GROUP 3

“PETROLOGY”

Leader:
Barrientos, Cheska E.

Members:

Agsalud, Jose Brian I.

Bobier, Isaac DM.
Catacutan, Steven Michael B.
Elvambuena, Hazel G.
Fajardo, Jazzie N.
Ferrer, Ryan Michael M
Juatco, Karen B.
Mungcal, Aubrey Nichole A.
Piedad, Lee Ryan I.
Riparip, Katrina Joyce B.
Sanqui, Andrei Ruiz C.

Professor:
Engr. Rosel Verdadero-Babalcon
 PETROLOGY

Petrology (from Greek: “Petra” - “rock” and “logos” - “knowledge”) is the study of rocks,
their occurrences, composition, origin and evolution. Petrography deals with the detailed
description and classification of rocks, whereas petrology focuses primarily on the rock formation,
or petrogenesis. A petrological description includes definition of the unit in which the rock occurs,
its attitude and structure, its mineralogy and chemical composition, and conclusions regarding its
origin. The task of petrologists is to carry out research and study rocks, independent of geological
bodies, which are integral parts of the lithosphere and are clearly different from their surroundings.

HOW DOES PETROLOGY DIFFER FROM MINERALOGY?

Petrology is the study of rocks - igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary and the processes
that form and transform them. Mineralogy focuses on the analysis of the chemical composition,
crystal structure, and physical characteristics of minerals. Rocks are usually made up of two or
more minerals, that’s why Petrology is dependent on Mineralogy; both of them are fundamental
parts of geology.

ROCKS
A rock is a naturally occurring aggregate of minerals, and certain non-mineral materials
such as fossils and glass. Just as minerals are the building blocks of rocks, rocks in turn are the
natural building blocks of the Earth's LITHOSPHERE (crust and mantle down to a depth of about
100 km), ASTHENOSPHERE (although this layer, in the depth range from about 100 to 250 km,
is partially molten), MESOSPHERE (mantle in the depth range from about 250 to 2900 km), and
even part of the CORE (while the outer core is molten, the inner core is solid). Most rocks now
exposed at the surface of the Earth formed in or on continental or oceanic crust. Many such rocks,
formed beneath the surface and now exposed at the surface, were delivered to the surface from
great depths in the crust and in rare cases from the underlying mantle. There are two general ways
that rocks come to be exposed at the surface:

1. Formation at the surface (e.g., crystallization of lava, precipitation of calcite or dolomite

from sea water)
2. Formation below the surface, followed by tectonic uplift and removal of the overlying
material by erosion

There are three major classes of rocks, IGNEOUS, SEDIMENTARY,

and METAMORPHIC, with the following attributes:

IGNEOUS ROCKS form by crystallization from molten or partially material,

called MAGMA. Magma comes mainly from two places where it is formed, (1) in the
asthenosphere and (2) in the base of the crust above subducting lithosphere at a convergent plate
boundary.

There are two subclasses of igneous rock, VOLCANIC (sometime called EXTRUSIVE),
and PLUTONIC (sometimes called INTRUSIVE).

VOLCANIC ROCKS (Extrusive) form at the Earth's surface. They cool and crystallized
from magma which has spilled out onto the surface at a volcano. At the surface, the magma is
more familiarly known as LAVA.
 PLUTONIC ROCKS (Intrusive) form from magma that cools and crystallizes beneath the
Earth's surface. In a sense, this is the portion of the magma that never makes it to the surface. For
the plutonic rock to become exposed at the surface, it must be tectonically uplifted and the
overlying material must be removed by erosion.

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS form from material that has accumulated on the Earth's surface. The
general term for the process of accumulation is DEPOSITION. The material consists of the
products of weathering and erosion, and other materials available at the surface of the Earth, such
as organic material. The process by which this otherwise unconsolidated material becomes
solidified into rock is variously referred to LITHIFICATION (literally turned into
rock), DIAGENESIS or CEMENTATION.

Like volcanic rocks, some sedimentary rocks are "lithified" right at the surface, for instance
by direct precipitation from sea water. Other sedimentary rocks, like plutonic igneous rocks, are
"lithified" below the surface, when they are buried under the weight of overlying sediment. And
like the plutonic rocks, sedimentary rocks which were lithified below the surface only become
exposed at the surface by tectonic uplift and erosion of the overlying material.

METAMORPHIC ROCKS form when a sedimentary or igneous rock is exposed to high pressure,
high temperature, or both, deep below the surface of the Earth. The process, METAMORPHISM,
produces fundamental changes in the mineralogy and texture of the rock. The original rock, prior
to metamorphism, is referred to as the PROTOLITH. Temperature, pressure, and fluids are the
three principal metamorphic agents. The protolith can be either an igneous rock or a sedimentary
rock, as just indicated.
 IGNEOUS ROCKS: GRANITE, SYENITE, DIORITE, GABBRO, PEGMATITE,

DOLERITE, BASALT

GRANITE

Granite stone is frequently used in the construction of

buildings, bridges, paving, monuments, countertops, tile
floors, stair treads, and a variety of other design components.
The name granite comes from the Latin word granum, which
means grain. Granite is a granular and phaneritic igneous
rock that makes up 70-80% of the Earth's crust.

Its origin is plutonic, meaning that it originated deep underground. This rock is mostly
made up of interlocked crystals of alkali feldspar, quartz, mica, amphiboles, and other minerals.
Granite can be red, pink, grey, or white in color, depending on the mineral makeup, with black
mineral grains visible to the unaided eye. Granite is a strong and durable rock with a density
ranging from 2.65 to 2.75 g/cm.
*The chemical composition of granite is typically 70-77% silica, 11-13% alumina, 3-5%
potassium oxide, 3-5% soda, 1% lime, 2-3% total iron, and less than 1% magnesia and titania.

Location
It is found in abundance in all continents as part of the continental crust. This rock is found
either in small, stock-like masses spread over an area less than 100 km² or as batholiths which are
part of orogenic mountain ranges. Granite usually forms the base underground rock with other
continental and sedimentary rocks resting over it. Granite also occurs in laccoliths, dikes and sills.
Other rock variations, similar in composition to granite, are alpites and pegmatites. Alpites with
finer grain size than granite, occur at the margins of granitic intrusions. Pegmatites with coarser
grains than granite often share locations with granite deposits.
Formation
There are several controversial theories regarding the origin of granite. The most widely
propagated ones are the magmatic theory and the hypermetamorphic theory. According to the
magmatic theory, plutonic rocks like granite, which are often found associated with mountain
ranges, originated from magma. It is believed that during the formation of mountains, when one
continental edge subdues another one below it, the pressure and frictional forces generated by this
phenomenon is sufficient to melt the rocks underneath the subdued continental edge. This melted
rock or magma seeps up in the form of large globules or plutons. It takes an extremely long time
for the plutons to arrive at the surface of the earth and to be converted into a surface rock, the
pluton must be eroded by the weathering forces acting on the ground. This could be one of the
processes by which granite formation takes place. The hypermetamorphic theory, however,
disregards the magmatic theory and instead propagates that granite is the result of melting and re-
crystallization of sedimentary rock instead of magma. However, as of yet, the precise method of
granite formation is still under research till conclusive proof of the formation of this rock is attained.

Uses
Granite is endowed with all the desirable properties required to use it as a dimension stone.
It is hard and durable enough to resist abrasion and bear significant weight. It is also considerably
inert in nature and can be polished to achieve a brilliant finish. Hence, this stone is used for a
variety of structural and decorative purposes. Both the ancient world and the modern one bear
evidence of the importance of granite as a building material. Today, Granite is commonly used in
the making of roads, pavements, monuments, public buildings and bridges.
Production
Granite is mined worldwide but the most exotic colours are obtained from granite deposits
in China, India, Brazil, Finland and South Africa. Granite mining is a capital and labour-intensive
process. Blocks of granite are extracted from deposits by cutting or blasting procedures.
Specialised cutting machines are used to cut the extracted blocks of granite into transportable slabs
which are then packed and transported via rail or shipping services. China, Brazil and India are
some of the leading granite producers in the world.

Physical Properties of Granite

Hardness:6-7

Grains: Large and Coarse Grained

Streak: White

Luster: Dull to Grainy with Sporadic parts Pearly and Vitreous

Comprehensive strength: 175.00 N/mm2

Density: 2.65-2.75 g/cm3

Specific Gravity: 2.6- 2.7

Transparency: opaque

Color: pink, white, variations of grey and black

Resistance: Heat Resistant, Wear Resistant

SYENITE

Syenite, any of a class of intrusive igneous rocks

essentially composed of an alkali feldspar and a
ferromagnesian mineral. The texture of syenites, like
that of granite, is granular, and these rocks differ from
granite only by the absence or scarcity of quartz. The
alkali feldspars present may include orthoclase, perthite,
albite, or, more rarely, microcline; the ferromagnesian
mineral may be biotite, hornblende, or pyroxene.

*Syenite is a coarsely crystalline plutonic intermediate rock consisting chemically of alkali

feldspar with less than 5% quartz and/or feldspathoid. Clinopyroxene, hornblende, biotite mica, or
olivine may be present in minor proportions.

Formation of Syenite
Formation of syenites are products of alkaline igneous activity, usually formed in thick
continental crustal areas, or in Cordilleran subduction zones. Producing Syenite is necessary to
melt a granitic or igneous protolith to a fairly low degree of partial melting. This is required
because potassium is an incompatible element and tends to enter a melt first, whereas higher
degrees of partial melting will liberate more calcium and sodium, which produce plagioclase, and
hence a granite, adamellite or tonalite.
 At very low degrees of partial melting a silica undersaturated melt is produced, forming a
nepheline syenite, where orthoclase is replaced by a feldspathoid such as leucite, nepheline or
analcime.
Conversely in certain conditions, large volumes of anorthite crystals may precipitate from
thoroughly molten magma in a cumulate process as it cools. This leaves a drastically reduced
concentration of silica in the remainder of the melt. The segregation of the silica from the melt
leaves it in a state that may favor syenite formation.
Occurrence
Syenite is not a common rock. Regions where it occurs in significant quantities include the
following. In the Kola Peninsula of Russia two giant nepheline syenite bodies exists making up
the Lovozero Massif and the Khibiny Mountains. These syenites are part of the Kola Alkaline
Province. In North America syenite occurs in Arkansas and Montana. Regions in New England
have sizable amounts, and in New York syenite gneisses occur. [Bonewitz, R. (2012). The “great
syenite dyke” extends from Hanging Rock, South Carolina through Taxahaw, South Carolina to
the Brewer and Edgeworth mine in Chesterfield, South Carolina.Syenite clasts containing
fluorescent sodalite were found on a beach in Michigan in 2017.
Uses of The Syenite Rock
• Flooring, Homes, Hotels, Interior Decoration
• As Building Stone, As Facing Stone, Paving Stone, Garden Decoration, Office Buildings
• Curbing
• As Dimension Stone, Cement Manufacture, Construction Aggregate, for Road Aggregate,
Landscaping, Making natural cement, Manufacture of Magnesium and Dolomite
Refractories
• Artifacts, Monuments, Sculpture, Small Figurines
• Cemetery Markers, Creating Artwork

Physical Properties of Syenite

Hardness:5-5.6

Grains: Medium to coarse grained

Streak: White

Luster: Subvitreous to Dull

Comprehensive strength: 150.00 N/mm2

Density: 2.6 to 2.8 g/cm3

Specific Gravity: 2.6- 2.7

Cleavage: Perfect

Transparency: opaque

Color: pale colored, grey and pink

Resistance: Heat Resistant, Impact Resistant, Wear Resistant

DIORITE

Diorite is a plutonic igneous rock composed of coarse

grains of plagioclase feldspar and less than 40 percent
hornblende and biotite, or, more rarely, pyroxene or
olivine. Small amounts of potassium feldspar and quartz
may also occur, along with traces of magnetite, apatite,
sphene, and zircon.

Diorite is the plutonic equivalent of the volcanic rock andesite and is intermediate between
gabbro and granite. Diorite occurs around margins of granitic batholiths, in separate plutons, and
in dikes. It forms by the melting of rocks in the lower crust, by the assimilation of crustal rocks in
basaltic magma, or as by metamorphic processes.

How does it form?

Diorite is a course-grained igneous rock that forms when magma rich in silica cools slowly
deep within the Earth’s crust. Laboratory experiments have demonstrated that, when molten rock
material cools quickly, minerals in the resulting rock are very small, often microscopic. The longer
the molten magma is allowed to cool, the larger the minerals become in the resulting rock. The
visible grains in the diorite, therefore, suggest that the molten material that was to form the diorite
cooled slowly in a warm environment deep in the Earth’s crust, allowing the crystals time to grow
to their large-enough-to-be-seen size.

Occurrences of diorite

It is found in volcanic arcs, and in cordilleran mountain building, such as in the Andes
Mountains. However, while its extrusive volcanic equivalent, andesite, is common in these settings,
diorite is a minor component of the plutonic rocks, which are mostly granodiorite or granite.
Diorite also makes up some stocks intruded beneath large calderas.

Diorite source localities include Leicestershire and Aberdeenshire, UK; Thuringia and
Saxony in Germany; Finland; Romania; central Sweden; southern Vancouver Island around
Victoria, Canada; the Darran Range of New Zealand; the Andes Mountains; and Concordia in
South Africa. Hornblende diorite is a common rock type in the Henry, Abajo, and La Sal
Mountains of Utah, US, where it was emplaced as laccoliths

Uses of Diorite

In areas where diorite occurs near the surface, it is sometimes mined for use as a crushed
stone. It has a durability that compares favorably to granite and trap rock. It is used as a base
material in the construction of roads, buildings, and parking areas. It is also used as a drainage
stone and for erosion control.

Physical Properties of Diorite

Hardness: 6-7
Grain size: Medium to Coarse Grained
Streak: Bluish Black
Luster: Shiny
Comprehensive strength: 225.00 N/mm2
Density: 2.8-3 g/cm3
Specific Gravity: 2.8-3
Texture: Phaneritic
Transparency: Opaque
Color: Black, Brown, Light to Dark Grey, White
Resistance: Heat Resistant, Pressure Resistant, Wear Resistant

GABBRO

Gabbro is a coarse-grained, dark-colored, intrusive

igneous rock. It is usually black or dark green in color and
composed mainly of the minerals’ plagioclase and augite. It
is the most abundant rock in the deep oceanic crust. Gabbro
can be polished to a brilliant black luster. Brightly polished
gabbro is used to make cemetery markers, kitchen counter
tops, floor tiles, facing stone, and other dimension stone
products. It is a highly desirable rock that stands up to
weathering and wear.

How does Gabbro form?

Gabbro is a coarse-grained igneous rock that forms when iron-rich magma cools slowly
deep within the Earth. The presence of gabbro in North Carolina is evidence of the divergent
boundary that once caused ancient supercontinents to split up.

Occurrences of Gabbro

Gabbro is a dense, mafic intrusive rock. It generally occurs as batholiths and laccoliths and
is often found along mid-ocean ridges or in ancient mountains composed of compressed and
uplifted oceanic crust. Gabbro is the plutonic equivalent of basalt.

Uses

Gabbro has a variety of uses in the construction industry. It is used for everything from
crushed stone base materials at construction sites to polished stone counter tops and floor tiles.

Physical Properties of Gabbro

Hardness: 7
Grain size: Coarse Grained
Streak: Black
Fracture: Conchoidal
Comprehensive strength: 225.00 N/mm2
Density: 2.7-3.3 g/cm3
Specific Gravity: 2.86-2.87
Texture: Phaneritic
Transparency: Opaque
Color: Dark Grey to Black
Resistance: Impact Resistant, Pressure Resistant, Wear Resistant
PEGMATITE

A pegmatite is an igneous rock with a very coarse texture

and large interlocking crystals that are usually greater
than 1 cm and sometimes larger than 1 meter in size.
Pegmatites contain many of the world's largest crystals.
These include microcline, quartz, mica, spodumene,
beryl, and tourmaline crystals. Most pegmatites have a
composition similar to granite, with quartz, feldspar, and
mica being the most common minerals.

*The pegmatite contains 33.6 percent albite, 30.4 percent quartz, 21.0 percent perthite,
14.0 percent muscovite, and 1.0 percent accessory minerals.

How Does Pegmatite Form?

• Pegmatites are widely believed to form from the last part of a magma body to crystallize

• We know magma is a hot suspension of the earth, making fundamental elements.

• The erupted magma is known as Volcanic Lava, and that goes to the cooling process; hence,
crystallization of various minerals takes place.

• In normal conditions, the lava cools and mineral grain formation happens. The crystallization
of minerals grains forms the igneous rocks

• When instantaneous cooling of lava takes place, so, mineral grains formation cannot take place
result directly into the glass formation.

• When delayed cooling of magma, particularly (more than 5 Km) deep areas of the underground
surface of the earth, takes place, the resulting crystallization yields granites and pegmatite
deposits.

Uses

Pegmatite rock has only a few uses. However, gemstones, industrial minerals, and rare
minerals are frequently found in pegmatite deposits. Pegmatite rock is rarely used as an
architectural stone and is frequently mined for industrial minerals. Pegmatite is used to mine large
sheets of mica, as well as for quartz and feldspar. Pegmatites are also the primary source of lithium.

Physical Properties of Pegmatite Stones

Hardness:7
Grains: Medium to coarse
Fracture: Conchoidal
Streak: White
Luster: Vitreous, grainy, and pearly
Comprehensive strength: 178.54 N/mm2
Density: 2.6 to 2.65 g/cm2
Specific Gravity: 2.6- 2.63
Cleavage: Perfect
Transparency: Translucent to opaque
Color: Black, Brown, cream, green, grey, pink, red, rust, silver, white, and yellow
Resistance: Heat, pressure, impact, water, scratch, stain, acid and wind
Occurrence of Pegmatites

Pegmatite can be found all over the world. They are the most common type of old rock.
Some are found in large intrusive igneous rocks, while others are found scattered over rocks that
surround intrusive magmatic rocks.

Pegmatite occurrences are common in major cratons and greenschist-facies metamorphic

belts around the world.

Pegmatites are found as irregular dikes, sills, or veins on the margins of batholiths (large
masses of intrusive igneous rock. Most are spatially and genetically related to large intrusions.

Asia: India, Iran, Japan, Nepal, China, Russia, Saudi Arabia, North Korea and South Korea

Africa: South Africa

Europe: Ireland, Italy, Netherlands, France, Spain Greece, Austria, Slovakia, Turkey, and
Ukraine

America: Canada & Brazil

Oceania: Australian Peninsulas , including New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, &
Western Australia

Origin: Germany

Discoverer: Christian Leopold von Buch

DIABASE (DOLERITE)

Diabase, also known as Dolerite, is a fine- to medium-grained,

dark gray to black igneous rock. Diabase is the preferred name
in North America, while dolerite is the preferred name in the
rest of the English-speaking world. It's extremely hard and
tough, and it's frequently mined for crushed stone. Diabase is
chemically and mineralogically similar to the volcanic rock
basalt, but it is coarser and contains glass. Diabase may
transform into gabbro as grain size increases. Diabase is mostly
made up of pyroxene and feldspar.

*Diabase contains plagioclase, labradorite, olivine, hornblende, magnetite, limenite,

apatite, calcite, pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, serpentine, chlorite, and calcite as its mineral contents.

Geologic Occurrence of Diabase (Formation)

The formation of diabase has two requirements:

1) A basaltic magma sources
2) Shallow emplacement and cooling in a relatively small subsurface structure such as a sill,
dike, lopolith or laccolith.
Uses

Most diabase that is mined is used in the construction industry. There are several types of use:

1) Crushed Stone: Diabase is one of many types of "trap rock" used in the construction industry
as crushed stone.

2) Dimension Stone: Diabase can be cut or sheared into blocks of varying sizes. Here are some
examples of diabase applications:

a) Building Stone: block-shaped pieces used as structural elements in foundations, walls,

abutments, ashlars, and other structures.

b) Architectural Stone: irregular-shaped pieces used as stair treads, window lintels, window
sills, counter tops, flooring tiles, facing stone, columns, and other similar applications.

c) Paving Stone: cut pieces for use as patio stones, curbing, pavé, and so on.

d) Monument Stone: dimensional stone cut for use as monuments, burial markers, gateways,
directories, memorials, and other similar purposes.

Where Can Diabase Be Found?

Diabase is found on all seven continents.

It's a common type of rock in North America, Europe, and Africa.

Diabase formations are notable in the United States states of New Jersey and Pennsylvania, as
well as in Scotland, Norway, and South Africa.

Physical Properties of Diabase

Hardness: 7
Grain Size: Fine to Medium Grained
Fracture: Conchoidal
Streak: Black
Luster: metallic to dull
Compressive Strength:225.00 N/mm2
Rank: 7 (Overall)
Cleavage: poor c
Specific Gravity: 2.86-2.87
Transparency: Opaque
Density: 2.7-3.3 g/cm3
Resistance: Heat Resistant, Impact Resistant, Pressure Resistant, Wear Resistant
BASALT

Basalt is a common extrusive igneous rock formed by the

rapid cooling of basaltic lava exposed at or very near the
surface of Earth. It is a dark-colored, fine-grained, igneous
rock composed mainly of plagioclase and pyroxene minerals.
It has a composition similar to gabbro. The difference
between basalt and gabbro is that basalt is a fine-grained rock
while gabbro is a coarse-grained rock.
*Basalt is an extrusive igneous (volcanic) rock that is
low in silica content and comparatively rich in iron and
magnesium.

Formation
Most of the basalt found on Earth was produced in just three rock-forming environments:

1) Oceanic divergent boundaries

2) Oceanic hotspots
3) Mantle plumes and hotspots beneath continents.

• Oceanic Divergent Boundaries

Most of Earth's basalt is produced at divergent plate boundaries on the mid-ocean ridge
system. Here convection currents deliver hot rock from deep in the mantle. This hot rock melts as
the divergent boundary pulls apart, and the molten rock erupts onto the sea floor. The submarine
fissure eruptions often produce pillow basalts.

• Oceanic Hotspots

Another location where significant amounts of basalt are produced is above oceanic hotspots.
A small plume of hot rock rises up through the mantle from a hotspot on Earth's core.
The Hawaiian Islands are an example of where basaltic volcanoes have been built above
an oceanic hotspot.
Basalt production at these locations begins with an eruption on the ocean floor. If the
hotspot is sustained, repeated eruptions can build the volcanic cone larger and larger until it
becomes high enough to become an island. All of the islands in the Hawaiian Island chain were
built up from basalt eruptions on the sea floor.

Basalt-Forming Environments: This map shows the location of oceanic divergent boundaries
and hotspots. These are locations where large volumes of basalt have been formed.
Map copyright by Geology.com and MapResources. Locations generalized after United States Geological Survey,
Geologic Investigations Map I-2800: This Dynamic Planet.
 • Plumes & Hotspots Below Continents
The third basalt-forming environment is a continental environment where a mantle plume
or hotspot delivers enormous amounts of basaltic lava through the continental crust and up to
Earth's surface. These eruptions can be from either vents or fissures. They have produced the
largest basalt flows on the continents. The eruptions can occur repeatedly over millions of years,
producing layer after layer of basalt stacked in a vertical sequence

Uses of Basalt
Basalt is the most common rock on Earth’s surface, used for a wide variety of purposes. It
is most commonly crushed for use as an aggregate in construction projects. Crushed basalt is used
for road base, concrete aggregate, asphalt pavement aggregate, railroad ballast, filter stone in drain
fields, and many other purposes. Basalt is also cut into dimension stone. Thin slabs of basalt are
cut and sometimes polished for use as floor tiles, building veneer, monuments, and other stone
objects.

Physical Properties of Basalt

Hardness: 6
Fracture: Conchoidal
Streak: White to Grey
Comprehensive strength: 37.40 N/mm2
Density: 2.9-3.1 g/cm3
Specific Gravity: 2.8-3
Specific Heat Capacity: 0.84 kJ/Kg K
Appearance: Dull and Soft
Transparency: Opaque
Grain size: Fine Grained
Color: Black, Brown, Light to Dark Grey
Resistance: Heat Resistant, Pressure Resistant, Wear Resistant
Texture: Glassy, Massive, Porphyritic, Scoriaceous, Vesicular
 SEDIMENTARY ROCKS: SANDSTONES, LIMESTONES, SHALE,
CONGLOMERATE, BRECCIA

SANDSTONES

Sandstones are made of sand grains that have been cemented

together. Sandstones usually have a rough, granular texture,
but to really identify a sandstone you have to peer closely at its
surface. Sandstone is made of sand grains (0.05mm to 2mm)
that contain a matrix of silt- or clay-size particles that occupy
the spaces between the sand grains. It is one of the most
common types of sedimentary rock, and it is found in
sedimentary basins throughout the world.

Occurrence

Sandstone is abundant in areas that have been deserts for tens of thousands of years. Areas
that may have been coastal regions facing oceans or the edges of lakes can produce sandstone.
Sandstone is a very common mineral and can be found all over the world. There are large deposits
found in the United States, South Africa (where eight different varieties of the stone can be found),
and Germany holds the most locations of sandstone deposits in the world.

How does sandstone form?

Sandstone is a rock comprising mostly of minerals formed from sand. The stone gains its
formation throughout centuries of deposits forming in lakes, rivers, or on the ocean floor. These
elements group together with the minerals quartz or calcite and compresses. In time, the sandstone
is formed by the pressure of these minerals coming together.

Sandstones Material in the construction industry

Sandstones in combination with cement are used in the construction of heavy structures. It is also
employed in masonry works, dams, bridge piers, and river walls. It is composed of quartz and
feldspar.

• Sandstone is a very durable rock that can withstand a lot of wear and tear. It is resistant to
weathering, erosion, and other natural forces, making it ideal for use in outdoor
applications such as building facades, garden paths, and patios. Also, sandstone is
recognized for its natural strength, durability and slip-resistant properties.
• Sandstone is a relatively inexpensive rock that is widely available. This makes it a cost-
effective option for many different applications, including building facades, garden paths
and patios.
• Sandstone is a versatile rock that can be used for a wide range of applications. It can be cut
and shaped into different sizes and forms, making it suitable for use in everything from
paving to sculpture.

Physical Properties of Sandstones:

Grain size: 0.06 – 2mm; clasts visible to the naked eye, often identifiable.

Texture: clastic (only noticeable with a microscope). The sandy texture of sandstone is easiest to
see when the sand grains are highlighted by different colors.

Hardness: hardness of Sandstone is 6-7

Color: color of sandstone varies, depending on its composition. Argillaceous sandstones are often
gray to blue because they are composed of light colored minerals. The most common sandstones
have various shades of red, caused by iron oxide (rust).

Based on hardness and color, four main types of sandstone can be recognized:

• gray sandstone
• crystallized sandstone
• hard sandstone
• carbonate cemented sandstone.

Luster: usually opaque with a dull luster although some pieces may be translucent.

Specific Gravity: specific gravity is 2.2-2.8

Clasts: Dominantly quartz and feldspar (orthoclase, plagioclase) with lithic clasts and varying
minor amounts of other minerals.

SHALE

Shale is the most abundant of the sedimentary rocks

because accounting for roughly 70 percent of this rock type
in the crust. They can deposit in sedimentary basins and on
the continental shelf. The Earth's crust is a dynamic surface
that changes over long geological spans of time. Tectonic
forces beneath the crust deform and move the surface; the
atmosphere above weathers and erodes the crust. Geologists
estimate that shale represents almost ¾ of the sedimentary
rock on the Earth’s crust.

Occurrence

Shales are generally deposited in lacustrine (continental), deltaic (transitional) and marine
depositional environments. Shales are typically deposited in very slow moving water and are often
found in lakes and lagoonal deposits, in river deltas, on floodplains and offshore from beach sands.
They can also be deposited in sedimentary basins and on the continental shelf, in relatively deep,
quiet water.

How does shale form?

It forms from the compaction of silt and clay-size mineral particles that we commonly call
"mud." This composition places shale in a category of sedimentary rocks known as "mudstones''.
Its formation is fine particles that can remain suspended in water long after the larger particles of
sand have deposited.
Importance Of Shales to The Petroleum Industry

According to Okeke (2003), the petroleum industry encompasses exploration, production,

transportation, processing and marketing of petroleum oil and gas. The generation and
accumulation of petroleum involve three stages, namely, generation in the source rocks, migration
through geologic formations and storage in rock reservoirs.

Petroleum source rocks are geologic formations that are capable of generating petroleum
Coal, mudstone and shale are the recognized source rocks because of their organic carbon contents.
These organic contents, depending on their nature, depositional environment, temperature,
pressure, and depth of burial are capable of generating petroleum. Generally, petroleum gas is
produced in high temperature/pressure, humic and plant dominant organic sediments such as coal
while oil is produced from less humic, fossil dominant and moderate temperature/pressure marine
shales.

Physical Properties of Shale Stone:

Texture: because of shale's finely grained clay minerals it is relatively smooth. It easily breaks
along thin layers or flat planes to varying degrees.

Hardness: 3. very brittle and breaks apart easily (pure clay minerals) 0.51 GPa

Color: Black, Brown, Buff, Green, Grey, Red, Yellow

*The higher the organic content of a shale, the darker its color. The presence of hematite
and limonite (hydrated ferric oxide) gives rise to reddish and purple color, while mineral
components rich in ferrous iron impart blue, green, and black hues. Shale may be any color, but is
generally greenish gray to grayish black.

Tenacity: fine-grained detrital sedimentary rock, formed by the consolidation (esp. by

compression) of clay, silt, or mud.

Luster: dull

Specific Gravity: 2.2-2.8

Streak: White

Transparency: Opaque

Minerals: Clay minerals, Quartz

LIMESTONE

Limestone is a sedimentary rock

composed primarily of calcite, a calcium
carbonate mineral with a chemical composition
of CaCO3. It usually forms in clear, calm, warm,
shallow marine water.

It may be precipitated from water (non-clastic, chemical or inorganic limestone), secreted

by using marine organisms including algae and coral (biochemical limestone), or can shape from
the shells of lifeless sea creatures (bioclastic limestone). Some limestones form from the
cementation of sand or mud by way of calcite (clastic limestone), and these often have the
appearance of sandstone or mudstone.
Occurrence of limestones

It forms predominantly on the seafloor where material rich in calcium carbonate

(‘calcareous’ material) accumulates. This calcareous material may be organic, chemical or detrital
in origin.
The sediment that goes to make up it may have been derived from the dead remains of
marine organisms such as:

• bryozoa
• corals
• crinoids
• microscopic algae
• Shells

These organisms remove calcium carbonate (CaCO3) from the sea water to construct shells
or skeletons. CaCo3 cement, which may be fine grained (called micrite) or coarse grained (called
sparite), holds the fossils (such as coccoliths and foraminifera) together to form a limestone.

Where can limestones be found?

The development of the limestone distribution has been relatively fast in the Asia Pacific
over the past decade, mainly due to the presence of developing countries in the region such as
China.
Europe also showed substantial growth. This region has a strong presence in the global
steelmaking industry. Steel making requires large amounts of limestone as raw material, which is
projected to drive the limestone market in the region during the forecast period.
The distribution in Latin America is driven by demand for minerals in the agricultural
industry, while building & building materials are the main applications of limestone in the Middle
East & Africa.

Uses
Limestone is a source of lime (calcium oxide), which is used in steel manufacturing, mining,
paper production, water treatment and purification, and plastic production. Lime also has major
applications in the manufacture of glass and in agriculture.

Properties of Limestones

Limestone is by definition a rock that contains at least 50% calcium carbonate in the form
of calcite by weight. All limestones contain at least a few percent other materials. These can be
small particles of quartz, feldspar, or clay minerals delivered to the site by streams, currents and
wave action.

Color: Can be yellow, white, or gray

Chemical Composition: Calcite
Texture – Clastic or Non-Clastic
Grain size – Variable, can consist of clasts of all sizes.
Hardness – between 3 and four
Clasts – if clastic / bioclastic then grains and / or broken or whole shell fragments visible; if non-
clastic / chemical then crystalline and no clasts visible.
Major minerals: Calcite, dolomite
CONGLOMERATE

Conglomerate is a type of clastic sedimentary rock

composed of rounded clasts larger than two millimeters in
diameter. Sand and clay-sized particles typically fill the
spaces between the clasts. The rock is held together by a
cement, which is typically made of calcite or quartz. The
gaps between the clast can also be filled with matrix which
is composed of sand, silt and clay particles.

What Is Conglomerate Made Of?

Conglomerate is a coarse-grained sedimentary rock composed of a finer-grained matrix of

sand, silt, or clay plus rounded gravel (grains larger than 2 mm in diameter), such as pebbles, that
has been cemented together naturally. Conglomerates form in high-energy environments, such as
fast-moving river and stream currents. Some are lag deposits, which are formed when finer
sediments are winnowed away, concentrating the heavier gravel-sized particles. Conglomerates
account for a small proportion of all clastic sedimentary rocks.

Properties of Conglomerate

Texture: Clastic (coarse-grained).

Grain size: > 2mm; Clasts easily visible to the naked eye, should be identifiable.
Hardness: Soft to hard, dependent on clast composition and strength of cement.
Color: variable, dependent on clast and matrix composition.
Streak: White
Transparency: Opaque
Clasts: variable, but generally harder rock types and / or minerals dominate.
Other features: Clasts generally smooth to touch, matrix variable.

Where are Conglomerate Rocks Found?

The formation of conglomerate rocks takes place in the areas where an abundant supply of
water from various water bodies is possible. The geologists suggest the following different
environments of depositions of conglomerate rocks in different parts of the planet.

• Shallow Water Marine Environment

• Deep Water Marine Environment

• Glacial Environment

• Alluvial Environment

• Fluvial Environment

What are the uses of Conglomerate Rock?

Conglomerate has very few uses because of it not clean breakage and fine particles are
unreliable. It can only be used as a crush where low performance material is wanted. Conglomerate
has very few commercial uses. Its inability to break cleanly makes it a poor candidate for
dimension stone, and its variable composition makes it a rock of unreliable physical strength and
durability. Conglomerate can be crushed to make a fine aggregate that can be used where a low-
performance material is suitable. Many conglomerates are colorful and attractive rocks, but they
are only rarely used as an ornamental stone for interior use.
BRECCIA

Breccia is a clastic sedimentary rock that is

composed of angular and boulder-sized clasts that are
cemented together. The cement that holds the clasts in a
breccia can be made of calcite, silica, or iron oxide, and the
matrix may also contain sand and/or silt-sized clasts.

How does Breccia form?

Breccia forms where broken, angular fragments of rock or mineral debris accumulate. One
of the most common locations for breccia formation is at the base of an outcrop where mechanical
weathering debris accumulates. Another is in stream deposits a short distance from the outcrop or
on an alluvial fan.

Some breccias form from debris flow deposits. The angular particle shape reveals that they
have not been transported very far (transport wears the sharp points and edges of angular particles
into rounded shapes). After deposition, the fragments are bound together by a mineral cement or
by a matrix of smaller particles that fills the spaces between the fragments.

In arid and semiarid areas, the precipitation of mineral cements in shallow sediments or
soils can result in the formation of extensive rock units known as "caliche." These materials often
have the appearance of breccia and fit the definition.

Physical Properties of Breccia

Texture: clastic (coarse-grained).

Grain size: > 2mm; clasts easily visible to the naked eye, should be identifiable.
Hardness: 7
Color: Dependent on clast and matrix composition.
Streak: White
Fracture: Uneven
Clasts: variable, but generally harder rock types and / or minerals dominate.
Other features: Rough to touch due to angular clasts.

Breccia Can Be Further Divided According To:

Class - breccia can be divided into two broad classes:

Clast supported - where the clasts touch each other and the matrix fills the voids; and

Matrix supported - where the clasts are not in contact and the matrix surrounds each clast;

Clast size - fine (2 - 6mm), medium (6 - 20mm), coarse (20 - 60mm), very coarse (> 60mm);

Sorting - a breccia comprising a mixture of clast sizes is poorly sorted, while one comprising
mostly clasts of the same size is well sorted;

Lithology - a breccia where the clasts represent more than one rock type is termed polymictic (or
petromictic), while one where the clasts are of a single rock type are monomictic (or oligomictic).
Occurrence of Breccia

Breccia can be found near landslides, fault zones and cryptolithic explosion events. A
breccia zone located near fault zones can vary drastically in size from inches to several yards. The
other type is a gray rock known as lunar breccias. They are found at volcanic eruptions on Earth.

Where are breccia found in the Philippines?

A classic diatreme breccia complex is exemplified by the Balatoc Diatreme, a major host
to the large Acupan epithermal vein system, within the world-class Baguio Mineral District in
north Luzon.

In the moon?

A wide range of crater sizes are found on the Moon, and it is easy to see why a wide range
of breccia types is also present. Lunar breccias can originate from either large or small craters
and/or from different radial distances from large craters.

What are the uses of Breccia?

Because of its variable composition, breccia has an interesting appearance. The rock is
mainly used to make sculptures, gems, and architectural elements. The Minoan palace of Knossos
on Crete, constructed around 1800 B.C., includes columns made of breccia. The ancient Egyptians
used breccia to make statues. The Romans regarded breccia as a precious stone and used it to
construct public buildings, columns, and walls. The Pantheon in Rome features columns made of
pavonazzetto, a type of breccia with a pattern resembling peacock feathers. In modern culture,
breccia is used for decorative elements, jewelry, and sometimes as a fill material for roads.

METAMORPHIC ROCKS

From the words meta- meaning change and –morphos meaning form.

Metamorphic rocks started out as some other type of rock, but have been substantially changed
from their original igneous, sedimentary, or earlier metamorphic form.

PROCESS OF METAMOPHISM

Metamorphism occurs when solid rock changes in composition and/or texture without the mineral
crystals melting, which is how igneous rock is generated.

The process of metamorphism does not melt the rocks, but instead transforms them into
denser, more compact rocks. New minerals are created either by rearrangement of mineral
components or by reactions with fluids that enter the rocks. Pressure or temperature can even
change previously metamorphosed rocks into new types. Metamorphic rocks are often squished,
smeared out, and folded. Despite these uncomfortable conditions, metamorphic rocks do not get
hot enough to melt, or they would become igneous rocks.
TYPES OF METAMORPHISM

Burial Metamorphism

Burial metamorphism occurs when rocks are deeply buried, at depths of more than 2000
meters (1.24 miles). Burial metamorphism commonly occurs in sedimentary basins, where rocks
are buried deeply by overlying sediments.

Burial metamorphism can cause clay minerals, such as smectite, in shales to change to
another clay mineral illite. Or it can cause quartz sandstone to metamorphose into the quartzite
such the Big Cottonwood Formation in the Wasatch Range of Utah.

Contact Metamorphism

Contact metamorphism occurs in rock exposed to high temperature and low pressure, as might
happen when hot magma intrudes into or lava flows over pre-existing protolith. This combination
of high temperature and low pressure produces numerous metamorphic facies. The lowest pressure
conditions produce hornfels facies, while higher pressure creates greenschist, amphibolite, or
granulite facies.

Regional Metamorphism

Regional metamorphism occurs when parent rock is subjected to increased temperature

and pressure over a large area and is often located in mountain ranges created by converging
continental crustal plates. This is the setting for the Barrovian sequence of rock facies, with the
lowest grade of metamorphism occurring on the flanks of the mountains and highest grade near
the core of the mountain range, closest to the convergent boundary.

Subduction Zone Metamorphism

Subduction zone metamorphism is a type of regional metamorphism that occurs when a

slab of oceanic crust is subducted under continental crust. Because rock is a good insulator, the
temperature of the descending oceanic slab increases slowly relative to the more rapidly increasing
pressure, creating a metamorphic environment of high pressure and low temperature.

Fault Metamorphism

There are a range of metamorphic rocks made along faults. Near the surface, rocks are
involved in repeated brittle faulting produce a material called rock flour, which is rock ground up
to the particle size of flour used for food. At lower depths, faulting create cataclastites, chaotically-
crushed mixes of rock material with little internal texture. At depths below cataclasites, where
strain becomes ductile, mylonites are formed. Mylonites are metamorphic rocks created by
dynamic recrystallization through directed shear forces, generally resulting in a reduction of grain
size. When larger, stronger crystals (like feldspar, quartz, garnet) embedded in a metamorphic
matrix are sheared into an asymmetrical eye-shaped crystal, an augen is formed.

Shock Metamorphism

Shock (also known as impact) metamorphism is metamorphism resulting from meteor or

other bolide impacts, or from a similar high-pressure shock event. Shock metamorphism is the
result of very high pressures (and higher, but less extreme temperatures) delivered relatively
rapidly. Shock metamorphism produces planar deformation features, tektites, shatter cones, and
quartz polymorphs. Shock metamorphism produces planar deformation features (shock laminae),
which are narrow planes of glassy material with distinct orientations found in silicate mineral
grains. Shocked quartz has planar deformation features.
 METAMORPHIC ROCKS: QUARTZITE, MARBLE, SLATE,
GNEISS, SCHIST

QUARTZITE

Quartzite is a type of metamorphic rock that has a

granoblastic texture and is compact, hard, non-foliated, medium
to coarsely crystalline, and nearly mono-mineral. The process
of recrystallization and loss of original forms and contacts of
grain under high pressure and high temperature results in the
isometric grain shape and their jagged contacts.

Pure sandstone, siltstone, and hornfels are examples of sedimentary rocks rich in quartz
from which the pure quartzite is formed. More than 90% of the quartzite is composed of quartz,
but it also contains many other minerals that are only present in trace amounts. These include mica
(quartzite of mica), feldspar (quartzite of feldspar), chlorite (quartzite of chlorite), garnet
( quartzite of garnet), and amphibole ( quartzite of amphibole).

Scripture and Occurrence

Throughout South America, quartzite caves can be found in a variety of different

geological formations. The vast majority are fluvial and eolic sandstones that have undergone
varied degrees of intense metamorphism in the distant past (Late to Mid Proterozoic)

Formation

In mountain-building processes near convergent plate borders when sandstone was

deposited on a continental plate, quartzite predominately formed. The strong pressure of a plate
collision and frequently deep burial there causes the sandstone to transform into quartzite.

Fascinating quartzite fact

One of the most outstanding varieties of natural stone in terms of hardness, physical
toughness, and chemical resistance is quartzite. This beautiful rock's countertops can withstand
almost anything, including heat. Additionally, they are resistant to etching and tough to damage,
just like expensive granite worktops.

Uses

Quartzite is a decorative stone and may be used to cover walls, as roofing tiles, as flooring,
and stairsteps. Its use for countertops in kitchens is expanding rapidly. It is harder and more
resistant to stains than granite. Crushed quartzite is sometimes used in road construction.

Properties.

Quartzite is far harder than sandstone, with a Mohs hardness of 7, which is comparable to
that of quartz. It splits into conchoidal fragments, just like glass and obsidian. Due of its rough
texture, it is challenging to hone to a fine edge. The interlocking crystal structure of quartzite is
visible under magnification.

Other Physical Properties

Hardness: 7
Grain size: Medium Grained
Fracture: Uneven, Splintery or Conchoidal
Streak: White
Luster: Vitreous
Cleavage: Indiscernible
Density: 2.32-2.42 g/cm3
Specific Gravity: 2.6-2.8
Transparency: Transparent to Translucent
Color: Black, Blue, Brown, Green, Light Grey, Purple, White, Yellow
Resistance: Heat Resistant, Impact Resistant, Pressure Resistant, Wear Resistant
Texture: Foliated, Granular

MARBLE

The word “marble” derives from the Ancient

Greek mármaros, “crystalline rock, shining stone”

Marble is a metamorphic rock composed of

recrystallized carbonate minerals, most commonly calcite
or dolomite. Marble is typically not foliated, although
there are exceptions. In geology, the term marble refers to
metamorphosed limestone, but its use in stonemasonry
more broadly encompasses unmetamorphosed limestone.

It is made of mostly Calcium carbonate (CaCo3) with minor amounts Silica, magnesium
carbonate, Silica, Iron oxide, Aluminium oxide etc.

Where do marbles came from?

Marbles are most prevalent in the older layers of the Earth’s crust that have been deeply
buried in areas of intense folding and igneous intrusion, where they frequently appear interbedded
with metamorphic rocks such mica schists, phyllites, gneisses, and granulites.

Although marble may be found all over the world, it is most common in Italy, Spain, India,
and China. The most renowned and well-known white marble originates in Carrara, Italy.

How does marbles form?

Marble forms when a pre-existing limestone rock is heated to such extreme temperatures
that the minerals grow larger and fuse together. The dark, foliated bands cutting through the marble
are a different kind of metamorphic rock, such as slate.

Uses

Marbles are used principally for buildings and monuments, interior decoration, statuary,
table tops, and novelties. Colour and appearance are their most important qualities.

Did you know?

The Taj Mahal in India, is built of Makrana. Makrana is a white marble that changes hue with the
angle of the light.
Properties of Marble

Hardness: 3-4
Grain size: medium grained; can see interlocking calcite crystals with the naked eye.
Texture: Granoblastic, granular.
Streak: White
Luster: Dull to Pearly to Subvitreous
Cleavage: Perfect
Specific Gravity: 2.86-2.87
Transparency: Opaque
Density: 2.4-2.7 g/cm3
Resistance: Heat Resistant
Color: White, pink
Structure: Massive
Acid Reaction: Being composed of calcium carbonate, marble will react in contact with many
acids, neutralizing the acid. It is one of the most effective acid neutralization materials. It is often
crushed and used for acid neutralization in streams, lakes, and soils.

SLATE

Slate is a fine-grained, foliated, homogeneous

metamorphic rock derived from an original shale-type
sedimentary rock composed of clay or volcanic ash
through low-grade regional metamorphism. It is the
finest grained foliated metamorphic rock.

Slate is a versatile natural stone famous for its beauty, unique texture, and appearance.
Slate has many uses such as snooker tables, roofing, gravestones, flooring and garden decorations.
Standard slate weighs about 8 lbs. per square foot, but varies with color and texture.

Slates may be black, blue, purple, red, green, or gray. Dark slates usually owe their colour
to carbonaceous material or to finely divided iron sulfide. Reddish and purple varieties owe their
colour to the presence of hematite (iron oxide), and green varieties owe theirs to the presence of
much chlorite, a green micaceous clay mineral.

How does slate form?

Slate is usually formed from mudstone that has been put under pressure and heated up during plate
collisions and mountain building. Pressure causes the platy clay minerals to line up parallel to each
other and so the rock splits easily into sheets.

Slate’s Occurrence

Accordingly, slates are primarily found amid older rocks, though some can also be found
in areas where more recent rocks have been squeezed and folded as a result of mountain-building
events. The direction of the forces applied during metamorphism determines the direction of
cleavage.
 In Europe, most slate is mined in Spain. It is also mined in the United Kingdom, and parts
of France, Italy, and Portugal. Brazil is the second-biggest producer of slate. In the Americas, it’s
also found in Newfoundland, Pennsylvania, New York, Vermont, Maine, and Virginia. China,
Australia, and the Arctic also have large reserves of slate.

Slates are found abundantly in Vermont, New York, Virginia, and Pennsylvania. The slate
industry in Spain is the source of about 90% of slates used in Europe, the region of Galicia being
the principal area of production.

Uses

Due to its thermal stability and chemical inertness, slate has been used for laboratory bench
tops and for billiard table tops. In areas where it is available, high-quality slate is used for
tombstones and commemorative tablets. In some cases, slate was used by the ancient Maya
civilization to fashion stelae.

3 FACTS ABOUT SLATE

• Slate is mostly made of clay but the clay can change to mica under extreme degrees of
pressure.
• The color of slate is largely determined by the amount of iron it contains, but it is normally
a shade of grey.
• Slate normally forms in basins between convergent plate boundaries.

Physical Properties of Slate

Hardness: 3-4
Fracture: Splintery
Streak: Light to dark brown
Luster: Dull
Cleavage: Slaty
Density: 2.6-2.8 g/cm3
Specific Gravity: 2.65-2.8
Transparency: Opaque
Grain size: Very fine-grained
Color: Black, Brown, Buff, Green, Light to Dark Grey, Purple, Red, Shades of Blue
Resistance: Heat Resistant, Impact Resistant, Pressure Resistant, Wear Resistant
Texture: Foliated
Major minerals: Quartz and muscovite or illite frequently along with biotite, chlorite, hematite,
and pyrite
GNEISS

Description
A coarse to medium grained banded metamorphic
rock called gneiss is created during regional metamorphism
from igneous or sedimentary rocks. Gneisses, in addition to
being abundant in feldspar and quartz, also contain mica
minerals and aluminous or ferromagnesian silicates.

Thin bands of quartz feldspar minerals may be separated by bands of mica in some gneisses,
although mica may be dispersed uniformly throughout in other gneisses. Common orthogneisses
resemble granite or granodiorite in composition, and some of them may have once been lava flows.

How does gneiss rock form?

Schist, granite, or volcanic rocks are changed by high heat and pressure to generate gneiss, a
metamorphic rock. Gneiss has layers of lighter and darker minerals because it is foliated. These
layers, which are of varying densities, are the result of the high pressure needed to create gneiss.

Uses

Metamorphic gneiss is a versatile building material that can be used for a variety of purposes,
including flooring, decorative stones, gravestones, building facing, and work surfaces.

Physical Properties of Gneiss Stones

Hardness: 7
Grain size: Medium to Coarse Grained
Fracture: Irregular
Streak: White
Luster: Dull
Density: 2.6-2.9 g/cm3
Specific Gravity: 2.5-2.7
Cleavage: Poor
Transparency: Translucent to Opaque
Color: Black, Brown, Pink, Red, White
Resistance: Heat Resistant, Pressure Resistant, Scratch Resistant, Wear Resistant
Texture: Banded, Foliated, Platy

SCHIST

Schist is a foliated metamorphic rock made up of

plate-shaped mineral grains that are large enough to see with
an unaided eye. It usually forms on a continental side of a
convergent plate boundary where sedimentary rocks, such as
shales and mudstones, have been subjected to compressive
forces, heat, and chemical activity.
This metamorphic environment is intense enough to convert the clay minerals of the
sedimentary rocks into platy metamorphic minerals such as muscovite, biotite, and chlorite. To
become schist, a shale must be metamorphosed in steps through slate and then through phyllite.
How Does Schist Form?
Schist is a rock that has been exposed to a moderate level of heat and a moderate level of
pressure. If the slate is exposed to additional metamorphism, the mica grains in the rock will begin
to grow. The grains will elongate in a direction that is perpendicular to the direction of compressive
force. This alignment and increase in mica grain size gives the rock a silky luster. At that point the
rock can be called a "phyllite." When the platy mineral grains have grown large enough to be seen
with the unaided eye, the rock can be called "schist".
Uses
Schist is not a rock with numerous industrial uses. Its abundant mica grains and its
schistosity make it a rock of low physical strength, usually unsuitable for use as a construction
aggregate, building stone, or decorative stone. The only exception is for its use as a fill when the
physical properties of the material are not critical.

Physical Properties of Schist

Hardness: 3.5-4
Grain size: Medium to Fine Coarse Grained
Fracture: Conchoidal
Streak: White
Luster: Shiny
Density: 2.8-2.9 g/cm3
Specific Gravity: Slaty
Cleavage: Slaty
Transparency: Opaque
Color: Black, Blue, Brown, Dark Brown, Green, Grey, Silver
Resistance: Impact Resistant, Pressure Resistant, Water Resistant
Texture: Foliated, Platy
REFERENCES:

Haldar, S. K., & Tišljar, J. (2014). Basic Petrology.

Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology, 81–
91. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-408133-8.00003-1

Haldar, S. K., & Tišljar, J. (2014). Igneous Rocks. Introduction

to Mineralogy and Petrology, 93–120. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-
408133-8.00004-3

Haldar, S. K., & Tišljar, J. (2014). Sedimentary Rocks.

Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology, 121–
212. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-408133-8.00005-5

Haldar, S. K., & Tišljar, J. (2014). Metamorphic Rocks.

Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology, 213–
232. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-408133-8.00006-7

Wu, Z., Wang, X., Liu, J., & Chen, X. (2020). Mineral fibres.
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(Links)
rock classification (appstate.edu) – (http://www.appstate.edu/~abbottrn/rck-id/)
Basalt: Igneous Rock - Pictures, Definition, Uses & More (geology.com)
https://hardscape.co.uk/granite-facts-
geology/?fbclid=IwAR1fRkk9IkOomKnmCErZ5rKXxKN6lV2QrXwnGYWyAnHW3Cyzy9QY
RbffDqI#:~:text=Granite%20is%20a%20hard%20and,2.65%20and%202.75%20g%2Fcm.&text
=It%20is%20found%20in%20abundance,part%20of%20orogenic%20mountain%20ranges
https://geologyscience.com/rocks/igneous-rocks/syenite/
https://rocks.comparenature.com/en/syenite-uses/model-45-7
https://geology.com/rocks/gabbro.shtml

https://rocks.comparenature.com/en/properties-of-gabbro/model-14-6
https://www.britannica.com/science/diorite
https://rocks.comparenature.com/en/properties-of-diorite/model-13-6/amp