IT2020

Semiconductor Memory
Memory is mainly characterized by its total storage capacity (in bits) as well as its organization, the method or policy of
memory access, the type of access or operation, its operating speed, and permanence (or non-volatility) of the
information and its cost.
• As a purpose:
o Storing the binary codes for the sequence of instructions specified by programs.
o Storing binary data that the computer needs to execute instructions.
• As a location:
o It is the location where information is kept while not in current use.
o It is a collection of storage devices. Usually, each storage device holds one bit. These storage devices
are grouped into groups of 8, and 8 of these storage locations can only be accessed together.
o It is usually measured by the number of bytes it can hold.
• As storage:
o When a program is entered into a
computer, it is stored in memory. Then
as the microprocessor starts to execute
the instructions, it brings the
instructions from memory one at a time.
o The microprocessor reads (brings in)
and/or writes (stores) the results into
memory when it is done.
• As a type/classification:
• Random access memory (RAM) loses its information when the power supply to the chip stops; hence it is
also called “volatile memory”.
• Permanent memory (NVM for Non-Volatile Memory) has, depending on the type, an information
retention period generally equal to 10 years (programmable read-only memory), equal to the life of the
component, or with energy source autonomy.
o Static Random-Access Memory (SRAM) stores data by sustaining its logical state.
o Dynamic Random-Access Memory (DRAM) stores electrical charges in stored-charge memory.

Memory Cell Internal Structure

Memory Cell Functions:

• Select – gets the desired location.
• DataIn – inputs data to the
selected location.
• DataOut – grabs data from the
selected location.
• Read/Write – reads/writes
selected location.
Conceptual View of a Memory Cell

8-bit register as a One-dimensional

Memory Cell Array A 4x8 Two-Dimensional Memory
Cell Array A 16K x 4 SRAM Chip

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Read/Write Timing Diagrams

A clock signal is a periodic logic signal that rates or synchronizes the operation of a circuit or a system such as a
microprocessor, a synchronous memory, or an I/O controller. This independent source of clock called oscillator can be
associated with electronics to generate all the signals of the subsets of the system like the buses, the memory, and the
processors.
The timing diagrams detail the evolution of the signals as a
function of time.
• The cycle begins on the falling edge of the clock (time
marker 1).
• The address becomes valid (usable) at time marker 2.
• The rising edge of the clock (time marker 3) allows
temporal quantification of the maximum
presentation time of the data to be written.
• The data read will be valid after an access time (time
marker 5).
• The falling edge of the clock marks the end of a cycle
with either the reading of the data by the master or
its writing in the slave. (time marker 6).

Static RAM (Flip-Flop Circuit)

Static RAM Read Timing Static RAM Write Timing

Access time from Address (tAA) – the time required of Write time (tW) – the time the data must be held valid in
the RAM array to decode the address and provide value order to decode address and store value in memory cells.
to the data bus.
Dynamic RAM (Capacitor)
DRAM Read operation DRAM Write operation

tA (Access time) & tC (Cycle time) tDHR (Data hold from RAS)
There is a bit line precharge operation that causes the
difference between access time and cycle time.

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Registers
• It is made up of a set of Flip-Flops whose
function is to store a bit.
• The parallel register is the memory element of
the microprocessor. It is a fast memory with a
capacity of a word.
• The qualifier “fast” means the register operates
at the speed of the component that integrates it
so as not to slow it down by searching for
information in the main memory or in the cache
memory.
• It can be accessed in write and/or read and are
accessible to the programmer (programmer-
accessible or user-accessible register).

Common Register Types

• Accumulator is a special register that implicitly
receives the result of an operation.
o It can also be used by the programmer.
• Auxiliary or generalized registers can be
implemented to allow data to be to increase
execution speed.
• The program counter (PC) contains the address of
the next instruction, which will be executed by the
microprocessor.
o The other name that can be
encountered is Instruction Pointer (IP).

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• During the fetch cycle, the CPU will search the main memory for the code of the instruction to be executed and
store it in the instruction register (IR) so that it can be decoded.
• Status and control registers are made up of status indicators (condition codes) or status flags (Status flags
Register).
o These provide information on the current state of the processor.
▪ Zero (ZF for Zero Flag)
▪ Sign (SF for Sign Flag) also called NF (Negative Flag)
▪ Logical parity (PF for Parity Flag)
▪ Carry (CF for Carry Flag) and half-carry flag
▪ Auxiliary Flag (AF or auxiliary carry flag) or digit carry (DC indicators)
▪ Arithmetic overflow (OF for Overflow Flag or VF for oVerflow Flag)
• Indirection register allows indirect addressing.
o It contains an address allowing access to a memory location.
o It is used to implement the notion of pointer.
• Stack pointer register (SP). The stack pointer allows pointing to either the memory location where it is possible
to store information or the last location where a backup took place.
o If the processor has two operating modes, supervisor and user, there can be two separate pointers;
the system and user stack pointers.
• Special registers - depending on the implementations, there may be feature-specific registers.
o These registers are specific to virtual memory management with the basic registers of computers or
the segmentation registers (code, data, extra, and stack) and descriptor table registers of the x86
computer family.
o In newer generations, these registers are used to control the behavior of the processor for its self-test
and debugging.

References:
Chapter 7 – Memory System Design. (2004). In Computer systems design and architecture (2nd ed.) [PDF file]. Prentice
Hall. Retrieved on Dec. 16, 2020 from https://classes.engineering.wustl.edu/cse362/images/8/89/Ch7CSDA.pdf
Darche, P. (2020). Computer engineering series: Microprocessor 1: Prolegomena – Calculation and storage functions –
Models of computation and computer architecture. iSTE & Wiley.
Darche, P. (2020). Computer engineering series: Microprocessor 2: Communication in a digital system. iSTE & Wiley.
Darche, P. (2020). Computer engineering series: Microprocessor 3: Core Concepts – Hardware Aspects. iSTE & Wiley.
de Lamadrid, J. (2018). Computer organization – Basic processor structure. CRC Press.
Farahmand, F. (2016). Fundamentals of microprocessor and microcontroller [Lecture notes]. Retrieved from Sonoma
State University.
Toomsalu, A. (n.d.). Microprocessor Systems I – Microprocessor systems architecture [Lecture notes]. Retrieved from
Tallin University of Technology – Department of Computer Engineering.

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