VERTEX

NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
BAMBANG, NUEVA VIZCAYA 3702
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
(VERTEX)
Submitted by:
Balaweg, Joyce Ainon S.
Cerezo, Cristelito C.
Dulnuan, Norice V.
Juguiad, Claire P.
Lovena, John Cloide V.
Mortera, Harry Voltaire N.
Paculla, Ronald B.
Quiape, Jerick S.
Rosario, Jhoenel T.
Rumbaua, Amiel
Bachelor of Science in Mechanical Engineering

1A
FUNCTIONS
Functions
 A special type of relation in which one variable corresponds to another variable.
 A set of ordered pair wherein no two ordered pairs have the same first variable.
 In symbols, y=f ( x ) is read as “ y is a function of x .”
 The first variable x is the independent variable and the second variable y is the
dependent variable.
 The set of all the first variables of the ordered pairs is the domain of the function
while the set of all second variables is the range of the function.
Examples
1.) x y 2.) x y
a d 1
b e 2 a
c f 3
One is to one correspondence Many is to one correspondence

Ordered Pairs ¿ ( a , d ) ( b , e ) ( c , f ) Ordered Pairs ¿ ( 1 , a ) (2 , a )( 3 , a )
Domain ¿ { a , b , c } Domain ¿ { 1,2,3 }
Range ¿ { d , e , f } Range ¿ { a }
3.) x y
1 3
2 5
One is to many correspondence

Ordered Pairs ¿ ( 1,3 ) ( 1,5 )( 2,4 )
Domain ¿ { 1,2 }
Range ¿ { 3,4,5 }
Not a function but a relation
Remarks
To be a function means that no vertical line can intersect the graph in more than
one point.
Value of Function
 The value of a function, given value(s) assigned to its argument(s), is the value
assumed by the function for these argument values.
Examples
1.) If f ( x )=x 2 +2 x−8, find f ( 2 ) , f (−6 ) , f ( 3 h ) , f ( x− y ) , f ( x ) +f ( y )
Solutions:
2
f ( 2 ) =x +2 x−8
f ( 2 ) =( 2 )2+ 2 ( 2 )−8
f ( 2 ) =4 +4−8
f ( 2 ) =0
2
f (−6 )=x +2 x −8
2
f (−6 )=(−6 ) + 2 (−6 )−8
f (−6 )=36−12−8
f (−6 )=16
2
f ( 3 h )=x +2 x−8
2
f ( 3 h )=( 3 h ) +2 (3 h )−8
f ( 3 h )=9 h2 +6 h−8
f ( x− y )=x 2+2 x−8

2
f ( x− y )=( x− y ) +2( x− y )−8
f ( x− y )=x 2−2 xy + y2 +2 x−2 y−8
2
f ( x ) + f ( y ) =x +2 x−8
2 2
f ( x ) + f ( y ) =( x ) +2 ( x )−8+ ( y ) +2 ( y )−8
2 2
f ( x ) + f ( y ) =x +2 x−8+ y +2 y−8
2 2
f ( x ) + f ( y ) =x + y +2 x+2 y−16
2.) If f ( x )=tan x sin x , find the following:

a) f ( 0 )
b) f ( 2 π )
c) f ( π3 )
Solutions:
f ( x )=tan x sin x
f ( x )=tan ( x ) sin ( x )
f ( x )= ( cos x)
sin x
sin x
sin2 x
f ( x )=
cos x
2
sin x
We can now substitute the value of f in this f ( x )=¿
cos x
a.) f ( 0 )=tan x sin x

2
3()
c.) f π =tan x sin x
sin 0
f ( 0 )=
cos 0
f ( )=
π (
sin 2
3)
π
cos ( )
02 3 π
f ( 0 )=
1 3
( 2 )
2
f ( 0 )=0 √3
f ( )=
π
3 1
b.) f ( 2 π )=tan x sin x 2
3
sin 2 (2 π )
f ( 2 π )=
cos (2 π ) f
π
3 ()
=
4
1
0
2 2
f ( 2 π )=
1
f ( 2 π )=0
f ( π3 )= 34 × 21
f ( )=
π 6
3 4
f ( )=
π 3
3 2
sec 2 x tan x
3.) If f ( x )=tan x , show that f ( x + y )−f ( x )=¿
1−tan x tan y
Solution:
sec 2 x tan x
tan ( x + y )−tan x=¿ ¿
1−tan x tan y
( tan x +tan y
1−tan x tan y )
−tan x=¿
sec 2 x tan x
1−tan x tan y
tan x +¿ tan y −tan x ¿ ¿ ¿
tan x + tan y −tan x ¿¿

2 2
tan x+ tan y−tan x+ tan x tan y sec x tan x
=
1−tan x tan y 1−tan x tan y
2 2
tan x+ tan y−tan x + tan x tan y sec x tan x
=
tan y + tan 2 x tan y sec 2 x tan x

=
2 2
tan y (1+ tan x ) sec x tan x
=
2 2
tan x (sec x) sec x tan x
=
tan x sec 2 x sec 2 x tan x

=
You can also arrange it into
sec 2 x tan x sec 2 x tan x

=
EXERCISE #1
1.) If f ( x )=5 x 2 +2 x−4 , what is the value of the function when:
a.) f ( 2 ) d.) f ( x ) + f (h)
b.) f ( 3 c ) e.) f (−3)
c.) f (4 x +b) f.) f (x+ 1)
2.) If f ( x )=tan x sin x , find f ( π4 ) and f ( π6 ).

3.) If f ( x )=cos x+ sin x , find f (π) .
2
x
4.) If g ( x )=¿ , find g(7) and g (−3 z ).
x−2 x
5.) If g ( x )=x ( x +6 )2, find g(2 a).
6.) If f ( b )=2 b2 +6 b−4 , find f (x− y )
7.) If f ( y ) =¿
2 y −6
y +1
, find f
1
2 ()
.
8.) If g ( x− y ) + g( x) , find the value of the function g ( x )=x 2+5 x .
9.) If F ( a )=a 2−2 b, find F (−4 ) and F ( 23 ).

10.) If f ( x )=2+ ¿
cot x
sec x
, find f ( 0 ), f( )
π
3
and f
π
4
. ( )
Operations of Function
1.) The sum f +g is the function defined by ( f + g )( x )=f ( x )+ g (x).
2.) The difference f −g is the function defined by ( f −g ) ( x )=f ( x )−g ( x ).
3.) The product f ∙ g is the function defined by ( f ∙ g ) ( x ) =f ( x ) ∙ g( x) .
4.) The quotient

f
g
is the function defined by
f
g
( x )=¿ ()
f ( x)
g(x)
or
g
f
( x )=¿
g(x)
()
f ( x)
.
5.) The composite function is created when one function is substituted into another
function. It is denoted by fog ( x )=f ( g ( x ) ) and/or g( f ( x ) ).
Examples
2 x +3
If f ( x )=4 x−6 and g ( x )=¿ , find the following:
4
1) Sum
2) Difference
3) Product
f (x ) g ( x)
4) Quotient and .
g ( x) f (x )
5) Composite Function f ( g ( x ) ) , g ( f ( x ) ) , f (f ( x )) and g( g ( x )).
Solutions:
1.) f ( x ) + g ( x )=( 4 x −6 ) + ( 2 x+4 3 )

4 ( 4 x−6 )+ ( 2 x +3 )
¿
4
16 x −24+2 x+ 3
¿
4
18 x−21
¿
4
2.) f ( x )−g ( x )=( 4 x−6 )−¿ ( 2 x4+3 )

4 ( 4 x−6 )−( 2 x +3 )
¿
4
16 x −24−2 x−3
¿
4
14 x−27
¿
4
3.) f ( x ) ∙ g ( x )=( 4 x−6 ) ∙ ( 2 x4+3 )

8 x2 +12 x−12 x−18
¿
4
8 x2 −18
¿
4
4 x−6
f (x )
4.) g ( x) =¿ 2 x +3
4
¿( 4 x−6) ( 2 x+3
4
)
16 x −24
¿
2 x+3
2 x +3
g(x) 4
=
f ( x ) 4 x−6
¿ ( 2 x+4 3 )( 4 x−6
1
)
2 x+3
¿
16 x −24
5.) f ( g ( x ) )=4 x−6
¿4 ( 2 x4+3 ) −6
8 x+12
¿ −6
4
8 x+12−24
¿
4
8 x −12
¿
4
2 x +3
g ( f ( x ) )=¿
4
2 ( 4 x−6 ) +3
¿
4
8 x −12+ 3
¿
4
8 x −9
¿
4
f ( f ( x )) =4 x−6
¿ 4 ( 4 x−6 )−6
¿ 16 x−24−6
¿ 16 x−30
2 x +3
g ( g ( x ) ) =¿
4
¿
2 ( 2 x4+3 )+3
4
4 x+ 6
+3
4
¿
4
4 x+ 6+12
4
¿
4
4 x+18
4
¿
4
¿ ( 4 x+4 18 )( 14 )
4 x +18
¿
16
EXERCISE #2
For no.1-7, find the following of the given functions:
e.) Composite Function
a.) Sum
f (g ( x ) )
b.) Difference
g( f ( x ) )
c.) Product f (f ( x ))
d.) Quotient g(g ( x ))
f (x) g ( x)
and
g ( x) f (x )
1.) f ( x )=x +2 and g ( x )=3 x2
x+ 1 2x
2.) f ( x )=¿ and g ( x )=¿
x−3 x−3
2 x +1 3x
3.) f ( x )=¿ and g ( x )=¿
x−2 x−2
4.) f ( x )=x 2−1 and g ( x )=√ x+2
x
5.) f ( x )=¿ and g ( x )=2 x −1
x+1
2
x +3 x−2
6.) f ( x )=¿ and g ( x )=¿
5−x 3
7.) f ( x )=2 x +7 and g ( x )=2 x
x+2 2
2 x −3
8.) f ( x ) =¿
3 x and
g ( x ) =¿ , find f (f ( 9 ))
5x
2
x +4 x+2
9.) f ( x )=¿ and g ( x )=¿ , find g( g ( 5 ) )
7−x 5
x−4 2
x −1 f (x ) g ( x)
10.) f ( x )=¿ and g ( x )=¿ , find and
4x x g ( x) f (x)
Types of Functions
1) Algebraic Function
 A function defined by an algebraic expression.
 It is a function that involves only algebraic operation, like, addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division, as well as fractional or rational
exponents.
Example: f ( x )=x 2 +3 x+ 6
 Kinds of Algebraic Function
a) Constant Function
 Let ' A ' and ' B ' be any two non-empty sets, then a function
' f ' from ' A' to ' B ' is called a constant function if and
only if the range ' f ' is a singleton.
2) Identity Function
 It is a continuous function which defined as the real valued function
f : R → R , y =f ( x )=x for each x ∈ R.
Example
f ( x )=x such that x= y
x −1 0 1 2 3 4
y −1 0 1 2 3 4
( 4,4)

( 3,3 ) 
( 2,2 )

( 1,1 )
(0,0)

(−1 ,−1 )
f ( 0 )=4 x−5 f ( 1 ) =4 x−5 f ( 0 )=4 ( 0 ) −5

f ( 1 ) =4 ( 1 )−5 f ( 0 )=−5 f ( 1 ) =−1
f ( 2 ) =4 x−5 f ( 3 )=4 x −3 f ( 2 )=4 ( 2 )−5
f ( 3 )=4 ( 3 )−5 f ( 2 )=8−5 f ( 3 )=12−5 f ( 2 ) =3
f ( 3 )=7
3) Linear Function
 The simplest type of function.
 It is a first degree function and the graph is a straight line.
 Any equation of the form:
y=mx+b
(namely the slope-intercept form)
Example
f ( x )=4 x−5
x 0 1 2 3
y −5 −1 3 7
 ( 3,7 )
 ( 2,3 )
 ( 1 ,−1 )
 ( 0 ,−5 )
4) Quadratic Function
 Any function in the form of y=a x2 +bx +c , a ≠ 0
 The restriction that a ≠ 0 is necessary because if a=0, then the equation
becomes a linear function.
 Parabola - graph of quadratic function
 In a quadratic function, if a> 0, the parabola opens upward and has a
minimum value at the vertex.
 If a< 0, the parabola opens downward and has a maximum value at the
vertex.
 The vertex of the parabola is given by the equation:
2
−b 4 ac−b
x=¿ and y=¿
2a 4a
Example
2
y=x −2 x−3
a.) Roots
0=x 2−2 x −3
0=( x+1 )( x−3 )
0=x+1 ; 0=x−3
x=−1 ; x=3
b.) Vertex (1 ,−4)

−b 4 ac−b
2
x= y=
2a 4a
−(−2 ) 4910 (−3 )−(−2 )2
x= y=
2 ( 1) 4 ( 1)
2 −16
x= y=
2 4
x=1 y=−4
 
x=−1 x=3
x+1
0=
x−5

0=x−5 1 ,−4
x=5
5) Rational Function
P( x )
 A function that is defined by R ( x )=¿
Q(x)
where P(x ) and R( x ) are both polynomials.
Example
x +1
x=4 x=3 x=2 f ( x )=
x−5
x +1 x +1 x +1
y= y= y=
x−5 x−5 x−5
4+1 3+ 1 2+1 x +1
y= y= y= y=
4−5 3−5 2−5 x−5
5 4 3 y ( x−5 )=x +1 5 y +1
y= y= y= 0=
−1 −2 −3 y−1
xy−5 y =x+1
y=−5 y=−2 y=−1 0= y−1
xy−x=5 y +1
y=1
x( y−1) 5 y +1
=
Vertical
y −1 y−1
Asymptote
Horizontal Asymptote
( 6,7 )
x=8 x=7 x=6

 ( 7,4 )x +1
x +1 x +1 y=
y= y=
x−5 x−5 ( x−5
8,3 )
8+1 7+ 1 6 +1
y= y= y=
8−5 7−5 6−5
9 8 7
y= ( 2y=
,−1 ) y=
3 2 1

y=3 y=4( 3 ,−2 ) y=7

( 4 ,−5 )
6) Irrational Function
 A function with the variable into the radicand: [f ( x )=√n R ( x ) ]
Example
f ( x )=1+ √ x +2
f (−2 )=1+ √ x +2 f (−1 ) =1+ √ x +2

f (−2 )=1+ √−2+ 2 f (−1 ) =1+ √−1+ 2
f (−2 )=1+ √ 0 f (−1 ) =1+ √1
f (−2 )=1+0 f (−1 ) =1+ 1
f (−2 )=1 f (−1 ) =2
(−1,2)
(−2,1)
7) Absolute Function
 A function that contains an algebraic expression within absolute value
symbol.
 In symbols, f ( x )=| x| and sometimes written as |(x)|.
Example
y=| x+1|
x=1 x=0 x=−1 x=−2

y=|1+ 1| y=|0+1| y=|−1+1| y=|−2+1|
y=|2| y=|1| y=|0| y=|−1|
y=2 y=1 y=0 y=1

(1,2)

(−2,1) (0,1)

(−1,0)
8) Transcendental Function
 Transcendental means non-algebraic expressions.
a.) Exponential Function
 A function in which the variable appears as an exponent (power).
 Denoted by f ( x )=ax a ≠ 0, a ≠ 1
 Exponential form: b x =N
b.) Logarithmic Function
 A function in which the variable appears as an argument of a
logarithm.
 Denoted by f ( x )=log a x a ≠ 0, a ≠ 1
 Logarithmic form: log b N =x
 Properties of Logarithms
1.)log a xy=log a x+ log a y
x
2.)log a =log a x−log a y
y
3.)log a x y = y log a x
m
m
4.)log a x n = log a x
n
5.)log a a=1
 Laws of Exponents
1.) Multiplication Property
m n m+n 2 3 2+3 5
a ∙a ¿ a x ∙x ¿ x ¿ x
2.) Division Property

am m−n x8 8−3
n ¿ a
m>n 3 ¿ x ¿ x5
a x
am 22 4
¿ 1 m=n ¿ ¿1
an 22 4
m 2
a 1 y 1 1
n ¿ n−m m<n 3 ¿ 3−2 ¿
a a y y y
3.) Raising Power to a Power

n 2
( a m ) ¿ a mn ( y 6 ) ¿ y (6 )(2) ¿ y 12
4.) Raising Product to a Power

( ab )m ¿ a m b m ( 2 x ) 4 ¿ 24 x 4 ¿ 16 x 4
5.) Raising Quotient to a Power
() ()
m
a m a 2 2
22 4
¿ m ¿ ¿
b b 3 32 9
6.) Fractional Exponent

m 2
a n ¿ √a ¿ ( √n a ) x 3 ¿ √3 x 2 ¿ ( √3 x )
n m m 2
7.) Zero Exponent

0
a0 ¿ 1 a≠0 ( x 2 +2 ) ¿ 1
Examples
1.) Transform the following given to logarithmic form

a.) 82 =64 log 8 64=2
b.) 103=10000 log 10 1000=3
1 1
c.) 4 −2 =¿ log 4 ¿−2
16 16
1 1
d.) 3−4=¿ log 3 ¿−4
81 81
()
−5
1 log 1 32=−5
e.) ¿ 32
2 2
f.) ( )
−3
1 log 1 27=−3
¿ 27
3 3
g.) x 2 z = y log x y =2 z
2.) Transform the following given to exponential form

a.) log 3 81=4 4
3 =81
b.) log 7 7=1 71=7
1 13 1
c.) log 1 8 ¿ 3 ¿
2 2 8
d.) log 3 1=0 0
3 =1
1 1
e.) log 4 ¿−3 −3
4 =¿
64 64
1 1
f.) log 6 ¿−2 −2
6 =¿
36 36
g.) log x y =z xz= y
3.) log 12 x=2

2
x=12
x=144
4.) log 6+ x log 4=log 4+ log(32+4 x )

log 6+ log 4 x =log 4+ log (32+4 x )
x x
log(6¿)(4 )=log(4)(32+ 4 )¿
x x
(6)(4 )=(4 )(32+4 )
( 6 ) ( 4 x )=( 4 ) ( 32 )+ ( 4 ) ( 4 x )
( 2 ) ( 4 x ) =128
( 2 ) ( 4 x ) 128
=
2 2
x
4 =64
Take logarithm on both sides:
x
log 4 =log 64
x log 4=log 64
x log 4 log 64
=
log 4 log 4
x=3
4.) log2 2+log2 x=2

log 2 2 ( x ) =22
2 x=4
2x 4
=
2 2
x=2
EXERCISE #3
1.) Show the graph of f ( x )=x 2−3 and find the domain and range if the value of x
is
a.) f ( x )=−2 c.) f ( x )=0 e.) f ( x )=2
b.) f ( x )=−1 d.) f ( x )=1
2.) If f ( x )=x , find the value of y with the given value of x and show the graph.
x -4 -2 0 2 4
y
3.) If f ( x )=x 2−3 , find the value of y when the value of x is given. Then show the
graph.
x 1 2 3 4
4.) Find the domain and range of y=x 2−10 x +25 and show the graph.
x -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8
y
2x
5.) Find the domain and range, vertical and horizontal asymptotes of y= . Then
x−1
show the graph.
6.) Find the domain and range of y= √ x and show the graph.
x 0 4 16 25
y
7.) Find the domain and range y=| x| and show the graph.
x 0 1 3 -1 -3
y
8.) Transform the following logarithmic function to exponential function

a.) log 3 9=x f.) log 6 216=x
b.) log x 1000=x g.) log 8 4096=x
c.) log 2 1/ 8=x h.) log 3 243= x
d.) log 2 4=x i.) log 1=x
e.) log 6 36=x j.) log 2 7=x
9.) Transform the following exponential function to logarithmic function

a.) 4 2=16 f.) 102=100
b.) 53=125 g.) 35=243
c.) 82 =64 h.) 19=1
2 3
1 1 1 1
d.) ¿ i.) ¿
2 4 5 125
13
e.) ¿ 0.42 j.) 93 =64
5
10.) Determine what type of function are the following:

4
a.) log 7 x= log5 64
3
b.)



c.)




d.)
 
e.)


 

f.)
y=x
g.)
LIMITS
Limits
 Let f be a function and let a and L be real number if:
1) As x takes value closer and closer (but not equal) to a on both sides of a ,
then the corresponding values of f ( x) get closer and closer (and perhaps
equal) to L; and
2) The value of f ( x) can be made as close to L as desired by taking values of
x close enough to a ; then L is the limit of f (x) as x approaches a , written
as
lim f ( x )=L
x→ a
Existence of Limits
The limit of f as x approaches a may not exist;
1) If f ( x) becomes infinitely large in magnitude (positive or negative) as x
approaches the number a from either side, we write lim f ( x )=+∞ or x→ a
lim f ( x )=−∞ . In either case, the limit does not exist.

x→ a
2) If f ( x) becomes infinitely large in magnitude (positive) as x approaches the

number a from one side and infinitely large in magnitude (negative) as x
approaches a from the other side as , then lim f ( x ) does not exist. x→ a
3) If lim ¿ is a notation that means x approaches a from the ¿ and

−¿
x→ a f ( x ) = L¿¿ ¿
lim ¿ is a notation that means x approaches a from the ¿ ¿, and L ≠ M ,
+¿
x→ a f ( x ) =M ¿¿¿
then the lim f ( x ) does not exist.

x→ a
NOTE: The above expressions, lim

−¿
¿ and lim+¿
¿ are used to describe one-
x→ a f ( x ) ¿ x→ a f ( x ) ¿
sided limits. On the other hand, the expression lim f ( x ) is used to describe two-sided
x→ a
limits.
One-Sided Limits
Suppose f is a function such that it is not defined for all values of x . rather, it is
defined in such a way that it “jumps” from one y value to the next instead of
smoothly going from one y value to the next.
The figure above shows that y=f ( x ) is not defined for all values of x .
The figure above shows that y=f ( x ) “jumps” from a positive value to a negative
value.
The statement lim ¿ means that as x approaches a from the right or from
+¿
x→ a f (x)= R ¿
the positive infinity, the function f has the limit R .
Likewise, the statement x→ a lim

f (x)= L¿
¿ means that as x approaches a from the left
−¿
hand side or from negative infinity, the function f has the limit L.
If f is defined in an open interval containing a , except possible at a , then

lim f (x )=L
x→ a
lim ¿
if and only if +¿
x→ a f ( x ) = lim ¿ ¿¿
−¿
x→a f ( x)
Finding Limits Through Graphs and Tables

1) Determine the lim f (x ) if f ( x )=x +8 .
x →3
Using the tables of values, it is observed that x approaches 3 from both

left and right, f ( x) approaches 11.
x 2 2.5 2.9 3 3.1 3.5 4

f (x) 10 10.5 10.9 11 11.1 11.5 12
The limit of f ( x )=x +8 as x approaches 3 is shown in the graph.

Hence, the lim ( x +8 )=11.

x →3
2
lim f ( x) if f ( x )=¿ x −1 .
2) Determine the x→−1
x +1
Using the table of values, it is observed that as x approaches −1 from both
left and right, f ( x) approaches −2, even though the function value at −1 is
undefined.
x −2 −1.5 −1.1 −1.001 −1.1 −0.9 −0.5 −0.1 0

f (x) −3 −2.5 −2.1 −2.001 undefined −1.9 −1.5 −1.1 −1
2
x −1
The limit of f ( x )=¿ as x approaches −1 is shown in the graph.
x +1
(−1 ,−2)
o
2
x −1
Hence, the lim ¿−2.
x→−1 x +1
|x|
3) Find the lim f ( x ) if f ( x )=¿ .
x →0 x
|x|
As shown in the graph of f , lim does not exist.
x →0 x
(0,1)o
o (0 ,−1)
Using the idea of Existence of Limits, we can show that

lim ¿ lim ¿
x→ 0
−¿ | x|
=−1 ¿
and x→ 0
+¿ |x|
=1 ¿
.
x x
lim ¿
Hence, the x→ 0
−¿ |x|
≠ lim ¿¿ .
x +¿ |x|
x →0 ¿
x
|x|
Therefore, the lim does not exist.
x →0 x
2
lim f ( x) if f ( x )=¿ x +1 .
4) Determine the x→−1
x +1
lim ¿ x2 +1
Based on the graph, the x→−1 does not exist because as x
x +1
approaches −1 from the right, f ( x) does not approach a fixed value. It actually
approaches positive infinity ( +∞ ) . On the other hand, when x approaches −1 from
the left, f (x) approaches negative infinity (−∞ ) .
Using the idea on Existence of Limits, we can show that

2 2
lim ¿ x +1 ¿−∞ and lim ¿ x +1 ¿+ ∞.
x +1 x +1
−¿ +¿
x→−1 =¿¿ x→−1 =¿¿
2
lim ¿ x +1 does not exist.
Therefore, the x→−1
x +1
{
2
5) Determine the lim f (x ) if f ( x )= x ,∧if x ≠ 2
x →2 0 ,∧if x=2
(2,0)
The domain of f is the set of all real numbers, and its graph is shown
above. Notice that f ( x )=0 when x=2, but f ( x )=x 2 when x ≠ 2. To determine the
limit as x approaches 2, we are concerned with the values of f ( x ) when x is very
2
close but not equal to 2. Therefore, lim f ( x )=lim x =4 .
x →2 x →2
6) The values of f ( x ) do not approach some fixed number at x=1 and at x=6 , but
lim f ( x ) is positive infinity while lim f ( x ) does not exist. Moreover, the
x →1 x →6
lim f ( x )=2 and it exists even if f ( x ) is not define at x=2.

x →2
o 
7) Find the lim

x →0
f ( x ) if f ( x )=2 x .
As shown in the table of values, x approaches 0 from both left and right,
f ( x) approaches 1.
x −0.5 −0.1 −0.01 0 0.02 0.1 0.2

f ( x) 0.71 0.93 0.99 1 1.01 1.07 1.15
x
Graphically, we can conclude that lim
x →0
2 =1.

x
e −1
8) Determine the lim f (x ) if f ( x )=¿ .
x →0 x
As shown in the table of values, as x approaches 0 from both left and
right, f ( x) approaches 1.
x −0.2 −0.1 −0.01 0 0.01 0.1 0.2

f (x) 0.91 0.95 0.99 undefined 1.01 1.05 1.11
x
e −1
Graphically, we conclude that lim ¿ ¿ 1.
x →0
x
log x
9) Find the lim f ( x ) if f ( x )=¿ .
x →1 x −1
As shown in the table of values, as x approaches 0 from both left and
right, f ( x) approaches 1.
x 0.8 0.9 0.95 1 1.05 1.1 1.2

f ( x) 0.49 0.46 0.45 undefined 0.42 0.41 0.40
log x
Graphically, we can conclude that lim ¿ ≈ 0.43 .
x →1 x −1
Properties of Limits
lim f ( x )=L and lim f (x )=K
x→ a x→ a
1) If lim
x→ a
f ( x ) exists then it is unique.
2) lim [ f ( x )+ g ( x ) ]=lim f ( x )+ lim g ( x )

x→ a x →a x→a
lim [ f ( x )+ g ( x) ]=L+ K
x→ a
3) lim [ f ( x )−g ( x ) ]=lim f ( x )−lim g ( x )

x→ a x →a x →a
lim [ f ( x )−g( x )] =L−K

x→ a
4) lim [ f ( x )∙ g(x) ]=lim f (x)∙ lim g ( x )

x→ a x →a x→a
lim [ f ( x )∙ g(x) ] =L∙ K

x→ a
lim f ( x)
5) lim ¿ f ( x ) ¿ x →a ¿
L
, (K ≠ 0)
x→ a g ( x) lim g( x ) K
x →a
1 1
6) lim ¿ ¿ , (K ≠ 0)
x→ a g ( x) K
n n
7) lim [ f ( x ) ] =lim [ f (x) ] for n> 0
x→ a x→ a
8) lim
x→ a x→ a [
[ cf (x) ]=¿ c lim f (x) ¿ ]
9) lim cx n=c lim x n=can
x→ a x→ a
10) If f is a polynomial function then lim f ( x )=f (a)

x→ a
√ √
n
11) lim
x→ a
f (x)= n lim f (x) when n is positive integer
x →a
12) If f ( x)≤ h( x)≤ g (x) for all x in an open interval containing a , except possibly at a
, and if lim f ( x )=L=lim ⁡ g( x ) then lim ⁡ h ( x )=L.
x→ a x→a x →a
1
13) lim ¿ ¿0
x→ ∞ x
Limits of Trigonometric Functions

Let c be a real number in the domain of the given trigonometric function.
1) lim sin x =sin c
x →c
2) lim
x →c
cos x=cos c
3) lim
x →c
tan x=tan c
4) lim
x →c
cot x =cot c
5) lim
x →c
sec x=sec c
6) lim
x →c
csc x =csc c
Special Limits
1) lim ¿ sin x ¿ 1
x →0 x
2) lim ¿ 1−cos x ¿ 0
x →0 x
( ) ¿e
n
3) lim ¿ 1+ 1
x→ ∞ n
1
4) lim
x →0
¿
( 1+n n ¿ e
)
5) For a> 1, then:
lim a x =+∞
x→+∞
x
lim a =0
x→−∞
lim log a x=+∞

x→+∞
lim log a x=−∞

x →0
6) For 0<a<2, then:

x
lim a =0
x→+∞
x
lim a =+ ∞
x→−∞
lim log a x=−∞

x→+∞
lim log a x=+∞

x →0
x
7) lim ¿ e −1 ¿ 1
x →0
x
Evaluating Limits Analytically
1) lim
x →1
2=2
lim x=−4
2) x→−4
3) lim x 2=32=9
x →3
4) lim 3 ( 2 x +1 )=3 lim ¿ ( 2 x+ 1 ) ¿

x →1 x→ 1
¿ 3 ( 2 (1 )+1 )
¿ 3 ( 3)
¿9
5) lim
x →1
¿¿
¿ ( 1 +7 ) + ( 1+2 )
2
¿ 8+3
¿ 11
6) lim ( 4 x +3 ) =4 ( 2 ) +3
2 2
x →2
¿ 4 ( 4 )+ 3
¿ 16+3
¿ 19
7) lim ( x +5 x +1 )=2 +5 ( 2 ) +1
2 2
x →2
¿ 4 +10+1
¿ 15
2
8) lim ¿ x −4 x−5 ¿ ( x−5)(x +1)
x →5
x −5 x−5
¿ x+ 1
¿ 5+1
¿6
9) lim ( 4 x +7 ) =lim 4 x+ lim 7

x →1 x→ 1 x→1
¿ 4 ( 1 )+7
¿ 11
10) lim ¿ √ x−2 ¿ √ x−2 ∙ √ x+2

x→ 4 x−4 x−4 √ x+2
x−4
¿
( x −4 ) ( √ x +2 )
1
¿
√ x +2
lim 1
x →4
¿
lim √ x+ 2
x→4
1
¿
√ 4+2
1
¿
4
11) lim [( x −4)( x +2) ]=¿ lim ( x −4 ) ∙ lim ( x+ 2 ) ¿

3 3
x→−1 x →−1 x→−1
¿ (−13−4 ) ∙ (−1+2 )
¿−5 ∙1
¿−5
2
2 lim (x + x +3)
x + x +3
12) lim ¿ x→ 1
¿
x →1
x +1 lim (x +1)
x →1
( 12+1+3 )
¿
( 1+ 1 )
5
¿
2
( )
5 5
13) lim ( 3 x −10 ) = lim ( 3 x −10 )
2 2
x→−2 x →−2
2 5
¿(3 ( 2 ) −10)
¿¿
¿¿
5
¿2
¿ 32
x2 + x−6 ( x+3 )( x−2 )

14) lim ¿ ¿
x →2
x−2 x−2
¿ x+ 3
¿ 2+3
¿5
2
lim ¿ x −2 x +6 ( x −1 )( x−1 )
15) x →1 3 ¿
( x −1 ) ( x−1 )( x−1 ) ( x−1 )
1
¿
x −1
1
¿
1−1
1
¿
0
¿∞
16) f ( x )= √ x and g ( x )=x+ 4
lim f ( g ( x ) ) =lim √ x +4
x →7 x→ 7
√
¿ lim ( x +4 )
x→ 7
¿ √ 7+4
¿ √ 11
17) lim
x →0
tan x=tan(0)=0
18) lim
x→ π
¿¿
19) lim sin 2 x=¿¿

x →0
20) lim
x →0
¿ tan x ¿ lim ¿ sin x
x x→ 0 x ( )( cos1 x )
( )( )
lim sin x lim 1
x →0 x →0
¿
x cos x
¿ ( 1 ) (1 )
¿1
( )
sin 4 x lim sin 4 x
21) lim ¿
¿ 4 x→ 0
x →0 x 4x
( )
lim sin y
x→ 0
¿4
y
¿ 4 ( 1)
¿4
Continuity
A function f is continuous at a point a if
lim f (x )=f (a)

x→ a
The following are the three conditions being satisfied:

1) f(a) exists, that is, f is defined at a ,
2) lim
x→ a
f ( x ) exists,
3) The two numbers are equal.

Continuity test at a point x=a :
lim ¿
+¿
x→ a F ( x)= −¿
lim ¿¿
x→ a F ( x )=F( a)¿
EXERCISE #4
Evaluate the limit.
lim ¿ 12 x 2−x−1
4
lim (x −5 x + 4 x+ 2) 2 11.) 1
1.) x→−1 x→−
4 4 x +1
6
lim ¿ ¿ 1 x 4 +5 x 3+ 6 ¿ lim ¿ x −729
12.) x→−3
2.) x→−3
3 x +3
2
¿ x +14 x + 49
3 2
lim ( x −2 x +3 x +4 ) 13.) lim
3.) x→
1 x →7
x−3
2
7
2
¿ x −2 x +1 14.) lim ¿ x −32
4.) lim x →3
x−2
x →1
x−1
2
2
lim ¿ 3 x +5 x−2
lim ¿ 4 x −1 15.) x→−3
5.) x→ 1 1 x+ 2
2 x−
2
¿ √ x −4
2
16.) lim
lim ¿ x +3 x →2
√ x−2
6.) x→−3 2
x −2 x−15
lim ¿ x + 4 x+ 4
7.) x→−2
2 17.) lim
x →8 ( )
¿ x 1− 1
x
x+2
−5
lim ¿ 9 x +6 x +1 2 18.) lim ( 9−x2 ) 2
8.) 1 x→ √ 5
x→−
3 3 x+ 1
4
lim ¿ x −16
19.) x→−2 2
4−x
20.) lim
x →0
¿
2
x −4
9.) lim ¿
2
x →2
x −8 x+12
2
10.) lim ¿ x −6 x+ 9
x →3
x−3
DERIVATIVES
Derivative
 The derivative of a function expresses its rate of change with respect to an
independent variable. The first derivative of a function is the slope of the tangent
line to that curve defined by the function.
∆y
 The derivative of y with respect to x is the limit of the ratio when ∆ x
∆x
approaches zero.
 The derivative is designated by the symbol
lim ∆ y
dy ∆ x →0 f ( x +∆ x )−f ( x)
= = lim
dx ∆x ∆ x→ 0 ∆x
 Other symbols for derivative

d
'
y, f ' ( x ), D x y,
f (x)
dx
 The operation of finding the derivative is called differentiation.
 The importance of derivative is two-fold: it can be interpreted as rate of change
and it can be interpreted as the slope.
Examples
1.) Is the function f ( x )=x 2 + x differentiable at x=2? If it is, calculate the

derivative.
Solution:
We calculate the limit with the role of c played by 2:
2 2
f ( 2+ ∆ x )−f (2) [ ( 2+ ∆ x ) + ( 2+∆ x ) ]−[2 + 2]
lim =lim
∆ x →0 ∆x h→0 ∆x
[ ( 2+∆ x )2 + ( 2+∆ x ) ]−[4+ 2]
¿ lim
∆ x→ 0 ∆x
2
[(4+ 4 ∆ x +(∆ x) )+ ( 2+ ∆ x ) ]−[6 ]
¿ lim
∆ x→ 0 ∆x
[4 +4 ∆ x+( ∆ x )2+ 2+ ∆ x−6]
¿ lim
∆ x→ 0 ∆x
2
5 ∆ x+( ∆ x )
¿ lim
∆ x→ 0 ∆x
∆ x (5+ ∆ x )
¿ lim
∆ x→ 0 ∆x
¿ lim 5+ ∆ x
∆ x→ 0
¿ lim 5+0
∆ x→ 0
¿5
We see that the required limit exists, and that is equal to 5. Thus the
function f ( x )=x 2 + x is differentiable at x=2, and the value of the
derivative is 5.
2.) Calculate the instantaneous velocity at time t=5 of an automobile whose

position at time t seconds is given by g ( t ) =t 3 + 4 t 2+10 feet.
Solution:
We know that required instantaneous velocity is g '(5). We calculate
' g (5+ ∆ x )−g(5)
g (5 )= lim
∆ x→ 0 ∆x
3 2 3 2
lim [ ( 5+ ∆ x ) +4 ( 5+∆ x ) + 10]−(5 +4 ( 5 ) +10)¿
∆x →0
¿ ¿
∆x
¿ lim ¿ ¿ ¿
∆ x→ 0
( (∆ x)2 ) +10 ¿−[125+ 4 ( 25 ) +10] ¿

∆x
¿ lim 125+75 ∆ x +15(∆ x)2 +(∆ x)3 +100+40 ∆ x + ¿ ¿

∆ x→ 0 ∆x
2
4 (∆ x) +10−125−100−10
∆x
(∆ x)3 +19(∆ x )2+115 ∆ x
¿ lim
∆ x→ 0 ∆x
∆ x ((∆ x)¿¿ 2+19 ∆ x+ 115)
¿ lim ¿
∆ x→ 0 ∆x
¿ lim (∆ x)2 +19 ∆ x +115
∆ x→ 0
2
¿ lim (0) +19 (0)+ 115
∆ x→ 0
¿ 115
We conclude that the instantaneous velocity of the moving body at time
t=5 is g' (5 )=115 ft / sec
NOTE: Since the position (or distance) is measure in feet, and time in
seconds, then we measure velocity in feet per second.
3.) Calculate the slope of the tangent line to the graph of y=f ( x )=x 3−3 x at
x=−2. Write the equation of the tangent line.
Solution:
We know that the desired slope is equal to f ' (−2). We calculate
' f (−2+∆ x )−f (−2)
f (−2 )= lim
∆x →0 ∆x
[ (−2+∆ x )3−3 (−2+ ∆ x ) ]−[ (−2 )3−3 (−2)]
¿ lim
∆ x→ 0 ∆x
¿ lim
[ (−8+12 ∆ x−6(∆ x) +(∆ x ) ) +6−3 ∆ x ] +8−6
2 3
∆ x→ 0 ∆x
−8+12 ∆ x−6 (∆ x)2 +(∆ x)3 +6−3 ∆ x +8−6
¿ lim
∆ x→ 0 ∆x
3 2
(∆ x) −6 (∆ x) +9 ∆ x
¿ lim
∆ x→ 0 ∆x
∆ x (( ∆ x)¿¿ 2−6 (∆ x )+ 9)
¿ lim ¿
∆ x→ 0 ∆x
¿ lim (∆ x)2−6 ∆ x+ 9
∆ x→ 0
¿ lim (0)2−6( 0)+ 9

∆ x→ 0
¿9
We conclude that the slope of the tangent line to the graph of y=x 3−3 x at
x=−2 is 9. The tangent line passes through (−2 , f (−2 ) ) =(−2 ,−2) and
has the slope 9 . Thus it has equation y− (−2 )=9( x −(−2 )).
Increments
Given a continuous function
y=f ( x )
let us choose some fixed value of x , the corresponding value of y being given by
y=f ( x ). Now consider another value of x , differing from the first one by an amount
(positive or negative) which we call the increment of x , and will denoted by the
symbol ∆ x . For this value of x , y will have a new value, differing from the original
by an amount ∆ y . In other words, when x changes to the value x +∆ x , y changes to
the value y +∆ y , and we have
y +∆ y =f ( x+ ∆ x),
∆ y =f ( x +∆ x )−f (x) .
Examples
1.) y=x 3−2 x
3
y +∆ y =( x+ ∆ x ) −2 ( x + x ∆ )
3 3
∆ y =( x+ ∆ x ) −2 ( x + ∆ x )−x +2 x
∆ y =x3 +3 x 2 ∆ x+3 x (∆ x )2+(∆ x )3−2 x−2 ∆ x−x 3+2 x

2 2 3
∆ y =3 x ∆ x +3 x ( ∆ x ) + ( ∆ x ) −2 ∆ x
2 2 3
∆ y 3 x ∆ x 3 x (∆ x ) (∆ x ) 2 ∆ x
= + + −
∆x ∆x ∆x ∆x ∆x
∆y
=3 x 2+3 x ∆ x+ ( ∆ x )2−2
∆x
2 2
∆ y ∆ x →0 =3 x +3 x (0)+ ( 0 ) −2
∆ y ∆ x →0 =3 x2 −2
2.) y=6 x −7 x2 +5
2
y +∆ y =6 ( x+ ∆ x )−7 ( x+ ∆ x ) +5
∆ y =6 ( x+ ∆ x )−7 ( x+ ∆ x )2+5−( 6 x −7 x2 +5)
∆ y =6 x+ 6 ∆ x−7 ( x +2 x ∆ x + ( ∆ x ) ) +5−6 x+7 x −5

2 2 2
2 2 2
∆ y =6 x+ 6 ∆ x−7 x +14 x ∆ x +7 ( ∆ x ) +5−6 x +7 x −5
∆ y =6 ∆ x +14 x ∆ x+7 ( ∆ x )2
2
∆ y 6 ∆ x 14 x ∆ x 7 ( ∆ x )
= + +
∆x ∆ x ∆x ∆x
∆y
=6+14 x +7 ∆ x
∆x
∆ y ∆ x →0 =6+14 x +7( 0)
∆ y ∆ x →0 =6+14 x
EXERCISE #5
Differentiate the following using increments:
2
1.) y=¿ 2
x +3
x−1
2.) y=¿
x+ 1
3.) F ( x )=x 2 +5 x−7
4 x−2
4.) y=¿
5 x+ 3
5.) y= √ x
6.) y=4 x 2−3 x−2
7.) y=3+ 4 x−x 2

8.) y=x 3−5 x +2
9.) y=x 3−2 x 2 +6
10.) y=x 4 −2 x3
Derivatives of Algebraic Functions

dc
1.) ¿0
dx
dx
2.) ¿1
dx
d du dv
3.) ( u+ v )=¿ +
dx dx dx
d cd (u)
4.) ( cu )=¿
dx dx
5.) Product Rule
d dv du
( uv )=u + v
dx dx dx
d uvd (w) uwd(v) vwd (u)

6.) ( uvw ) =¿ +¿ +¿
dx dx dx dx
7.) ()
d u
dx c
¿
1 du
c dx
c ≠0
du
d c c
8.) ¿ dx u≠0
dx u 2
u
9.) Quotient Rule
du dv
−uv
d u
dx v ()
=
dx
v
2
dx
d n du n
10.) (cx )=c (x )
dx dx
11.) Power Rule
d n n−1 du
u =nu
dx dx
du
d
12.)
dx √ u=¿ dx
2√ u
13.) Chain Rule
 Derivatives of a composition
' n−1
y =n [f ( x ) ] ∙ f ' (x )
Examples
1.) y= ( x −3 )( x−5 )
u=( x−3 ) v=( x−5 )
du=1 dv =1
y ' =udv +vdu
y ' =( x−3 )( 1 ) + ( x−5 ) ( 1 )
'
y =x−3+ x −5
'
y =2 x−8
2.) y=2 x (x 3−√ x)

u=2 x v=( x 3−√ x )
1
du=2 dv =3 x −¿
2
2√ x
'
y =udv +vdu
1
¿+ ( x 3− √ x ) (2)
'
y =(2 x )¿
2√ x
2x
y ' =6 x 3−¿ ¿+2 x 3−2 √ x
2√ x
x
¿+2 x −2 √ x
' 3 3
y =6 x −¿
√x
y =6 x −√ x +2 x −2 √ x
' 3 3
y =8 x −3 √ x
' 3
( 4 x−1)3
3.) y=¿
( 3 x−1)2
3 −2
y=(4 x−1) (3 x−1)
u=(4 x−1)3 v=(3 x−1)−2
2 −3
du=12(4 x−1) dv =−6(3 x−1)
'
y =udv +vdu
y =(4 x−1) [−6 ( 3 x−1 ) ] +(3 x−1)−2 [12 ( 4 x−1 )2 ]
' 3 −3
' 3 −3 −2 2
y =6 (4 x−1) ( 3 x−1 ) + 12(3 x −1) ( 4 x−1)
' −3 2
y =6 ( 3 x−1 ) ( 4 x−1) [− ( 4 x−1 ) +2 ( 3 x −1 ) ]
' −3 2
y =6 ( 3 x−1 ) ( 4 x −1 ) (−4 x +1+6 x−2)
' −3 2
y =6 ( 3 x−1 ) ( 4 x −1 ) ( 2 x−1)
' 6 ( 4 x−1 )2(2 x−1)

y=
( 3 x−1 )3
2
x +1
4.) y=¿
2 x +1
u=x +1
2
v=2 x +1
du=2 x dv =2
' vdu−udv
y=
v2
( 2 x+1 ) ( 2 x ) −( x 2+1 ) ( 2 )
y '= 2
(2 x +1)
2 2
' 4 x +2 x−2 x −2
y=
( 2 x +1 )2
2
' 2 x +2 x−2
y=
( 2 x +1 )2
( 4 x−1)3
5.) y=¿
( 3 x−1)2
3 2
u=(4 x−1) v=(3 x−1)
du=12(4 x−1)2 dv =6(3 x−1)
' vdu−udv
y=
v2
(3 x −1)2 [ 12 ( 4 x−1 )2 ]−( 4 x−1 )3 [6 ( 3 x −1 ) ]
y '= 2 2
[ ( 3 x−1 ) ]
2 2 3
' 12(3 x−1) ( 4 x−1) −6( 4 x−1) (3 x −1)
y=
( 3 x−1 )4
2
6 ( 3 x−1 )( 4 x−1 ) [2 ( 3 x−1 )− ( 4 x−1 ) ]
y'= 3
( 3 x −1 )
2
' 6 ( 4 x−1 ) [6 x−2−4 x +1]
y= 2
( 3 x−1 )
' 6 ( 4 x−1 )2 ( 2 x −1 )
y= 2
( 3 x−1 )
6.) y=5 x 4 −3 x2 −x+5

y ' =5 ( 4 ) x 4−1−3 ( 2 ) x 2−1−x 1−1+ 0
' 3
y =20 x −6 x−1
7.) y=2 x 3−5 x 2+ 3 x +2

' 3−1 2−1 1−1

y =2 ( 3 ) x −5 ( 2 ) x +3 x +0
' 2
y =6 x −10 x+ 3
8.) y=2 x 2−7 x +1

y ' =2 ( 2 ) x−7 +0
y ' =4 x−7
9.) y=7 x +8 y 3
' 2
y =7 x−8 y
10.) y=5 x 6−2 x 4 −2 xy −6

y ' =5 ( 6 ) x 5−2( 4)−2 ( x+ y )−0
' 5 3
y =30 x −8 x −2 x−2 y
y ' =2(15 x 5−4 x 3−x− y )
EXERCISE #6
Differentiate the following:
1.) y=(x 5−3 x)( x 3−4 x +5)
2 x−1
2.) y=¿
x−1
3.) y=(3 x 2−1)6
4.) y= √ 2−3 x 2
1
5.) y=(x 2+ 2) 2
6.) y=(x +10)3 −x3
7.) y=x √ x
5 4
x −3 x −5 x+ 5
8.) y=¿
x2
9.) y= √2 t
5
10.) y=¿ 3
x
Finding the Slope by Derivatives

where y ' =m−slope
Examples
1.) Find the slope of the curve y=x 2−1 at the point (1,2)
y=x 2−1 @ point (1,2)
'
y =2 x+ 0 y ' =2 ( 1 )
y '=2 x '
y =2
2.) f ( x )=x 2−2 x +1 at point (3,1)

2
y=x −2 x +1 @ point (3,1)
'
'
y =2 x−2 y =2 ( 3 )−2
'
y =6−2
'
y =4
Higher Derivatives
The derivative of y with respect to x is itself a function of x , and may in turn be
differentiated. The derivative of the first derivative is called the second derivative
2 3 4
d y d y d y
and is written 2 ; further differentiations give 3 , 4 , etc. Other symbols for
dx dx dx
the higher derivatives are y ' ' , y ' ' ' , y (4) , …, and f ' ' (x) , f ' ' ' ( x ) , f (4 ) ( x ) ….
Example
Find the nth derivative of 2 x3 −4 x 2 +7 x−1=0
y=2 x 3−4 x 2+7 x−1
' 2
y =6 x −8 x +7
''
y =12 x−8
' ''
y =12
y (4)=0
Implicit Function
In general, an equation involving x and y determines a value (or values) of y
corresponding to each value of x in some range, and therefore determines y as a
function of x . Hitherto we have been concerned with functions defined explicitly by
an equation of the form y=f ( x ).
It may happen, however, that x and y are connected by an equation not solved
for y; for example, x 3+ y 3=3 axy . Then y is called an implicit function of x .
In contrast to y=f ( x ), an implicit relation between x and y will be written
F ( x , y ) =0
Derivatives in Implicit Form

y= y'
2 '
y =2 y y
3 2
y =3 y y '
4 3
y =4 y y '
n n−1
y =n y y'
Examples
1.) Find y '
2 2 2 2
x y −x y + x + y =0
x2 y : u=x2 v= y x y2 : u=x v= y 2
du=2 x dv = y ' du=1 dv =2 yy '
udv +vdu udv +vdu
( x 2 ) ( y ' ) + ( y )( 2 x ) ( x ) ( 2 yy ' ) + ( y 2 ) ( 1 )
2 ' ' 2
x y +2 xy 2 xy y + y
x y +2 xy−( 2 xy y + y ) +2 x+2 y y =0
2 ' ' 2 '
x 2 y ' +2 xy−2 xy y ' − y 2 +2 x+ 2 y y ' =0

2 ' ' ' 2
x y −2 xy y +2 y y =−2 x−2 xy + y
y ' ( x 2−2 xy+ 2 y ) −2 x−2 xy+ y 2

= 2
( x 2−2 xy + 2 y ) x −2 xy+ 2 y
−2 x−2 xy+ y 2
y '=
x 2−2 xy +2 y
2.) Find y ' and y ' ' of xy + x−2 y−1=0

xy : u=x u=− y−1 du=− y '
du=1
v= y v=x−2
dv = y ' dv =1
udv +vdu '' vdu−udv

y = 2
v
( x ) ( y')+( y ) ( 1)
'' ( x−2 ) (− y ' ) −(− y−1 ) ( 1 )
y =
( x −2 )2
− y ' ( x−2 ) + y +1
y' '= 2
( x−2)
y' '=
x−2 [ 2
]
( x−2 )
'
x y +y
' '
x y + y +1−2 y −0=0
x y ' −2 y ' =− y −1
y ' ( x−2 ) − y−1
=
x−2 x−2
− y −1
y '=
x−2
3.) Find the y ' and y ' ' of x 2−xy + y 2=3

xy : u=x v= y
du=1 dv = y '
udv +vdu
( x ) ( y')+( y ) ( 1)
'
x y +y
2 x−( x y + y ) +2 y y =0
' '
' '
2 x−x y − y +2 y y =0
' '
−x y +2 y y =−2 x + y
'
y (−x +2 y ) −2 x+ y
=
−x+ 2 y −x +2 y
' −( 2 x − y )
y=
−( x−2 y )
2 x− y
y '=
x−2 y
u=2 x− y v=x−2 y
du=2− y ' dv =1−2 y '
'' vdu−udv
y = 2
v
'' ( x−2 y ) ( 2− y ' ) −( 2 x− y ) ( 1−2 y ' )

y =
( x−2 y )2
' ' ' '

'' 2 x−x y −4 y +2 y y −(2 x−4 x y − y +2 y y )
y =
(x−2 y )2
'' 2 x−x y ' −4 y +2 y y ' −2 x + 4 x y ' + y−2 y y '
y =
( x −2 y )2
'' 3 x y ' −3 y
y =
( x−2 y )2
''
y =
3x ( 2x−2 y)
x− y
−3 y
( x−2 y)2
6 x 2−3 xy
−3 y
'' x −2 y
y = 2
(x−2 y)
2
6 x −3 xy−(3 y)( x−2 y )
x−2 y
y' '=
(x −2 y )2
6 x −3 xy−( 3 xy−6 y )
2 2
'' x−2 y
y =
( x−2 y )2
2 2
6 x −3 xy−3 xy +6 y
'' x−2 y
y =
( x−2 y )2
6 x 2−6 xy +6 y 2
x −2 y
y' '= 2
( x−2 y )
6 x 2−6 xy +6 y 2 1
y' '= ∙
x−2 y ( x−2 y )2
2 2
6 x −6 xy +6 y
y' '=
( x −2 y )3
EXERCISE #7
Find the y ' of the following:
1.) x 2+ 4 xy + y 2=99
2.) x 4 +5 x 9 y +7 y 2=11
3.) x 3+ 5 y=6 xy
4.) x 2+ 4 xy + y 2=1
5.) 3 ay=4 x 2
6.) y 3−8 y 2 + y −2=0
7.) 4 ay=5 x 2
8.) 3 x 2+3 y 3 =37
9.) x 2−2 xy+ y 2−6 x+ 2 y =0
10.) 4 x2 +3 y 2=4
Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

d du
( sin u )=cos u
dx dx
d du
( cos u ) =−sin u
dx dx
d du
( tan u ) =sec 2 u
dx dx
d du
( cot u )=−csc 2 u
dx dx
d du
( sec u ) =sec u tan u
dx dx
d du
( csc u )=−cscu cot u
dx dx
Examples
1.) y=sec ( x 2+2 )
u=x2 +2 du=2 x
y =sec ( x +2 ) tan ( x +2 ) (2 x)
' 2 2
y =2 x sec ( x +2 ) tan ( x +2 )
' 2 2
2.) y=cos x sin x 2

y ' =cos x 2 x cos x 2+ sin x2 ¿
' 2 2 2 2
y =2 x cos x −sin x
EXERCISE #8
1.) y=tan 4 7 x
2.) y=(sin x) ¿
3.) y=¿
4.) y=sin ( 4 x−7 )
5.) y= √ tan 2 x
6.) y= √ sec(3 x−4 )
7.) y=sec ( x 3+5 x )
8.) y=sin √ x
9.) y=tan 2 x 4
10.) y=cos √ x
Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

d 1 du
arc sin u=
dx √ 1−u 2 dx
d −1 du
arc cos u=
dx √1−u2 dx
d 1 du
arc tanu=
dx 1+ u dx
2
d −1 du
arc cot u=
dx 1+u2 dx
d 1 du
arc secu=
dx u √ u −1 dx
2
d −1 du
arc csc u=
dx u √ u −1 dx
2
Examples
1.) y=arc cot x2
2
u=x du=2 x
' −1 du
y=
1+ u2 dx
−1
y '= ∙2x
2 2
1+ ( x )
' −2
y=
1+ x 4
2.) y=arc csc 4 x 2

u=4 x 2 du=8 x
−1 du
y'=
u √ u −1 dx
2
' −1
y= ∙8 x
4x
2
√(4 x 2 )2−1
' −8 x
y=
4x
2
√16 x 4 −1
' −2
y=
x √ 16 x −1
4
3.) y=x arc cos 2 x

u=x v=arc cos 2 x
−1 du
du=1 v=¿
√1−u dx 2
u=2 x du=2
−1
dv =¿ ∙2
√1−¿ ¿ ¿
−2
dv =¿
√1−4 x 2
'
y =udv +vdu
'
y =x [√ −2
1−4 x
2 ] + arc cos 2 x (1)
y ' =¿ [√ −2 x
1−4 x 2 ] + arc cos 2 x
4.) y=arc cos 4 x

' −1du
y=
√1−u dx 2
−1
y '= ( 4)
√ 1−( 4 x ) 2
−4
y '=
√ 1−16 x 2
EXERCISE #9
1
1.) Find the y ' =arc tan
x
2.) Find the y ' =arc sin(x−1)
3.) Find the y=arc cot x2
4.) Find y ' if y=arc tan( √ x 3 )
5.) Find the derivative of cos−1 5 x
6.) Find the derivatives of y=sin−1 (1−x 2 )
7.) Find the derivatives of y=4 tan−1 3 x 4
8.) Find y=(x 2+ 1)sin−1 4 x
9.) Find y=arc sin( 4 x 2)
10.) Find y=¿

Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions

du
log a e
d dx
dx
( log a u ) = u
du
log 10 e
d dx
dx
( log10 u )= u
du
d dx
( ln u )=
dx u
Laws of Logarithm
1.) ln xy=ln x+ ln y
x
2.) ln ¿ ln x−ln y
y
3.) ln x n=n ln x
Examples
2
1.) y=ln x 2 3.) y=log 10 ( x 2 +1 )
u=x
2
du=2 x 2
u=( x +1 )
2
du
du=2 ( x +1 ) ( 2 x )
2
dx
y '=
u du=4 x ( x + 1 )
2
2x
M [ 4 x ( x +1 ) ]
2
y '= '
x
2
y= 2
( x 2+1 )
2
y '= 4 x log 10 e
x '
y=
( x 2 +1 )
2.) y=ln (x 2−2 x+1)
u=x2 −2 x +1 du=2 x−2
du
dx
y '=
u
2 x−2
y '= 2
x −2 x+1
2( x−1)
y '=
( x−1)( x−1)
' 2
y=
( x−1 )
EXERCISE #10
1.) y=ln ( 8 x +5 )
2.) y=ln (x 2+ 2 x−1)
x
3.) y=¿ 2
x +4
4.) y=ln (10 x +2 )
5.) y=ln tan 6 x
6.) ln e x
7.) y=ln (arc ¿tan 6 x)¿
8.) y=ln cos e x
9.) y=¿
10.) y=ln 3 cos x

Derivatives of Exponential Functions

d u
( a )=a u ln a du
dx dx
d u
( e )=eu du
dx dx
Examples
1.) Dx ( e x )
u=x du=1
' u du
y =e
dx
y ' =e x (1)
y ' =e x
2.) y=e2 x
u=2 x du=2
' u du
y =e
dx
y ' =e 2 x (2)
y ' =2 e 2 x
3.) y=e x cos x 2

u=e x v=cos x 2
x 2
du=(1)e dv =−2sin x
du=e x
'
y =udv +vdu
y =( e ) (−2 sin x ) +(cos x )(e )
' x 2 2 x
y ' =−2 e x sin x2 +e x cos x 2

' x 2 2
y =−e ( 2sin x −cos x )
EXERCISE #11
1.) y=arc sin e x
2.) y=sec e 2 x
3.) y=ln e x
4.) y=arc sin e x
5.) y=tan 2 e x
2
6.) y=e−x
7.) y=18 2 x
8.) y=x 2 e−3 x
9.) y=sin e x
10.) y=3−4 t
Hyperbolic Functions
 A function of an angle expressed as a relationship between the distance from a
point on a hyperbola to the origin and to the coordinates axes, as hyperbolic sine
or hyperbolic cosine : often expressed as combination of exponential function.
 Also satisfy identities analogous to those of the ordinary trigonometric functions
and have important physical applications. For example, the hyperbolic cosine
function may be used to describe the shape of the curve formed by a high-voltage
line suspended between those two.
Derivatives of Hyperbolic Functions
d du d du
( sinh u )=cosh u ( coth u )=−csch2 u
dx dx dx dx
d du d du
( cosh u )=sinh u ( sech u )=−sech u tanh u
dx dx dx dx
d du d du
( tanh u ) =sech 2 u ( csch u )=−cschu coth u
dx dx dx dx
Examples
1.) y=sinh ( x2 )
u=x
2
du=2 x
du
y ' =cosh u
dx
y ' =cosh x 2(2 x )
' 2
y =2 x cosh x
2.) y=2sinh x +4 cosh x

y=2cosh x+ 4 sinh x
EXERCISE #12
1.) sinh(1)=2.72
1
2.) cosh (2)=¿
2
3.) cosh (3)+sinh(3)=20.09
4.) tanh ( x )=0
5.) y=sinh(5 x)
6.) y=cosh ( 3+ x 2 )
7.) y=sinh(x 2+ 4)
8.) y=coth (2 x )
POLYNOMIAL CURVES
Tangents and Normals to Plane Curve

A tangent to a curve is a straight line that touches the curve at one point and has
the same slope as the curve at that point.
Equation of Tangent Line
y− y1 =m ( x−x 1 )
A normal to a curve is a straight line which is perpendicular to a tangent to the
curve. The word “normal” is used in advanced mathematics to mean “perpendicular.”
It is in this sense rather than in the sense of “natural” or “usual” that the word is used
here.
Equation of Normal Line
−1
y− y1 =
m
( x−x 1)
Examples
1.) Find the equations of the tangent and the normal line of y=3 x 3−2 x +1 at
point (1,2).
Solution:
2
y=3 x −2 x+ 1
y ' =6 x−2
@ (1,2)
y ' =6 (1)−2
'
y =4
Tangent line @ (1,2) Normal line @ (1,2)
y− y1 =m ( x−x 1 ) −1
y− y1 =
m
( x−x 1)
y−2=4 ( x −1 ) −1
y−2= ( x−1 )
y−2=4 x−4 4
4 x− y +2−4=0 4 y−8=−x +1
4 x− y−2=0 x +4 y−8−1=0
x +4 y−9=0
2.) Find the equation of the tangent and the normal line of y=2+ 4 x−x 3 at
x=−1
Solution: 3
y=2+ 4 x−x
If x=−1 ' 2
y =4−3 x
3
y=2+ 4 (−1)−(−1)
@ x=−1
y=2−4 +1 ' 2
y =4−3 (−1 )
y=−1 '
y =4−3 (1 )
y ' =1
Tangent line @ (−1 ,−1)

y− y1 =m ( x−x 1 )
y−(−1)=1 ¿
y +1=1 ( x+ 1 )
y +1=x +1
x− y −1+ 1=0
x− y =0
Normal line @ (−1 ,−1)

−1
y− y1 =
m
( x−x 1)
−1
y−(−1)= ( x−(−1) )
1
−1
y +1= ( x +1 )
1
y +1=−x −1
x + y +1+1=0
x + y +2=0
3.) Find the equations of the tangent lines and the normal lines of y=x 2−7 x +6 at
its points of intersection with the line y=0.
Solution:
2
y=x −7 x +6
2
0=x −7 x+ 6
2
x −7 x+ 6=0
( x−1 ) ( x−6 ) =0
x−1=0 ; x −6=0
x=1 ; x=6
If x=6
2
If x=1 y=x −7 x +6
2
2
y=x −7 x +6 y= ( 6 ) −7 ( 6 )+6
2
y= (1 ) −7 (1 )+6 y=36−42+ 6
y=1−7+6 y=0
y=0
Slope @ (1,0)
Slope @ (1,0) y=x 2−7 x +6
y=x 2−7 x +6 y '=2 x−7
y '=2 x−7 @ (1,0)
@ (1,0) y ' =2 ( 1 )−7
y ' =2 ( 1 )−7 '
y =−5
'
y =−5
Tangent line @ (1,0) Tangent line @ (1,0)

y− y1 =m ( x−x 1 ) y− y1 =m ( x−x 1 )
y−0=−5 ( x−1 ) y−0=−5 ( x−1 )

y=−5 x +5 y=−5 x +5
5 x+ y−5=0 5 x+ y−5=0
Normal line @ (1,0) Normal line @ (1,0)

−1 −1
y− y1 = ( x−x 1) y− y1 =
m
( x−x 1)
m
−1 −1
y−0= ( x−1 ) y−0= ( x−1 )
−5 −5
−5 y=−x +1 −5 y=−x +1
x−5 y−1=0 x−5 y−1=0
4.) Find the tangent lines as directed to the ellipse

2 2
x −xy +2 y −4 x +2 y +2=0 parallel to the line x−4 y=2.
Solution:
2 2
x −xy +2 y −4 x +2 y +2=0
' ' '
2 x−x y − y + 4 y y −4 +2 y =0
' '
−x y + 4 y y +2 y '=−2 x + y +4
y ' (−x + 4 y +2 )=−2 x + y +4

−2 x + y + 4
y'=
−x+ 4 y +2
To find m
x−4 y=2
y=mx+b
−4 y=−x +2
−4 y −x 2
= +
−4 −4 −4
x 1
y= −
4 2
1
m=
4
Substitute m in
' −2 x + y + 4
y=
−x+ 4 y +2
1 −2 x + y +4
=
4 −x + 4 y +2
−x +4 y+ 2=4 (−2 x+ y+ 4)
−x +4 y+ 2=−8 x +4 y +16
−x +4 y+ 2+ 8 x −4 y −16=0
7 x−14=0
7 x=14
7 x 14
=
7 7
x=2
Substitute x in x 2−xy +2 y 2−4 x +2 y +2=0

( 2 )2−( 2 ) y +2 y 2−4 ( 2 ) +2 y +2=0

2
4−2 y +2 y −8+2 y +2=0
2 y 2−2=0
2
2 y =2
2
2y 2
=
2 2
√ y 2= √ 1
y=±1
If y=1 If y=−1
x=2 x=2
Tangent line @ ( 2,1 ) Tangent line @ ( 2 ,−1 )
y− y1 =m ( x−x 1 ) y− y1 =m ( x−x 1 )
1 1
y−1= ( x−2 ) y−(−1)= ( x−2 )
4 4
4 y−4=x−2 1
y +1= ( x−2 )
4
x−4 y +4−2=0
4 y +4=x−2
x−4 y +2=0
x−4 y−4−2=0
x−4 y−6=0
Determine the coefficients a, b, c, etc. so that the curve will satisfy the stipulated
conditions
Examples
1.) Make the parabola y=a x2 +bx +c pass through (3,13) and be tangent to the
line 8 x− y =15 at (2,1).
Solution
@ ( 3,13 ) @ (2,1)
2 2
y=a x +bx +c y=a x +bx +c
2
13=a(3) +b ( 3 ) +c 1=a ( 2 )2+b ( 2 ) + c
13=9 a+3 b+ c → eq . 1 1=4 a+ 2b+ c → eq . 2
2
y=a x +bx
@ +c
the line
'
8 x− y =15
y =2 ax +b
8=2 ax+ −
b y =−8 x + 15
−1 −1 −1
@ (2,1)
y=8 x −15
8=2 a(2)+ b
m=8
8=4 a+b → eq . 3
Subtract eq .1∧eq . 2 Subtract eq .3∧eq . 4

13=9 a+3 b+ c 8=4 a+b
−1=−4 a−2 b−c −12=−5 a−b
12=5 a+ b → eq . 4 −4 −a
=
−1 −1
a=4
Substitute a in eq .3 or eq .4eq .3
8=4 a+b eq . 4
8=4 ( 4 )+ b 12=5 a+ b
8=16+b 12=5 ( 4 ) +b
12=20+ b
12−20=b
b=−8
8−16=b
b=−8
Substitute a & b in eq .1 or eq .2
eq .1 eq .2
13=9 a+3 b+ c 1=4 a+ 2b+ c
13=9 ( 4 )+ 3 (−8 ) +c 1=4 ( 4 ) +2 (−8 ) +c
13=36−24 +c 1=16−16+ c
13=12+ c c=1
13−12=c
c=1
Substitute a, b, & c
2
y=a x +bx +c
y=4 x 2−8 x +1
2.) Make the parabola y=a x2 +bx +c pass through (3,2) and be tangent to the line
y=4 x +2 at (2,4).
Solution:
@ ( 3,2 ) @ (2,4)
2 2
y=a x +bx +c y=a x +bx +c
2
2=a(3)2 +b ( 3 ) +c 4=a ( 2 ) + b ( 2 )+ c
2=9 a+3 b+ c → eq . 1 4=4 a+ 2b +c → eq . 2
@ the line
y=4 x +2
m=4
2
y=a x +bx +c
'
y =2 ax +b
4=2ax +b
@ (2,1)
4=2a (2)+b
4=4 a+ b → eq .3
Subtract eq .1∧eq . 2 Subtract eq .3∧eq . 4

2=9 a+3 b+ c 4=4 a+ b
−4=−4 a−2 b−c 2=−5 a−b
−2=5 a+b → eq . 4 6 −a
=
−1 −1
a=−6
Substitute a in eq .3 or eq .4eq .3
4=4 a+ b eq . 4
4=4 (−6 )+ b −2=5 a+b
4=−24+b −2=5 (−6 ) +b
4 +24=b −2=−30+b
b=28 −2+30=b
b=28
Substitute a & b in eq .1 or eq .2
eq .1 eq .2
2=9 a+3 b+ c 4=4 a+ 2b +c
2=9 (−6 ) +3 ( 28 ) +c 4=4 (−6 )+ 2 ( 28 )+ c
2=−54+84 +c 4=−24+56+ c
2=30+ c 4=32+ c
2−30=c 4−32=c
c=−28 c=−28
Substitute a, b, & c
2
y=a x +bx +c
2
y=−6 x +28 x−28
EXERCISE #13
In 1-6, find the equations of the tangent and the normal at the point indicated.
1) x 2+ y 2−6 x+ 2 y =0 at (0,0).
2) y=(2 x−1)3 at x=1.
3) a 2 y=x 3 at (a , a).
4) 2 xy+ 5 x−3 y =0 at x=4.
5) x 2−xy +2 y−2 at x=−2.
6) ( x− y )2+ 4 x−1=0 at (0,1).
In 7-10, find tangent lines as directed.
7) To the cubic y=x 3−2 x +3 parallel to the line 10 x− y=3 .

8) To the cubic y=x 3 +6 x 2 +10 x +8 parallel to the line y=x .
9) To the curve y=x 4 + 2 x 3−2 x 2−3 x+3 perpendicular to the line
x−3 y=2 .
10) To the curve y=x 4 −4 x3 −2 x 2 +16 x−10 parallel to the line
y=4 x−1.
In 11-15, determine the coefficients a, b, c, etc., so that the curve will satisfy the
stipulated conditions.
11) Make the parabola y=a x2 +bx +c pass through (0 ,−2) and be tangent to the
line 3 x+ y+ 3=0 at (−1,0).
12) Make the parabola y=a x2 +bx +c pass through (−1,8) and be tangent to the
line y=11 x−5 at (1,6).
13) Make the parabola y=a x2 +bx +c pass through (1,3) and be tangent to the
line y=2 x +1 at (−1 , 2).
14) Make the parabola y=a x2 +bx +c pass through (0,5) and be tangent to the
line 4 x− y=2 at (1 ,−3).
15) Make the parabola y=a x2 +bx +c pass through (1 ,−1) and be tangent to the
line 2 x+ y =1 at (0 , 4 ).
Increasing and Decreasing Functions
y

E
 F
B
C


D

A
O x
Figure 1.
Consider a function y=f ( x ) which has a continuous derivative on some range of
x values. We know that the derivative y ' is the rate of change of y with respect to x .
If y ' >0 in some x interval, the rate of change of y is positive, so that y increases as x
increases in that interval. If y '<0 in some interval, y decreases as x increases in that
interval. The same conclusions are exhibited vividly by the graph of the function
because y ' is also the slope of the curve. In the figure 1, as x increases, the curves
rises if the slope is positive, as on the arc AB; it falls if the slope is negative, as along
BD :
If y ' >0 , y increases;
If y ' <0 , y decreases.
The above results are useful not only as employed in this chapter but also in
demonstrating the validity of certain inequalities which are valuable in many phases
of advanced mathematics.
Maxima and Minima

At a point such as B (Figure 1), where the function is algebraically greater than at
any neighboring point, the function is said to have a maximum value, and the point is
called a maximum point. Similarly, at D the function has a minimum value. At such
points the tangent is parallel to Ox ; i.e.,
'
y =0 .
But the vanishing of the derivative does not mean that the function is necessarily a
maximum or a minimum; the tangent is parallel to Ox at F , yet the function is neither
a maximum nor a minimum there. From the figure we deduce the following test:
At a point where y ' =0 , if y changes from positive to negative (as x increases), y
is a maximum; if y ' changes from negative to positive, y is minimum; if y ' does not
change sign, y is neither a maximum nor a minimum.
The points at which y ' =0 are called critical points, and the corresponding values
of x are the critical values of x : in Figure 1, B, D , F are critical points. Maxima and
minima collectively are called extremes: in the figure, B and D are extremes.
An extreme is not necessarily the greatest (or least) value that the function attains
anywhere in its range. The ordinate of F , for example, is greater than that of B. An
extreme is merely greater (or less) than any neighboring value. The greatest value that
the function can assume anywhere in its range (if such a value exists) is the absolute
maximum; a maximum (such as at B) that is greater than any other in the
neighborhood is a relative maximum.
In the majority of applications, we are concerned with the absolute maximum or
minimum. When the function is a polynomial there can never be an absolute extreme
if x is unrestricted; but even in the case of polynomials such extremes frequently
occur in practical problems, owing to the fact that x is limited in range.
Examples
1.) Locate the critical points and determine if it is maximum or minimum
2
y=4−6 x+ x .
Solution:
y=4−6 x+ x2
y ' =−6 +2 x
0=−6+2 x
2x 6
=
2 2
x=3
If x=3 Test @ (3 ,−5)

2 '
y=4−6 x+ x y =−6 +2 x
2 ''
y=4−6 ( 3 ) + ( 3 ) y =2>0
y=−5
critical point (3 ,−5)

minimum
2
y=−4 ( x+ 2) .
Solution:
2
y=−4 ( x +2 )
y ' =(−4 ) ( 2 ) ( x +2 ) + ( x +2 )2 ( 0 )
y ' =−8 ( x +2 )
y ' =−8 x−16
0=−8 x−16
8 x −16
=
8 8
x=−2
If x=−2 Test @ (−2,0)

2 '
y=−4 ( x +2 ) y =−8 x−16
2 ''
y=−4 (−2+2 ) y =−8<0
y=0
critical point (−2,0)
maximum

3 2
y=x −3 x +4 x+5 .
Solution:
3 2
y=x −3 x +4 x+5
' 2
y =3 x −6 x +4
2
0=3 x −6 x+ 4
−b ± √ b −4 ac
2
x=
2a
no critical point
−(−6)± √(−6)2−4 (3)(4)

x=
2(3)
6 ± √−12
x=
6
3 2
y=x −6 x +12 x .
Solution:
3 2
y=x −6 x +12 x
' 2
y =3 x −12 x +12
2
0=3 x −12 x +12÷ 3
2
0=x −4 x + 4
−b ± √ b −4 ac
2
x=
2a
−(−4)± √(−4 )2 −4 (1)( 4)
x=
2(1)
4±0
x=
2
4
x=
2
x=2
If x=2
3 2
y=x −6 x +12 x
3 2
y= (2 ) −6 ( 2 ) + 12 ( 2 )
y=8
critical point (2,8)
it fails
Test @ (2,8)
' 2
y =3 x −12 x +12
y ' ' =6 x−12
''
y =6 ( 2 )−12
y ' ' =12−12
y ' ' =0=0
Determining the coefficients a, b, c, etc. so that the curve will satisfy the stipulated
conditions
Example
1.) Make the curve y=ax 3+ b x 2 +cx + d have a critical point at (0,3) & (1,2).
Solution:
3 2
y=ax + b x +cx + d
' 2
y =3 a x + 2bx +c
2
0=3 a x +2 bx +c → eq .1
@ (0,3)
3 2
y=ax + b x +cx + d
3 2
3=a ( 0 ) +b ( 0 ) +c ( 0 ) +d
d=3
@ (1,2)
y=ax 3+ b x 2 +cx + d
2=a ( 1 )3 + b (1 )2 +c ( 1 )+ d
2=a+b+ c+ d → eq . 2
(0,3) @ eq .1
2
0=3 a x +2 bx +c
2
0=3 a ( 0 ) +2 b ( 0 ) +c
c=0
(1,2) @ eq .3
2
0=3 a x +2 bx +c
2
0=3 a ( 1 ) + 2b ( 1 ) +c
0=3 a+2 b+ c → eq . 3
Substitute d in eq .2
2=a+b+ c+ d
2=a+b+ c+3
2−3=a+ b+c
−1=a+b+ c → eq . 4
Subtract eq .3 and eq . 4
0=3 a+2 b+ c
1=−a−b−c
1=2 a+ b →eq .5
Substitute c & d in eq .2
2=a+b+ c+ d
2=a+b+ 0+3
2−1=a+b
1=a+b → eq . 6
Subtract eq .5 and eq .6
1=2 a+ b
−1=−a−b
a=0
Substitute a, c, and d in eq .2
2=0+b+0+ 3
2−3=b
b=−1
Substitute a, b, c, and d in y=ax 3+ b x 2 +cx + d

3 2
y= ( 0 ) x + (−1 ) x + ( 0 ) x +3
2
y=−x +3
EXERCISE #14
In 1-10, locate the critical points and determine if it is maximum and minimum.
1) y=4 x 2+ 16 x+ 9
2) y=(2 x−1)2
3) y=16 x + 4 x 2−x 4
4) y=4+ 27 x −x3
5) y=3 x 2−2 x+ 1
6) y=x 3−6 x2 +9 x
7) y=x 3−27 x +69
8) y=x 3−6 x2−36 x +58
9) y=4 x 3−2 x 2+5 x +9
10) y=x 4 −4 x2 −16 x+24
In 11 & 12, determine the coefficients a, b, c, etc. so that the curve will satisfy the
stipulated conditions.
11) Make the curve y=ax 3+ b x 2 +cx + d have a critical point at (0,3) and (−2,14) .
12) Make the curve y=ax 3+ b x 2 +cx + d have a critical point at (2,1) and (0,1).
Points of Inflection
A point of inflection is a point at which the curve changes from concave upward
to concave downward, or vice versa (the points C , E , F in Figure 1).
At a point of inflection the tangent reverses the sense in which it turns, which
means that y ' changes from an increasing to a decreasing function, or vice versa.
Hence at such a point y ' ' changes sign and, if it is continuous, must vanish.
Conversely, a point at which y ' ' vanishes is a point of inflection, provided y ' '
changes sign at that point.
Since y ' ' , the rate of change of the slope, is zero at a point of inflection, the
tangent is sometimes said to be stationary for an instant at such a point, and in the
neighborhood of the point it turns very slowly. Hence the inflectional tangent agrees
more closely with the curve near its point of contact than does an ordinary tangent; it
is therefore especially useful in tracing the curve to draw the tangent ateach point of
inflection.
A point at which y ' ' vanishes without changing sign is not a point of inflection;
the result means that near that point the tangent turns even more slowly than near a
point of inflection.
As noted in the past lesson, a point where y ' =0 is a maximum or a minimum,
provided y ' ' ≠ 0. If y ' and y ' ' both equal to zero, the point is in general a point of
inflection with a horizontal tangent (the point F in Figure 1); but if y ' ' vanishes
without changing sign, the point is a maximum or minimum.
Theorem: If x=a is a root of odd order −¿ simple, triple, etc. −¿ of the equation
'
y =0 , then x=a is a maximum or minimum; if x=a is a root of even order, x=a is a
point of inflection with horizontal tangent.
Examples
1.) Find the point of inflection of y=x 3−3 x 2.
Solution:
3
y=x −3 x
2
If x=1 y=x 3−3 x 2
' 2 3 2
y =3 x −6 x y= (1 ) −3 (1 )
''
y =6 x−6 y=−2
0=6 x−6
6x 6
=
6 6
x=1
2.) Find the point of inflection of y=36 +12 x−x 3 .

Solution:
y=36 +12 x−x 3 If x=0
'
y =12−3 x
2
y=36 +12 x−x 3
''
y =−6 x y=36 +12 ( 0 )−( 0 )3
0=−6 x y=36
0 −6 x
=
−6 −6
x=0
3.) Find the point of inflection of y=2 x 3 +3 x2−12 x +7.

Solution:
3 2
y=2 x +3 x −12 x +7
' 2
y =6 x +6 x−12
''
y =12 x +6
0=12 x +6
12 x −6
=
12 12
−1
x=
2
−1
If x=¿
2
3 2
y=2 x +3 x −12 x +7
( ) ( ) ( )
3 2
−1 −1 −1
y=2 +3 −12 +7
2 2 2
27
y=
2
4.) Find the point of inflection of y=x 4 −4 x3 +8 x .

Solution:
4
y=x −4 x +8 x
3
If x=2
' 3 2 4 3
y =4 x −12 x +8 y=x −4 x +8 x
4 3
''
y =12 x −24 x
2
y= (2 ) −4 ( 2 ) +8 ( 2 )
0=12 x −24 x
2
y=0
2
12 x =24 x
x ( 12 x ) 24 x
=
12 x 12 x
x=2
5.) Find the points of inflection of y=x 4 −6 x 2−7 .

Solution:
4 2
y=x −6 x −7
' 3
y =4 x −12 x
'' 2
y =12 x −12
2
0=12 x −12
2
12 x =12
2
x ( 12 ) 12
=
12 12
√ x 2= √ 1
x=± 1
If x=1 If x=−1
y=x 4 −6 x 2−7
4 2
y=x −6 x −7
y= (1 ) 4−6 ( 1 )2−7
4 2
y= (−1 ) −6 (−1 ) −7
y=−12
y=−12
EXERCISE #15
Find the point of inflection of the following.
1) y=x 3−3 x
2) y=2 x 3−9 x 2 +12 x−2
3) y=28−15 x+ 6 x2 −x 3
4) y= ( x −6 )2 (9−x)
5) y=x 3−6 x2 +9 x
6) y=x 3−3 x +2
7) y=x 4 −2 x3
8) y=x 4 −6 x 2−8 x
9) y=x ( x 3−8 x 2 +24 x−32)
10) y=x 5−5 x

APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE
Applications of Maxima and Minima

It was noted that at a point where its first derivative vanishes, a function assumes
an extreme value, provided the derivative changes sign at that point. This result finds
application in a great variety of problems, some of which will now be considered.
When the derivative is equated to zero, it may happen, of course, that several
critical values are obtained. in practice, the value that gives the desired maximum or
minimum can often be selected at once by inspection.
Examples
1.) A box is to be made of piece of cardboard 9 ¿2 by cutting equal squares out of
the corners and turning up the sides. Find the volume of the largest box that can
be made in this way.
Solution:
2
V = ( 9−2 x ) x
2 3
V =81 x−36 x +4 x
dV 2
=81−72 x +12 x =0 ÷ 3
dx
2
4 x −24 x+ 27=0
Using quadratic formula

−b ± √ b −4 ac
2
x=
2a
−(−24 ) ± √ (−24 ) −4 ( 4 ) ( 27 )
2
x=
2 (4 )
24 ± 12
x=
8
x=4.5 and x=1.5
Use x=1.5
2
V = ( 9−2 x ) x
2
V = ( 9−2 ( 1.5 ) ) (1.5)
2
V =54∈¿ ¿
2.) Find the rectangle of maximum perimeter inscribed in a given circle.

Solution:
Diameter D is constant
(circle is given)
x 2 + y 2= D 2
'
2 x+2 y y =0
−x
y'=
y
Perimeter
P=2 x +2 y
dP '
=2+2 y
dx
'
0=2+2 y
2+2 ( −xy )=0

y=x
The largest rectangle is a square.
3.) If the hypotenuse of the right triangle is given, show that the area is maximum
when the triangle is isosceles.
Solution:
2 2 2
x + y =c
'
2 x+2 y y =0
' −x
y=
y
Area:
1
A= xy
2
dA 1
= [x y +y]
'
db 2
1
0= [ x y'+ y ]
2
'
0=x y + y
x ( −xy )+ y=0
x2
y=
y
2 2
y =x
y=x
The triangle is an isosceles right triangle.

EXERCISE #16
1) A box is to be made from a sheet of cardboard that measures 12 ×12. The
construction will be achieved by cutting a square from each corner of the
sheet and then folding up the sides. What is the box of greatest volume that
can be constructed in this fashion?
2) A rectangular garden is to be constructed against the side of a garage. The
gardener has 100 ft of fencing, and will construct a three-sided fence; the side
of the garage will form the fourth side. What dimensions will give the garden
of greatest area?
3) A farmer has enough money to build only 100 m of fence. What are the
dimensions of the field he can enclose the maximum area?
4) Find the minimum amount of tin sheet that can be made into a closed cylinder
having a volume of 108 cu. inches in square inches.
5) A box is to be constructed from a piece of zinc 20 ¿2 by cutting equal squares
from each corner and turning up the zinc to form the side. What is the volume
of the largest box that can be so constructed?
6) A poster is to contain 300 (cm square) of printed matter with margins of 10 cm
at the top and bottom and 5 cm at each side. Find the overall dimensions if the
total area of the poster is minimum.
7) A norman window is in the shape of a rectangle surmounted by a semi-circle.
What is the ratio of the width of the rectangle to the total height so that it will
yield a window admitting the most light for a given perimeter?
8) Determine the diameter of a closed cylindrical tank having a volume of
11.3 cu . m to obtain minimum surface area.
9) An open top rectangular tank with square bases is to have a volume of 10 m3.
The materials for its bottom are to cost P 15/m2 and that for the sides, P 6/m2.
Find the most economical dimensions for the tank.
10) A fencing is limited to 20 ft length. What is the maximum rectangular area
that can be fenced in using two perpendicular corner sides of an existing wall?
Time Rates
The fact that the derivative of a function is identical with its rate of change leads
to a great variety of applications; those in which time is the independent variable are
especially important.
dx
If a quantity x is a function of time t , the time rate of change of x is given by .
dt
When two or more quantities, all functions of t , are related by an equation, the
relation between their rates of change may be obtained by differentiating both sides of
the equation with respect to t .
How to Solve Time Rates Problems?
1.) Draw a figure when necessary.
2.) Formulate equation.
3.) Differentiate with respect to time.
4.) Substitute the condition or instant to the equation.
IMPORTANT: Substitute the given values only after differentiating.
Rectilinear Motion
Rectilinear motion is a motion of a particle or object along a straight line.
Position is the location of object and is given as a function of time s(t ) or x (t).
Velocity is the derivative of position:
dx
v=
dt
Acceleration is the derivative of velocity:
dv
a=
dt
Examples
1.) A particle’s position (in inches) along x axis after t sec of travel is given by the
equation x=24 t 2−t 3 +10.
a.) What is the particle’s average velocity during the first 3 sec of travel?
Solution:
t=0 sec
2 3
x=24 t −t +10
2 3
x=24 ( 0 ) −( 0 ) +10
x=10∈¿
t=3 sec
2 3
x=24 t −t +10
x=24 ( 3 )2−( 3 )3 +10
x=199∈¿
∆s
V av =
∆t
199−10
V av =
3−0
189
V av =
3
V av =63∈¿ sec
b.) Where is the particle and how fast is it moving after 3 sec of travel?
Solution:
t=3 sec
x=199∈¿
2 3
x=24 t −t +10
dx 2
=48 t−3 t
dt
dx 2
=48(3)−3(3)
dt
dx
=177∈¿ sec
dt
c.) Where is the particle and how fast is it moving after 20 sec of travel?
Solution:
t=20 sec
2 3
x=24 t −t +10
2 3
x=24 (20) −(20) +10
x=1 610∈¿
x=24 t 2−t 3 +10
dx
=48 t−3 t 2
dt
dx 2
=48(20)−3(20)
dt
dx
=−240∈¿ sec
dt
d.) When is the velocity of the particle 0 ? What is the particle’s position at
that time?
Solution:
2 3
x=24 t −t +10
dx 2
=48 t−3 t
dt
2
0=48 t−3 t
0=3 t ( 16−t )
0=16−t
0 3t
=
3 3 t=16
t=0
When t=0 When t=16

2
x=24 t −t +10
3
x=24 t 2−t 3 +10
2
x=24 ( 0 ) −( 0 ) +10
3
x=24 ( 16 )2−( 16 )3 +10
x=2 058∈¿
x=10∈¿
2.) Compute the acceleration of the particle in No.1 at t=3, t=5, t=10, and t=15
. Solution:
dx
V= =48t−3 t 2
dt
''
a =48−6 t
t=3
''
a =48−6 t
''
a =48−6 ( 3 )
''
a =30∈¿ sec
t=5
''
a =48−6 t
a ' ' =48−6 ( 5 )
''
a =18∈¿ sec
t=10
''
a =48−6 t
a '' =48−6 ( 10 )
''
a =−12∈¿ sec
t=15
''
a =48−6 t
''
a =48−6 ( 15 )
a '' =−42∈¿ sec
EXERCISE #17
1) If the displacement (in meters) at time t (in seconds) of an object is given by
s=4 t 3 +7 t 2 −2t . Find the acceleration at time t=10.
2) If s=5t 3 +3 t+8, find the velocity and acceleration if t=4 sec .
3) A man was running along the road with a given law of s=2t 3−4 t 2 −5 t ,
determine the velocity and acceleration in kilometers at a given time of t=4 hr .
4) A rock fell down from a cliff 3 600 ft high. Determine the velocity the rock will
hit the ground (V o =0).
5) Electricity travelled through a straight cable line according to the given law
3 2
s=4 t +2t −3 t km, determine the velocity and acceleration at the time
t=0.5 sec.
6) If s=4 t−t 2 +2t 3 m. Find the velocity when acceleration is 1 m/sec .
7) If s=2t 2+ 4 t−10 m, when will be the velocity be 2 m/sec ?
8) If s=t 3−3t 2 +6 t−5, when will be the acceleration be 6 m/sec ?
9) A speeding car with an acceleration of 2 m/sec with a given law

2 3
s=5t −3 t + 4 t . Find its velocity.
10) If s=t 4 −12 t 2−3 t , find the velocity when the acceleration is 24 m/ sec .
Rectilinear Rates
If a quantity x is a function of time t , the time of change is given by dx / dt .
d dx
f ( x )=f ' ( x)
dt dt
Examples
1.) A spherical balloon is inflated with gas at rate of 900 cm 3 /min. How fast is the
of the balloon with a radius of 12 cm.
Solution:
4
V = π r3
3
' 2 dR
V =4 π r
dt
dV 2 dR
=4 π r
dt dt
3 2 dR
900 cm /min=4 π r
dt
3
dR 900 cm / min
=
dt 4 π (12cm)2
dR 900 cm 3 /min
=
dt 4 π ( 144 cm2)
dR
=0.50 cm/min
dt
2.) The radius of a circle is decreasing at 4 cm/min. How fast is the area and
circumference of the circle changing when the radius is 8 cm ?
Solution: c=2 πR
2
A=π r
dc dr
=2 π (1)
dA dr dt dt
=π 2 r
dt dt
dc
=2 π (−4 cm/min)
dA dt
=π 2 ( 8 cm )(−4 cm/min )
dt
dc
=−8 cm/min
dA 2 dt
=−64 cm /min
dt
3.) The surface of a snowball decrease at a rate of 6 ft 2 /hr . How fast is the
diameter changing when the radius is 2 ft .
Solution:
SA=4 π r 2
( )
2
D
SA=4 π
2
4 π D2
SA=
4
2
SA=π D
dSA dD
=2 Dπ
dt dt
2 dD
−6 ft /hr=π 2(4)
dt
dD −6 ft 2 /hr
=
dt 2 π (4 ft)
dD
=−0.24 ft /hr
dt
EXERCISE #18
1) A ladder 20 ft long is placed against a wall. The foot of the ladder begins to slide
away from the wall at the rate of 1 ft / sec. How fast is the top of the ladder sliding
down the wall when the foot of the ladder is 12 ft from the wall?
2) At a certain instant, car A is 60 miles north of a car B. A is travelling south at a
rate of 20 miles/hour while B is travelling east at 30 miles/hour . How fast is the
distance between them changing 1 hour later?
3) A plane, P, flies horizontally at an altitude of 2 miles with a speed of
480 miles /hour . At a certain moment it passes directly over a radar station, R.
How fast is the distance between the plane and the radar station increasing
1 minute later?
4) A point is moving along the circle x 2+ y 2=25 in the first quadrant in such a way
that its x coordinate changes at the rate of 2 cm/sec . How fast its y coordinate
changing as the point passes through (3,4)?
5) The dimensions of a rectangle are continuously changing. The width increases at
the rate of 3∈¿ sec while the length decreases at the rate of 2∈¿ sec . At one
instant the rectangle is a 20 ¿2. How fast is it are changing 3 sec later? Is the area
increasing or decreasing?
6) Two cars begin a trip from the same point P. If car A travels north at the rate of
30 miles/hour and car B travels west at the rate of 40 miles /hour , how fast is the
distance between them changing 2 hours later?
7) A man on a wharf 20 ft above the water pulls in a rope, to which a boat is
attached, at the rate of 4 ft / sec . At what rate is the boat approaching the wharf
when there is 25 ft of rope out?
8) An LRT train 6 m above the ground crosses a street at 9 m/s at the instant that a
car approaching at a speed of 4 m/s is 12 m up the street. Find the rate of the LRT
train and the car separating 1 sec later?
9) Water is flowing into a conical cistern at the rate of 8 m3 /min. If the height of the
inverted cone is 12 m and the radius of its circular opening is 6 m . How fast is the
water level rising when the water is 4 m deep?
10) Water is pouring into a conical vessel 15 cm deep and having a radius of 3.75 cm
across the top. If the rate at which the water rises is 2 cm/sec , how fast is the
water flowing into the conical vessel when the water is 4 cm deep?
Parametric Equations
A curve in the plane is said to be parameterized if the set of coordinates on the
curve, ( x , y ), are represented as functions of a variable t . Namely,
x=f (t ) y=g (t) t ∈ D.
where D is a set of real numbers. The variable t is called a parameter and the
relations between x , y and t are called parametric equations. The set D is called the
domain of f and g and it is the set of values t takes.
Derivation in Parametric Form
dx
is the rate of change of x with respect to t .
dt
dy
is the rate of change of y with respect to t .
dt
First Derivative
dy
dy dt
=
dx dx
dt
Second Derivative
( ) ( )( dxdt )
2
d y '' d dy d dy
=y = =
dx 2
dx dx dx dx
Examples
1.) x=x 3−3 x−17
4 2
y=7 x −10 x −0
Solution:
dx
=x2 −3
dt
dy
=28 x3 −20 x
dt
dy
dy dt
=
dx dx
dt
3
dy 28 x −20 x
=
dx 2
x −3
'' ( x 2−3 )( 84 x 2−20 ) −(28 x 3−20 x)(2 x)

y = 2 2
( x −3)
4 2 2 4 2
84 x −20 x −252 x +60−56 x −40 x
y' '= 2 2
( x −3)
4 2
'' 28 x −312 x +60 1
y = 2
× 2
( x −3 )
2
x −3
4 2
'' 28 x −312 x +60
y = 2 3
(x −3)
2.) x=cos 5 x
y=cos 5 x
Solution:
dx
=−5 sin5 x
dt
dy
=−5 sin 5 x
dt
dy
dy dt
=
dx dx
dt
dy −5 sin 5 x
=
dx −5 sin 5 x
dy
=0
dx
y ' ' =0
EXERCISE #19
Solve the following parametric equations.
1) x=t 2+ t
y=2t −1
2) x=4−2t
y=3+ 6 t−4 t 2
3) x=e 2 t
y=e3 t
4) x=3 sinθ
y=4 cosθ
5) x=√ t+ 1
1
y=
t+ 1
6) x=2+t
2
y=t −4 t+ 7
7) x=2 t+1
y=4 t−3
8) x=t 2
3
y=t
9) x=1−t 2
y=3+ 2t
10) x=3 tanx

y=3 sin 2 x

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NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY

Bachelor of Science in Mechanical Engineering

One is to one correspondence Many is to one correspondence

One is to many correspondence

f ( x− y )=x 2+2 x−8

f ( x− y )=x 2−2 xy + y2 +2 x−2 y−8

2.) If f ( x )=tan x sin x , find the following:

a.) f ( 0 )=tan x sin x

tan x +¿ tan y −tan x ¿ ¿ ¿

tan x + tan y −tan x ¿¿

tan y + tan 2 x tan y sec 2 x tan x

tan x sec 2 x sec 2 x tan x

You can also arrange it into

sec 2 x tan x sec 2 x tan x

a.) f ( 2 ) d.) f ( x ) + f (h)

b.) f ( 3 c ) e.) f (−3)

c.) f (4 x +b) f.) f (x+ 1)

2.) If f ( x )=tan x sin x , find f ( π4 ) and f ( π6 ).

5.) If g ( x )=x ( x +6 )2, find g(2 a).

6.) If f ( b )=2 b2 +6 b−4 , find f (x− y )

8.) If g ( x− y ) + g( x) , find the value of the function g ( x )=x 2+5 x .

9.) If F ( a )=a 2−2 b, find F (−4 ) and F ( 23 ).

2.) The difference f −g is the function defined by ( f −g ) ( x )=f ( x )−g ( x ).

3.) The product f ∙ g is the function defined by ( f ∙ g ) ( x ) =f ( x ) ∙ g( x) .

4.) The quotient

1.) f ( x ) + g ( x )=( 4 x −6 ) + ( 2 x+4 3 )

2.) f ( x )−g ( x )=( 4 x−6 )−¿ ( 2 x4+3 )

3.) f ( x ) ∙ g ( x )=( 4 x−6 ) ∙ ( 2 x4+3 )

5.) f ( g ( x ) )=4 x−6

d.) Quotient g(g ( x ))

1.) f ( x )=x +2 and g ( x )=3 x2

4.) f ( x )=x 2−1 and g ( x )=√ x+2

7.) f ( x )=2 x +7 and g ( x )=2 x

f ( 0 )=4 x−5 f ( 1 ) =4 x−5 f ( 0 )=4 ( 0 ) −5

b.) Vertex (1 ,−4)

x=8 x=7 x=6

f (−2 )=1+ √ x +2 f (−1 ) =1+ √ x +2

x=1 x=0 x=−1 x=−2

2.) Division Property

3.) Raising Power to a Power

4.) Raising Product to a Power

5.) Raising Quotient to a Power

6.) Fractional Exponent

7.) Zero Exponent

1.) Transform the following given to logarithmic form

2.) Transform the following given to exponential form

3.) log 12 x=2

4.) log 6+ x log 4=log 4+ log(32+4 x )

4.) log2 2+log2 x=2

8.) Transform the following logarithmic function to exponential function

9.) Transform the following exponential function to logarithmic function

10.) Determine what type of function are the following:

lim f ( x )=−∞ . In either case, the limit does not exist.

2) If f ( x) becomes infinitely large in magnitude (positive) as x approaches the

3) If lim ¿ is a notation that means x approaches a from the ¿ and

then the lim f ( x ) does not exist.

NOTE: The above expressions, lim

the positive infinity, the function f has the limit R .