Urban Studies, Vol. 39, No.

13, 2469– 2483, 2002

A Comparative Analysis of the Air Quality

Management Challenges and Capabilities in
Urban and Rural English Local Authorities

C. I. Beattie, J. W. S. Longhurst and N. K. WoodŽ eld

[Paper Ž rst received, July 2001; in Ž nal form, April 2002]

Summary. Local authorities in Great Britain have (in the main) completed their air quality
review and assessments, the aim of the process being the identiŽ cation of local hotspots where
national air quality objectives are not likely to be met. Across Great Britain approximately 120
Air Quality Management Areas are in the process of being declared. Local authorities, in
partnership with others, are required to write and implement an action plan outlining remedial
measures to improve the air quality situation in these areas. This paper compares and contrasts
the challenges facing urban and rural authorities in carrying out these responsibilities. The
capabilities of urban, rural and those authorities deŽ ned as ‘mixed’ in implementing the review
and assessment process also are discussed. The data presented indicate that, although urban
authorities appear to be facing greater and more complex air quality challenges, rural areas are
not without their own air quality challenges. The issues facing urban authorities are different
from those facing their more rural counterparts. It is hypothesised that urban authorities have
more effective frameworks in place for tackling the challenges of air quality action planning. This
hypothesis is tested by questionnaire surveys and in the context of an urban and a rural
case-study authority.

1. Introduction
It is generally assumed that urban areas face seven regulated pollutants. These assess-
greater air pollution challenges than rural ments are undertaken against speciŽ c objec-
locations (Anderson et al., 1996; Satterth- tives by which concentrations must be
waite, 1997). This paper examines the val- achieved over differing averaging periods by
idity of this statement at the conclusion of a target date (2003– 08). The objectives only
the Ž rst phase of local authority review and apply where public exposure exists over the
assessment in Great Britain and also investi- averaging time of the objective in question.
gates the nature of the challenges faced by Where objectives are not likely to be
urban, rural and ‘mixed’ local authorities in achieved and public exposure exists, an Air
relation to air quality. Under the Environ- Quality Management Area (AQMA) must
ment Act 1995, each local authority is re- be designated. Subsequently, an Air Quality
quired periodically to review and assess the Action Plan (AQAP) is required setting out
air quality in their locality in relation to the measures that are necessary to improve
C. I. Beattie, J. W. S. Longhurst and N. K. WoodŽ eld are in the Air Quality Research Group, Centre for Research in Environmental
Systems, Pollution and Remediation , University of the West of England, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Frenchay Campus, Bristol, BS16
1QY, UK. Fax: 0117 344 2904. E-mail: clare.beattie@uwe.ac.uk ; james.longhurst@uwe.ac.u k and nicky.wood Ž eld@uwe.ac.uk .

0042-098 0 Print/1360-063 X On-line/02/132469– 15 Ó 2002 The Editors of Urban Studies

DOI: 10.1080/004209802200002706 8
2470 C. I. BEATTIE ET AL.
air quality to acceptable concentrations. The
differences in experiences of urban, rural and
‘mixed’ authorities in carrying out this pro-
cess and the numbers and types of AQMA
designated are investigated. Data are also
presented from a four-year investigation of
the implementation of the Environment Act
Part IV (Air Quality), consisting of annual
questionnaire surveys to local authorities and
other stakeholders involved in the review and
assessment process as well as detailed case
studies.
1.1 Legislative Framework
The local air quality management framework
in the UK was legislated by the Environment
Act 1995, Part IV (HM Government, 1995).
Section 80 of the Act required the Secretary
of State to prepare and publish a statement
containing policies with respect to the assess-
ment and management of air quality ‘as soon
as possible’. This was duly published as the
National Air Quality Strategy (NAQS) (DoE,
1997), following which the Air Quality Reg-
ulations 1997 (HM Government, 1998) pro-
vided the legislative backing for the air
quality objectives.
Subsequent sections of the 1995 Act re-
quired local government to review air quality
through a phased approach, to determine fu-
ture air quality. Where predictions indicate
potential exceedances of speciŽ c pollutant
objectives, local government is required to
designate Air Quality Management Areas
(AQMAs) and prepare Air Quality Action
Plans to deliver improved air quality (DETR,
1997). European strategy and policy largely
underpin policies and strategies for deliver-
ing environmental protection in the UK,
which includes air quality improvements.
The Ambient Air Quality Assessment and
Management Directive 96/62/EC (Council of
the European Union, 1996), commonly
known as the Ambient Air Quality Frame-
work Directive, is important in in uencing
the implementation of the UK’s Air Quality
Strategy. This is further described by Elsom
(1999).
1.2 Local Approach to AQM
The National Air Quality Strategy (DoE,
1997) and the government’s approach to air
quality policy are underpinned by fundamen-
tal principles which include the use of sound
science, the precautionary principle ap-
proach, the polluter pays and sustainability
principles. These principles have been elabo-
rated on within the reviewed Air Quality
Strategy (DETR, 2000a). In 1999, the de-
volved administrations in Great Britain took
over responsibility for environmental issues
and hence air quality management. Hence
there are separate regulations for Wales and
Scotland, who are currently working to-
wards the same objectives, but could in the
future implement their own air quality objec-
tives.
The focus of the National Air Quality
Strategy (NAQS) was the establishment of
health-based standards for eight speciŽ c
pollutants. The standards were established
through the work of a government-
commissioned Expert Panel on Air Quality
Standards (EPAQS). The Air Quality
Regulations 1997 (HM Government, 1998)
subsequently provided the legal frame-
work for standards and objectives for seven
pollutants—excluding ozone from local
AQM—to be achieved by 2005, which, fol-
lowing the update of the NAQS, have subse-
quently been updated by the Air Quality
Regulations 2000 (HM Government, 2000)
(see Table 1).
The emphasis of delivering the require-
ments of the NAQS (DoE, 1997) and AQS
(DETR, 2000a) is action at a local level.
However, action to improve air quality can-
not be undertaken by local authorities alone.
Emissions to air clearly arise from a variety
of sources over varying spatial and temporal
scales, and it is becoming increasingly chal-
lenging to integrate solutions into existing
policy requirements, particularly through the
use of local transport plans, land-use plans,
economic development plans and sustainable
development plans. This co-ordinated ap-
proach represents a signiŽ cant management
challenge for the environmental protection
 AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT 2471

Table 1. UK air quality objectives under local authority control

Pollutant Concentration Measured as Date to be achieved by

Benzene 16.25 l g/m 3 Running annual mean 2003

1,3-butadiene 2.25 l g/m 3 Running annual mean 2003
Carbon monoxide 11.6 mg/m3 Running 8-hour mean 2003
Lead 0.5 l g/m3 Annual mean 2004
0.25 l g/m 3 2008
Nitrogen dioxide 200 l g/m 3 Hourly mean 2005 (18 exceedances
allowed)a
40 l g/m 3 Annual mean 2005a
Particulates 50 l g/m 3 24-hour mean 2004 (35 exceedances
(PM10) allowed)
40 l g/m 3 Annual mean 2004
Sulphur dioxide 266 l g/m 3 15-minute mean 2005 (35 exceedances
allowed)
350 l g/m 3 1-hour mean 2004 (24 exceedances
allowed)
125 l g/m 3 24-hour mean 2004 (3 exceedances
allowed)

Provisional objective only.

a

Note: UK deadlines refer to the end of the year in question.

Source: HM Government (2000).

community (Beattie et al., 2001; Stubbs et
al., 2000; Stubbs and Lemon, 2001).
1.3 Review and Assessment Process
The Ž rst aspect of the Local Air Quality
Management (LAQM) regime is a review
and assessment of air quality in the local
authority’s area. The government recom-
mended a three-stage approach, whereby
each stage of the review and assessment
process increases in complexity (DETR,
1997). The stage reached for a particular
pollutant should be consistent with the risk of
failing to achieve the air quality objective(s)
in question. The Ž rst stage of the process is a
compilation of emissions data from various
sources (transport, industrial and other
signiŽ cant sources) and background concen-
trations of the seven relevant pollutants. Each
authority must identify sources in their auth-
ority area, having regard to those of their
neighbouring authorities.
On completion of this initial stage, pollu-
tants can be omitted from the process where
there is little likelihood of the air quality
objectives being breached by the relevant
target date. The second stage of the review
and assessment process is a more sophisti-
cated screening phase, using simple screen-
ing models and any local air quality
monitoring data available. Pollutants are
once again omitted from the process where,
on more detailed examination, they are un-
likely to exceed the air quality objectives by
their target date. The third and Ž nal stage is
a more complex study of the locations and
pollutants identiŽ ed by the earlier stages,
often requiring more advanced monitoring
and air pollution dispersion modelling for
predicting speciŽ c locations of future pol-
lutant exceedances (DETR, 1997).
At each stage, current and future predicted
air pollution concentrations are evaluated in
the context of the risk of public exposure.
The Air Quality Regulations (HM Govern-
ment, 2000) state that compliance with air
quality objectives is by reference to the qual-
ity of air at outdoor locations where members
of the public are regularly present. For the
purposes of the review and assessment, local
authorities should have regard to locations
2472 C. I. BEATTIE ET AL.
where individuals are likely to be exposed
over the averaging time of the objective
(DETR, 2000b). Current guidance (DETR,
2000b) suggests, for example, that the annual
mean objectives should apply at building
façades of residential properties, schools,
hospitals and libraries. Annual mean objec-
tives should not apply at ofŽ ces or other
places of work, gardens of residential proper-
ties or kerbsides sites or other locations
where public exposure is expected to be short
term. This requires some subjective interpret-
ation in relation to local circumstances.
On completion of a third-stage review and
assessment, and in areas where air quality
objectives are predicted to be exceeded by
their target date, an Air Quality Management
Area (AQMA) must be designated. Where
AQMAs have been designated, local authori-
ties are required to prepare a written action
plan illustrating how the air quality standards
and objectives are to be achieved and im-
proved upon in the designated area (DETR,
2000c). The action plan should consider the
options available, as well as an understand-
ing of the wider non-air quality impacts of
those actions including the cost effectiveness
of the proposed measures (NSCA, 2000).
Most authorities completed the review and
assessment process by the end of 2000 with
the majority of AQMAs being designated in
mid to late 2001. From the designation of an
AQMA, local authorities then have a 12-
month ‘further’ review and assessment pe-
riod to conŽ rm or refute their Ž ndings,
alongside 18 months to complete their action
plan (DETR, 2000c). All local authorities in
England, Wales and Scotland (excluding
those authorities in London declaring AQ-
MAs) will need to complete another ‘round’
of review and assessment by the end of 2003.
1.4 ClassiŽ cation of Urban and Rural
Authorities
When considering how to classify local au-
thorities, it is apparent that there is ambiguity
in the deŽ nitions of an urban local authority
(Beattie and Longhurst, 2000; Beattie et al.,
2000a, 2000b). Most ofŽ cial censuses adopt
a population size deŽ nition of ‘urban’,
largely due to simplicity. It is widely ac-
knowledged, however, that there are other
important criteria from which a classiŽ cation
can be made. Urban places have functions
that distinguish them from rural settlements.
They are non-agricultural in character and
are usually concerned with the exchange
rather than with the production of goods. The
Urban Task Force (1999) deŽ nes ‘urban’ as a
continuous area of land which is urban in
character of 20 hectares or more, and a min-
imum population of approximately 1000 per-
sons. The National Council for Voluntary
Organisations (NCVO; Brown, 1997) pro-
duces an annual list classifying local authori-
ties as inner-city, urban, mixed or rural. It
draws mainly on the 1981 OfŽ ce of Popu-
lation Censuses and Surveys (OPCS) socio-
economic classiŽ cation, amended to re ect
recent qualitative information and the pro-
fessional judgement of rural development
workers. The urban sample was chosen using
the 128 local authorities deŽ ned by the
NCVO as ‘inner-city’ and ‘urban’ and, in
addition, 13 local authorities that are
classiŽ ed as ‘mixed’ (i.e. in between urban
and rural) by the NCVO, but are considered
as ‘urban’ by virtue of the size of their
population. These authorities were identiŽ ed
from the Municipal Yearbook 1998
(Clements, 1998), which provides a descrip-
tion and population details of all the authori-
ties in England. The rural sample was
identiŽ ed from the 153 local authorities in
England identiŽ ed as ‘rural’ from the NCVO
classiŽ cation as described above.
There has been a great deal of interest in
academic literature in urban and regional
issues and by government, culminating in the
Urban White Paper (DETR, 2000d). Of the
UK population, 80 per cent live in cities and
towns of over 10 000 people which cover
some 7 per cent of the UK space. Although
cities are diverse in character, re ecting their
history, scale, recent economic fortunes and
location, many suffer from poor air quality,
now known to affect the health of the popu-
lation. Often air quality is poorest in more
economically deprived areas where the
 AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT
health status of the resident population may
also be relatively poor (Jerrett et al., 2001;
Sexton et al., 1993).This paper investigates
whether the differences in magnitude and
nature of air quality challenges are apparent
on closer inspection. With local authorities
coming to the culmination of four years of
work investigating their own local authority
areas with respect to seven regulated pollu-
tants, it is an ideal time to re ect on these
data with respect to urban and rural areas and
the diversity of challenges facing local au-
thorities as they move on to implementing
solutions in areas of poor air quality.
2. Methodology
Data for English local authorities have been
manipulated from the national archive of lo-
cal authority progress (data by kind per-
mission of DEFRA and GLA; www.defra.
gov.uk, www.london.gov.uk) . This is a com-
prehensive database of local authority prog-
ress, both in terms of progress with the
review and assessment, but also an overview
of the pollutants taken to each stage of the
process and the outcomes of an appraisal
process commissioned by DEFRA (formerly
DETR) and the devolved administrations.
In addition, questionnaire surveys of
English urban local authority practice have
been conducted over a four-year period with
a consistent group of recipients. This has
included environmental professionals, who
have been responsible for pollution legis-
lation within local authorities and are in most
cases co-ordinating their air quality manage-
ment efforts, as well as other local authority
professionals. Contemporary air pollution
sources are diverse and hence solutions to
tackle problem locations will need to come
from a variety of sources including transport
planning, land-use planning and economic
development sectors as well as agencies and
bodies external to the local authority such as
health authorities, the Environment Agency
and Highways Agency. Hence each of these
sectors has been surveyed annually since
1998 with regard to their involvement in the
management of local air quality (see www.
2473
uwe.ac.uk/aqm/research/urban). The ques-
tionnaire was designed to assess current
practice with regard to both technical aspects
of the AQM process (i.e. monitoring and
modelling) and management aspects (local
authority cross-departmental collaboration,
neighbouring authority collaboration and col-
laboration with other outside bodies). Inte-
gration with other policy areas and
management of air quality strategies were
also investigated. The questionnaires sent to
different sectors, and in different years, were
similar, such that direct comparisons could
be made, but adjusted to re ect the role that
each department or organisation may be ex-
pected to play in the AQM process, and the
stage in the process that the majority of
authorities had reached. The results quoted
are 1999 Ž gures in order that they are com-
parable with the rural local authority ques-
tionnaire survey.
Case studies of authorities identiŽ ed as
advanced in their approach to air quality
management responsibilities have been un-
dertaken. ‘Advanced’, as deŽ ned by the au-
thors, is where local authorities have shown
an integration of air quality issues into other
planning processes as well as competence in
the technical aspects of monitoring and mod-
elling. Observations and conclusions from
these case-study authorities are presented.
In addition, similar questionnaires have
been sent to rural authorities as part of a
separate project (Ing et al., 2001). This sur-
vey was conducted in 1999 of 100 of the 153
authorities in England classiŽ ed as rural by
the NCVO (Brown, 1997). The authorities
were weighted in order that at least one local
authority in each English county would be
included. The questionnaire was sent to en-
vironmental health ofŽ cers to ascertain rural
air quality management practice. Some re-
sults have been used for comparison pur-
poses. In addition to the classiŽ cations of
‘urban’ and ‘rural’ authorities, a further
group of authorities in between urban and
rural have been identiŽ ed for the purposes of
this paper following the classiŽ cation of
NCVO (Brown, 1997). These are described
as ‘mixed’.
2474 C. I. BEATTIE ET AL.
Table 2. Percentages of English local authorities declaring AQMAs and the pollutants for which
AQMAs have been declared
Urban Rural
(percentage) (percentage)
AQMA (all) 47 22
AQMA (NO2) 100 83
AQMA (PM10 ) 63 27
AQMA (SO2 ) 8 10
3. Results
By mid 2001, 92 per cent of English local
authorities had completed the review and
assessment process and the results are based
on these 325 authorities (out of the total of
353 authorities in England). This equates to
136 urban authorities, 136 rural authorities
and 53 ‘mixed’ authorities. Thirty-seven
AQMAs had been designated with a further
78 proposed from Stage 3 reports in at the
time of writing for Great Britain (not North-
ern Ireland) as a whole. Of these, 34 are in
England and a further 75 are proposed in
England alone. The full list of AQMAs des-
ignated may be viewed at www.uwe.ac.uk/
aqm/centre/AQMAs/index.html.
Questionnaire response rates were 54 per
cent of urban local authorities surveyed and
70 per cent of rural authorities surveyed.
3.1 Declaration of AQMAs
As outlined in section 1.3, Air Quality Man-
agement Areas (AQMAs) are required in
locations which exceed one or more of the
air quality objectives and relevant public ex-
posure exists. The spatial extent of the
AQMA is not prescribed except that the area
of technical exceedance of the objective (i.e.
where the modelling and monitoring predic-
tions suggest the boundary lies) provides the
minimum size of the AQMA. An AQMA can
only be designated where public exposure
occurs. The deŽ nition of public exposure as
stated in national guidance has been provided
in section 1.3. In areas of predicted ex-
ceedance with no public exposure an AQMA
Total (England,
Mixed including London)
(percentage) (percentage)
28 31
100 95
40 50
6 10
is not required. Conversely, if a local auth-
ority judges the risk of public exposure to be
signiŽ cant, it can extend the boundary of the
technical exceedance to encompass areas of
public exposure on the boundary of the
AQMA. Hence, this has led to a variety of
approaches to AQMA designation from
whole-borough designations (particularly in
London) to designations based on distances
from the centre line of roads.
In England, AQMAs have only been de-
clared (or are proposed) for three pollu-
tants—nitrogen dioxide, PM10 and sulphur
dioxide. Table 2 shows the percentages of
authorities declaring AQMAs, and the pollu-
tants for which AQMAs have been declared.
There are more urban authorities declaring
AQMAs than rural or mixed authorities and,
in all cases, the majority of the AQMAs are
in relation to nitrogen dioxide. The greatest
differences between authority types with re-
gard to pollutants requiring an AQMA is
PM10, which is an urban issue in the main. A
wide range of emission sources contributes
to PM10 concentrations in the UK. These are
generally categorised as primary combustion
particles, secondary particulates (formed in
the atmosphere following their release in
gaseous phase) and coarse particles including
resuspended dust from road trafŽ c, construc-
tion and mineral extraction processes, wind-
blown dusts and sea salt. There is little
difference in the numbers of AQMA desig-
nations for sulphur dioxide between the lev-
els of urbanisation (urban, rural and mixed).
This re ects the fact that sulphur dioxide is
almost exclusively from point sources, in
contrast to nitrogen dioxide which is pre-
 AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT 2475

Table 3. Percentage of AQMAs in English local authorities for one pollutant only and those for more than
one pollutant

Total (England,
Urban Rural Mixed including London)
(percentage) (percentage) (percentage) (percentage)

AQMA for one pollutant only 34 80 47 49

AQMA for more than one pollutant 66 20 53 51

dominantly from trafŽ c sources and PM10
which can be from a variety of sources. The
point sources causing sulphur dioxide ex-
ceedances are located in both urban and rural
locations.
The AQMAs designated involve a number
of combinations of pollutants and objectives
predicted to exceed. Table 3 illustrates the
percentage of AQMAs for one pollutant only
and those for more than one pollutant. This
suggests some indication of the complexity
of the AQMAs involved. Rural authorities
are declaring the vast majority of their AQ-
MAs for single pollutants—in most cases,
nitrogen dioxide from trafŽ c (motorway or
small congested street locations) with the
occasional sulphur dioxide exceedance. In
contrast, urban areas appear to have more
complex situations with multiple pollutant
objectives being exceeded in the majority of
cases.
3.2 Review and Assessment Process
The review and assessment process has
proved to be more complex than initially
envisaged. The three-stage process was intro-
duced in order that authorities with limited
air quality problems would not need to
undertake a detailed assessment of the
sources within their area. Only where a risk
of exceedance was judged likely and relevant
public exposure existed, was a pollutant re-
quired to be taken to the next stage of the
process. Although very few local authorities
stopped at Stage 1 and indeed the majority
required a detailed Stage 3 assessment, the
Ž gures do not re ect that many pollutants did
not require a Stage 3 assessment even though
the local authority was required to undertake
a Stage 3 assessment for another pollutant. A
local authority progressing to a latter stage of
review and assessment is not required to take
all seven pollutants, or indeed all objectives
for a pollutant, to that stage.
Urban authorities are much more likely to
require a third stage detailed assessment of at
least one pollutant with 93 per cent requiring
a Stage 3 assessment in comparison to 58 per
cent of rural authorities (Table 4). Of those
requiring a Stage 3 assessment, just over half
of the urban authorities are then proceeding
to declare one or more AQMAs with 38 per
cent of rural authorities reaching Stage 3
assessment going on to declare an AQMA.
Throughout the review and assessment
process, it was always envisaged that nitro-
gen dioxide and PM10 would cause the great-
est challenges in achieving the air quality
objectives (DoE, 1997). However, following

Table 4. Percentages of English local authorities stopping at each stage of the process

Total (England,
Urban Rural Mixed including London)
(percentage) (percentage) (percentage) (percentage)

Stopped at Stage 1 0 8 0 4
Stopped at Stage 2 7 34 17 20
Stage 3—not requiring an AQMA 46 36 55 43
Stage 3– requiring an AQMA 47 22 28 33
2476 C. I. BEATTIE ET AL.

Table 5. Percentages of English local authorities taking each pollutant to a detailed Stage 3 assessment

Total (England,
Urban Rural Mixed including London)
(percentage) (percentage) (percentage) (percentage)

Nitrogen dioxide 91 82 82 87
PM10 81 52 70 70
Sulphur dioxide 36 32 34 34
Carbon monoxide 23 8 7 15
Lead 17 4 7 11
Benzene 12 1 5 7
1,3-butadiene 8 1 7 6

Table 6. Percentages of English local authorities with different numbers of pollutants under consideration
at Stage 3

Total (England,
Numbers of pollutants taken to Urban Rural Mixed including London)
Stage 3 (percentage) (percentage) (percentage) (percentage)

1 17 44 30 28
2 33 22 32 29
3 28 28 27 28
4 11 4 5 8
5 2 1 5 2
6 2 0 2 2
7 7 1 0 4

the review of the National Air Quality Strat-
egy in 2000, the PM10 objective was relaxed.
This had the effect that many authorities that
would have needed to declare for PM10 no
longer needed to do so during this round of
review and assessment.
The largest differences in pollutants re-
quiring examination at a Stage 3 assessment
by rural and urban authorities was PM10,
lead, benzene and 1,3-butadiene (Table 5). In
all cases, a much greater proportion of urban
authorities are requiring the challenging
Stage 3 assessment for these pollutants. This
is also re ected in Table 6, which shows the
numbers of pollutants under consideration at
Stage 3 for each type of activity. This will be
indicative of the air quality challenges facing
the sub-sets of authority types. Of those au-
thorities reaching a Stage 3 assessment, ur-
ban authorities are much more likely to be
examining multiple pollutants at Stage 3.
3.3 Monitoring Capabilities
Monitoring and modelling are the key tools
for the review and assessment process (Beat-
tie and Longhurst, 2000; Marsden and Bell,
2001). Air quality monitoring involves
measuring ambient concentrations of air pol-
lutants over a deŽ ned period of time. Con-
tinuous analysers produce high-resolution
measurements over short periods with the
sample being analysed in real time. Passive
samplers represent a simple and cost-
effective method of initially screening air
quality in an area, to give a good general
indication of average pollution concentra-
tions typically over a few weeks (Marsden
and Bell, 2001). The sample is subsequently
analysed in a laboratory. Evidence from
monitoring and modelling is used to varying
degrees in the review and assessment pro-
cess. The evidence presented is through
 AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT 2477

Table 7. Percentages of urban and rural local authorities undertaking continuous and passive
monitoring in 1999 for the pollutants regulated under the national air quality strategy

Percentages of urban authorities Percentages of rural authorities

undertaking monitoring undertaking monitoring

Pollutant Continuous Passive Continuous Passive

Benzene 11 45 4 34
Nitrogen dioxide 78 89 29 83
1,3-butadiene 7 5 0 7
Carbon monoxide 46 1 4 0
PM10 76 4 29 4
Lead 3 19 1 6
Sulphur dioxide 57 38 24 19

questionnaire surveys to both urban and rural
authorities. In order that a direct comparison
can be made between urban and rural author-
ities at a similar time in the process, monitor-
ing activities are presented for the year 1999.
In Table 7, the monitoring capabilities of
urban and rural authorities can be compared.
In all cases, urban authorities are undertaking
more monitoring than rural authorities. The
difference becomes even more marked in the
use of continuous, real-time monitoring
devices. In the case of the use of passive
nitrogen dioxide diffusion tubes, the percent-
ages of urban and rural authority use are
similar. This is likely to be due to the estab-
lishment of the national nitrogen dioxide net-
work set up in 1993 whereby local
authorities which met selected criteria were
encouraged to set up kerbside, intermediate
and urban background diffusion-tube moni-
toring sites. A rigorous siting and analysis
protocol ensured consistency and data com-
parability.
Monitoring has been shown through the
questionnaire surveys of urban authorities to
be a constantly changing element of practice
with large increases in both local-authority-
owned and centrally funded (AURN; Auto-
matic Urban and Rural Network) monitoring
locations.
3.4 Modelling Capabilities
Air quality modelling provides a mechanism
for calculating and predicting air pollution
concentrations from information about the
pollutant emissions and the nature of the
atmosphere. Air quality objectives are set in
terms of concentrations, not emission rates.
In order to assess whether an emission is
likely to have an adverse effect on ambient
air pollution concentrations (and therefore on
human health), it is necessary to know the
ground-level concentrations that may arise at
distances from an emitting source. Models
can be categorised as screening models, in-
termediate models and advanced models.
Screening models already have simple as-
sumptions about meteorological conditions
included within them and hence will calcu-
late worst-case concentrations, providing a
useful way of gaining quickly and cheaply an
initial impression of the concentrations likely
to occur. Intermediate models are usually
suitable for a PC, with some of the factors
simpliŽ ed but not to the same extent as for
screening models. Advanced models are
more sophisticated and complex than screen-
ing or intermediate models, but only if de-
tailed and accurate meteorological and
emissions data-sets are available. They can
cope with a variety of sources and release
conditions.
Differences in modelling capabilities are
apparent between urban and rural authorities.
Again, in order that a direct comparison can
be made, 1999 Ž gures are quoted. In 1999,
76 per cent of urban authorities had used
some sort of pollution model, compared with
33 per cent of the rural authorities. Mod-
2478 C. I. BEATTIE ET AL.
elling is a tool with rapid increase in use by
local authorities. For example, in 1994, only
4.4 per cent of urban authorities were under-
taking any modelling (Crabbe and Elsom,
1995). By 1998, this had risen to 40 per cent
(Beattie et al., 1999) and by 2001 this had
increased to 99 per cent. It may be that rural
authorities are just further behind in uptake
of the more complex tools for their air qual-
ity management responsibilities. In 1999, al-
though only 33 per cent of rural respondents
were using models at the time, 49 per cent
intended to use them in the following 12
months.
The types of model used also differed
between authority types. The majority of ru-
ral authorities were using screening models
such as DMRB which is recommended for a
Stage 2 assessment (Design Manual for
Roads and Bridges; http://www.ofŽ cial-
documents.co.uk/document/ha /dmrb /index.
htm). In contrast, urban authorities were
already using more complex models such
as ADMS-urban (www.cerc.co.uk) and Aer-
mod (http://www.lakes-environmental.com/
ISCAERMOD/ISCAERFeatures.html) in
much greater proportions. These more de-
tailed models are recommended at Stage 3
review and assessment and rely on more
detailed input data and in some cases the
need for an emissions inventory. The use of
these models will raise important resource
issues, particularly for rural authorities. Ur-
ban authorities were also utilising screening
models such as DMRB at an earlier stage in
their review and assessment work than rural
authorities.
3.5 Collaboration between and within Local
Authorities and Other Bodies
Many solutions to poor air quality will in-
volve reductions in vehicle journeys and con-
sideration of future land-use planning and
transport management in the long term.
Hence it is imperative that the local govern-
ment departments and outside agencies re-
sponsible for polluting industrial processes
and management of the motorway and trunk
road network communicate effectively
(Stubbs et al., 2000). Working groups in-
volving a wide selection of agencies from
local authority departments to health authori-
ties; higher education institutions and com-
munity groups can act as a beneŽ cial
platform for dissemination of ideas and the
launch of innovative policies.
In 1999, 80 per cent of urban authorities
had involved their transport planners in the
review and assessment process with 62 per
cent involving planning departments. This
can be compared with 64 per cent of rural
authorities having involved transport plan-
ners and 50 per cent involving land-use
planners at the time of the survey. Of the
rural authorities, 11 per cent were under-
taking their air quality management responsi-
bilities through the environmental health
department alone. Of the urban authorities,
59 per cent had a working group within their
authority dealing with air quality issues,
which compared with 30 per cent of rural
authorities.
3.6 Dissemination of Information
For an effective air quality management
regime, dissemination of information must
occur not only to the public but also across
local authority departments involved in the
process, neighbouring authorities and other
external agencies. Communication and infor-
mation provision have become increasingly
important components of the relationship be-
tween environmental institutions and the
general public (Bickerstaff and Walker,
1999). The public requires information on
real time pollutant concentrations and fore-
casts for susceptible members of the popu-
lation. Information on policy measures and
health impacts of poor air quality need to be
disseminated further, particularly where be-
haviour is required to change—for example,
transport choice. In addition, consultation is
a statutory requirement of the review and
assessment process (HM Government, 1995).
With more engagement from local busi-
nesses, community groups and other stake-
holders, it is likely that the consultation
process for both designation of AQMAs and
 AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT
any potential air quality action plans will be
more effective.
Again, using 1999 questionnaire results
for comparative purposes, the survey of ur-
ban authorities showed that air quality re-
ports were produced by 78 per cent of
authorities, with 46 per cent producing public
information lea ets, 43 per cent utilising lo-
cal newspapers and 39 per cent disseminati-
ing information through a sustainability or
Agenda 21 report. For rural authorities, the
most popular method of information dissemi-
nation was via local newspapers (31 per cent
of authorities used this method). Other meth-
ods such as public information lea ets, pub-
lic records, displays in public places and an
Agenda 21 report were used by 20– 27 per
cent of authorities.
4. Discussion
Analysis of the review and assessment pro-
cess discussed in section 3 indicates that a
greater proportion of urban authorities are
declaring AQMAs than non-urban authori-
ties. Therefore, it could be argued that urban
authorities are facing greater air quality chal-
lenges than rural authorities. However, 22
per cent of rural authorities and 28 per cent
of ‘mixed’ authorities are requiring AQMAs,
equating to 30 rural AQMAs likely to be
designated and 15 AQMAs in other non-ur-
ban areas. This constitutes a substantial effort
on the part of authorities outwith urban areas
in the assessment of pollutant emissions and
concentrations in their area and the im-
plementation of measures to improve air
quality within these hotspot locations.
The pollutants causing most concern to
local authorities are nitrogen dioxide, PM10
and sulphur dioxide. Of the AQMAs desig-
nated, the majority have nitrogen dioxide
(particularly the annual mean objective) as
one component often combined with PM10
(usually the 24-hour objective). Rural areas
are the only authority type to have AQMAs
which do not involve nitrogen dioxide ex-
ceedances. At present, one AQMA for sul-
phur dioxide alone has been designated. This
is in rural Norfolk (see http://www.fenland.
2479
gov.uk for more details). PM10 is a much
greater problem in urban areas than non-
urban areas, in contrast to nitrogen dioxide,
which is a more universally widespread
problem.
The above Ž gures only reveal the numbers
of AQMAs but not the nature of AQMAs.
The vast majority of AQMAs in rural areas
are single-pollutant, with urban areas having
the majority of their AQMAs for more than
one pollutant, indicating more complex emis-
sions with solutions potentially needing to
address different sources of emissions. In
contrast, rural authorities are more likely to
face air quality problems from sources out-
side their control—for example, trunk roads
and motorways (managed by the Highways
Agency, outside London) or from industrial
emissions (in many cases regulated by the
Environment Agency). In addition, more ur-
ban authorities are requiring Stage 3, with
more than half of those undertaking a Stage
3 declaring an AQMA. Fewer rural authori-
ties are requiring a Stage 3 assessment and of
those requiring a Stage 3 assessment less
than half require an AQMA.
The fact that urban areas are facing more
complex problems is also illustrated by the
data relating to the review and assessment
process. Although the majority of authorities
requiring a detailed Stage 3 assessment are
investigating nitrogen dioxide, urban authori-
ties are more likely to be requiring a Stage 3
assessment for PM10 and also for carbon
monoxide, lead, benzene and 1,3-butadiene.
Carbon monoxide is a trafŽ c-related pol-
lutant, but the others listed are usually a
combination of trafŽ c and industrial sources
representing a more complex mix of sources
of emissions. Urban authorities are much
more likely to be taking a greater number of
pollutants to the latter stages of the review
and assessment process, with 50 per cent
requiring a detailed examination of 3 or more
pollutants at Stage 3. Sulphur dioxide is the
only pollutant not to Ž t this pattern, with
problems being faced across all authority
types. Sulphur dioxide is exclusively an in-
dustry-related problem, with point sources
located in both urban and rural authorities.
2480 C. I. BEATTIE ET AL.
In all these respects, the authorities
classiŽ ed as ‘mixed’ are in between the ur-
ban and rural authorities in numbers desig-
nating AQMAs, AQMA types and pollutants
needing detailed examination at Stage 3 of
the review and assessment process. This is
further evidence that the differences are due
to the levels of urbanisation of the authority.
However, rural authorities are facing con-
siderable air quality challenges with approxi-
mately 30 rural AQMAs with 15 AQMAs
needing to be declared in those authorities
classiŽ ed as mixed. Frameworks for imple-
menting solutions to improve air quality to
acceptable levels may not be as effectively in
place in rural authorities as in urban authori-
ties. The data show that urban authorities are
undertaking more modelling activity and
monitoring than rural authorities—perhaps
indicative of the more complex nature of the
problems, but equally suggestive of a better-
developed managerial response to the air
quality challenge. Questionnaire and case-
study evidence suggest that the collaborative
frameworks necessary to implement action
plans where required (or to put in place
corporately adopted air quality strategies) are
not as well-formed in rural authorities as in
urban areas. There is evidence of more effec-
tive collaboration in the form of air quality
groups in urban authorities when compared
with rural authorities. More air quality infor-
mation dissemination to the public, who may
in urban areas also have a greater perception
of air quality problems, is being undertaken
in urban areas. This differing level of exper-
tise in the management capabilities of urban
and rural authorities is likely to re ect re-
sourcing and internal organisational issues.
Rural authorities may have administrative
difŽ culties to overcome in order to success-
fully implement air quality management
practices in that they are more likely to be
within a county and district local government
structure whereby transport planners and
strategic land-use planners are working
within a higher tier of government. This may
add to collaborative problems in that they
may be working with different goals and
potentially within politically different author-
ities. Rural authorities are generally less
well-funded with smaller populations and
consequently smaller budgets (Ing et al.,
2001). Also, because of the size of the auth-
ority, there is less likely to be specialisation
of environmental health personnel and hence
the technical expertise may not be present
within the local authority to deliver air qual-
ity goals. To illustrate this, 83 per cent of the
rural environmental health ofŽ cers spent 0–
25 per cent of their time working on AQM,
with just 3 per cent spending 51– 100 per cent
of their time. This is in stark contrast to
urban authorities, many of whom have teams
working speciŽ cally on the air quality man-
agement process. The potential problems fac-
ing rural authorities were noted by Elsom
and Longhurst (1997) following an assess-
ment of the Ž rst-phase local authority work.
First-phase work was undertaken by 14 auth-
ority groupings in order to identify potential
issues and improve the effectiveness and
efŽ ciency of the air quality management de-
livery process. Gaining experience of the
review and assessment process for rural areas
seemed to have been largely ignored (Elsom
and Longhurst, 1997) except for specialised
issues such as the impact of mineral extrac-
tion (china clay) activities on local air quality
in Cornwall and mineral extraction in
Derbyshire. This possibly re ected the an-
ticipation that rural locations would not be
facing the challenges of air quality action
planning (DoE, 1997).
It is likely that subjective interpretation of
the air quality management process and in
particular interpretation of the guidance,
selection of assessment tools, input data for
models and interpretation of monitoring and
modelling results may lead to inconsistencies
between local authorities. The appraisal pro-
cess undertaken by consultants on behalf of
DEFRA and the devolved administrations is
designed to minimise this sort of inconsis-
tency and to ensure that decisions regarding
where AQMAs are declared—and, indeed,
where they are not declared—are based on
robust scientiŽ c evidence and a reasoned ap-
proach. Decisions should be reached on the
basis of the precautionary principle and, par-
 AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT
ticularly where remedial measures are re-
quired in order to improve air quality, issues
of sustainability need to be accounted for
as one of the fundamental principles of
the NAQS and subsequent UK Air Quality
Strategy.
In order to illustrate the above issues, the
three cases of Leicester, an urban authority in
the East Midlands of England; Salisbury, a
rural market town in Wiltshire, southern
England; and Camden, a central London Bor-
ough, will brie y be described. They consti-
tute typical air quality management
scenarios. Leicester (www.leicester.gov.uk),
like many large urban centres, has declared
the centre of the urban conurbation and ar-
terial routes out of town for nitrogen dioxide
(annual mean) and PM10 (24-hour). They
concluded that, for PM10, uncertainties in the
modelling were so great that it was unfeasi-
ble to deŽ ne the spatial extent of ex-
ceedances, but the authority recognised that
all areas of exceedance for PM10 would fall
within the nitrogen dioxide exceedance area.
A stage 3 assessment was undertaken for
nitrogen dioxide, PM10 and carbon monox-
ide.
Salisbury went through the review and
assessment, requiring a third stage assess-
ment for nitrogen dioxide and PM10
(www.salisbury.gov.uk). The nitrogen diox-
ide annual mean objective is likely to be
exceeded in 2005 and hence an air quality
management area was declared encompass-
ing four historic central streets, which are
narrow and canyon-like in topography with
people living in  ats above the shops, repre-
senting relevant public exposure.
In Camden, a Stage 3 assessment of nitro-
gen dioxide and PM10 concluded that an
AQMA was required including all of the
south of the Borough and some isolated areas
in the north such as Hampstead and Highgate
(www.camden.gov.uk/green/). The declared
areas share a common source in road trafŽ c
emissions. In some of the other London bor-
oughs a decision to declare the whole of the
borough was taken to avoid issues of blight
in certain locations. Camden did not take this
approach wanting instead to re ect the road
2481
sources of emissions within the shape of their
AQMA.
In Leicester, Ž ve full-time members of
staff were deployed to undertake the air qual-
ity work required, with a history of engage-
ment in air quality responsibilities, indicating
substantial investment in the review and as-
sessment process. Salisbury has a small mul-
tifunctional environmental health department
with limited staff time available. Hence con-
sultants were employed to undertake the
work. Camden undertook the review and as-
sessment in-house and have a team compar-
able to that of Leicester undertaking
modelling and monitoring work as well as
having dedicated policy ofŽ cers.
Leicester has a long-standing internal
group which deals with air quality on its
agenda and is comprised of transport plan-
ners, land-use planners, environmental health
professionals and sustainability ofŽ cers.
Being a unitary authority, all functions work
at the same level in close proximity and staff
have built up close working relationships.
With an anticipation of the air quality prob-
lems it faced, air quality issues were inte-
grated into the last Local Transport Plan
(Leicester City Council, 2000), the process
by which local authorities bid for money for
transport schemes. The LTP now forms the
basis of their air quality action plan.
On completion of their Stage 3 assess-
ment, Salisbury are setting up a working
group to deal with the action plan, co-ordi-
nated by the environmental health depart-
ment, involving land-use planners and
county transport planning ofŽ cials. They
have noted more resistance to the integration
of air quality issues into other areas of the
council’s policies and those of the county.
This may be indicative of less well-estab-
lished working relationships existing in this
two-tier location.
Camden, as a London borough, has an
additional duty to that of Leicester and Salis-
bury in that it must also satisfy the London
Mayor’s requirements (for London air qual-
ity strategy, see www.london.gov.uk ) as well
as those of central government. A view wider
than the local authority area is even more
2482 C. I. BEATTIE ET AL.
critical to the effective implementation of
local air quality management in London, as
boroughs are geographically small, highly
trafŽ cked and densely populated; hence ac-
tions in one borough are unlikely to be effec-
tive without co-ordination with surrounding
boroughs. London boroughs have a series of
cluster groups, the Central London cluster
group being co-ordinated by Camden. There
is both a technical and a policy group, which
interact. It has been recognised that there is a
need for a London-wide approach, particu-
larly with regard to implementation of a low
emission zone (Carslaw and Beevers, 2002).
5. Conclusions
From the data presented in this paper and
from the case studies, urban authorities ap-
pear to be facing greater air quality manage-
ment challenges with more complex
combinations of pollutants, providing chal-
lenging situations for implementing action
plans. However, rural areas are not without
air quality problems. Many rural authorities
have declared or are proposing to declare
AMQAs. These are mainly due to industrial
sources, motorways or congested, narrow
streets within market towns. Evidence has
been presented which shows that the frame-
works for developing and implementing air
quality action plans to improve air quality in
AQMAs within rural authorities may not be
as effective or as well developed as those
within urban authorities.
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