and only
one selection instead of three (for each character) will be needed. The pinyin
input method even allows users to type just the initials of the pinyin code of
words (e.g., d-w-y in the previous example) to simplify the typing process.
When d-w-y is typed, words that share the same syllable initials (e.g., de-wei-
yi, —, dong-wu-yuan , duo-wan-yuan , ding-wei-yu ,
dan-wo-ye , dui-wo-you , to list only 6 choices) will be retrieved
and arranged according to frequency of use. This feature helps people who are
not familiar with the Pinyin codes to type more efficiently. Thus, although
typing in pinyin may promote phonemic awareness and phonological
memory0 and, henceforth, reading skills, it conflicts with the traditional
learning processes for written Chinese and may aversively affect children’s
reading and, particularly, writing skills