Envıronment

SPECIALIZATION: PHYSICAL SCIENCES
Focus: Environment
By: Prof. Crisanta A. Ocampo
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Focus: Environment
Competencies:
1. Identify situations that demonstrate interconnectedness among Earth’s systems and processes.
2. Analyze how the quality of the environment and quantity of Earth’s resources are affected by the
growing population.
3. Examine how human activities contribute to and help conserve resources for the present and future
generations.
PART I – CONTENT UPDATE
The environment is the surroundings of an organism including the physical and chemical environment, and
other organisms with which it comes into contact. This term is most frequently used in the human context, often
referring to factors affecting our quality of life particularly human population.
Human population has grown at a dramatic rate starting the last part of the twentieth century. Experts believe
that the growing population will have an effect on our environment in terms of both the quality of environment and the
quantity of resources.
There are conflicting ideas about the effects of growing populations on the environment and the Earth’s
resources. Some believe that larger populations may bring many problems while others believe that they may be a
valuable source of energy, intelligence and enterprise that make it possible to overcome resource limitation problems.
Earth as a planet has been altered by the life that inhabits it. Sustained life on Earth is a characteristic of
ecosystems. An ecosystem is a biological community of interacting populations and their non-biological environment.
Ecology is the study of relationships between organisms and their environment. It involves investigating how
organisms acquire and use energy, nutrients, and water from their environment.
All the biogeochemical cycles tend to be complex and Earth’s biota has greatly altered the cycling of
chemicals between air, water, and soil. Continuation of these processes is essential to the long-term maintenance of
life on Earth.
Ecology and Ecosystem:
Ecology is the study of the relationships between living organisms, including humans, and their physical environment.
Ecology . . . . .
 provides us with information to better understand the world around us;
 helps us improve our environment, manage our natural resources, and protect human health;
 seeks to understand the vital connections between plants and animals and the world around them;
 provides information about the benefits of ecosystems and how we can use Earth's resources in ways that
leave the environment healthy for future generations.
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ECOSYSTEM STRUCTURE
which when grouped,

ORGANISMS according to the same POPULATION
species forms a . . .
which is interacting
composed with one
of . . . another in a
given area
COMMUNITY forms a . . . .
ECOSYSTEM
. . . and the interaction with its
physical environment make up
an…
Living things may inhabit many environments on Earth. From the polar ice caps, to the forests and plains of
the equator, living things can be found underground, in air, in water, and on land. Organisms have been found at the
bottom of ocean trenches kilometers deep and floating in the air more than eight kilometers above the Earth’s surface.
All living (BIOTIC) and non-living (ABIOTIC) things in an environment are interconnected. The plants and
animals, being the members of the biotic environment and non-living things like soil, water, temperature, light with
which living things interact, are called abiotic factors. Interactions among Earth’s living things and their environments
are varied, so ecologists find it useful to divide the world into separate units called ecosystem.
An ecosystem is any geographic area that includes both living and non-living parts of a physical environment.
These include terrestrial and aquatic ecosystem. An ecosystem can be a natural wilderness area, a suburban lake or
forest, or a heavily used area such as a city. A biological community and its physical environment make up an
ecosystem.
Different Kinds of Ecosystems
There are two types of ecosystem:
 NATURAL refers to those areas with little or no human intervention. A forest is a natural ecosystem as long
as it remains unchanged by human activities. Other natural ecosystems include the oceans, the seas and the
rivers.
 MAN-MADE are areas that are created, controlled and manipulated by humans. In creating man-made
ecosystems Some examples are aquarium, fishpond, and terrarium
A forest ecosystem includes birds on the trees, the rabbits in the bushes, insects and spiders moving around
scented and unscented flowers, ferns, mushrooms and fungi. It may also include microscopic organisms such as
bacteria and protists. There are also dead leaves, chemicals and nutrients in the soil, rocks, sunlight, rain water and
many more.
There are different kinds of living things in a community. Each kind of living things makes up a POPULATION.
Population is defined as all individuals (organisms) of the same species occupying a given area at a given time.
Habitat describes the place or set of environmental conditions in which a particular organism lives. It provides food,
shelter and other resources for these organisms to live. Ecological niche is a description of either the role played by
a species in a biological community or the total set of environmental factors that determine species distribution.
The living organisms like the birds, rabbits, insects, flowers and trees are called BIOTIC. These organisms
need food to live, so they interact with the other organisms in the environment. The living part which include the
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different organisms that live together in an area is called a COMMUNITY. For example, the community of pond include
fishes, frogs, snails, water lilies and other microorganisms. They interact in many ways, like the large leaves of water
lilies providing a resting place for the frogs and small fishes being eaten by large fishes. Others, like microorganisms,
break down the bodies of dead organisms, producing nitrogen compounds that can be used by plants. Another
example is a biological community called BIOME.
Biome is an area with a distinctive climate and with distinctive organisms. There are different types of
biomes. These are:
 Terrestrial Biome
 Forests (Tropical and temperate) - it supports an exceptional diversity of plant and animal wildlife.
 Grassland - a place where there is less rainfall. It is also subject to frequent fires that suppress the
growth of bushes and trees. Grasslands are also called prairie or savanna.
 Taiga - the largest terrestrial biome in the world. It is found in the large portion of Canada, Europe
and Asia. The average temperature is below zero. Winters are cold, while summers are warm. Lots
of coniferous trees, such as June, hemlock, fir and spruce trees grow there. Wolves, moose, elk,
hares and migratory birds are typical animals to taiga biome.
 Tundra – the largest biome is found around the North Pole. It is at the top of the world!
 Deserts - the driest biome on earth. They are found along 30˚ latitude north and 30˚ latitude south.
There are two types of deserts: hot and cold.
 Aquatic Biome
 The freshwater biomes include ponds, lakes, streams and rivers. Lakes and ponds are non-flowing
water, while streams and rivers are flowing. Many plant and animals live in freshwater biomes. Water
lilies, phytoplanktons and mosses are typical freshwater plants. Fish, crustaceans, amphibians,
insects and birds are just some of the animals thriving in freshwater biomes.
 The marine biome includes seas and oceans of the world. It covers about 75% of the earth. Marine
plants and algae are very important because they provide much of the world’s oxygen supply and take
in huge amounts of carbon dioxide. The tropical oceans of the world are home to diverse fish,
mammals, invertebrates, and birds.
There are two types of aquatic biome that are important to humans because they provide water for
drinking, recreation, transportation, energy, and means of living.
ENERGY FLOW IN THE ECOSYSTEM
All organisms need food to live, so they interact in many ways. Producers make their own food while
consumers eat organic matter produced by other organisms. Organisms may be grouped according to their feeding
relationship as either producers or consumers. Producers manufacture their own food through photosynthesis. Those
that do not photosynthesize get their nutrients from producers or by eating other non-photosynthetic organisms are
called consumers.
An ecosystem has the same three basic categories of organisms that interact in the same ways. These three
categories indicate how organisms obtain energy and how they interact with other living things in the community.
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AUTOTROPHS
HETEROTROPHS
Make their own organic matter
feed on organic matter for energy
from inorganic nutrients and an
environmental energy source
PRODUCERS
are mainly green plants which
CONSUMERS
use light energy from the sun to DETRITUS FEEDERS and
are organisms that derive their
convert carbon dioxide DECOMPOSERS:
energy from feeding on other
(absorbed from air or water) and Organisms that feed on dead
organisms or their products.
water to a sugar called glucose organic material
and which release oxygen as a
by-product.
Primary consumers / herbivores:
Photosynthetic green plants: use Decomposers: Fungi and
Animals that feed exclusively
chlorophyll to absorb light energy bacteria that cause rotting
on plants
Photosynthetic bacteria: Primary detritus feeders:

Omnivores: Animals that feed
Use purple pigment to absorb Organisms that feed directly on
on both plants and animals
light energy detritus
Secondary consumers /
Chemosynthetic bacteria: Use Secondary and higher orders of
carnivores:
high-energy inorganic chemicals detritus feeders: Feed on
Animals that feed on primary
such as hydrogen sulfide primary detritus feeders
consumers
Higher orders of consumers /
carnivores: Animals that feed
on other carnivores
Parasites: Plants or animals
that become associated with
another plant or animal and
feed on it over an extended
period of time
FOOD CHAIN and FOOD WEB
A food chain is a food relationship that shows the

flow of energy in an environment. It is a series of producer and
consumer feeding relationship. It is a straight-line diagram of
who eats whom. The food chain moves food from one organism
to another, giving energy to the organism digesting the food. The
food web consists of food chains. It is the summary of all
pathways by which energy moves from one level to another
through an ecosystem.
FOOD CHAIN
Source: http://www.flyingturtle.org/me/photosyn1.html
Energy Flow in an Ecosystem
All food chains start with the Sun. Plants make food using
Sun’s energy. Animals, including humans, get their energy from
plants. Decomposers are microscopic organisms that break down
the bodies of dead animals and plants. The nutrients that come from
this decomposition get back to the soil and are re-used by new
plants, and the cycle begins again. The ultimate fate of energy is to
be lost as heat. Unlike nutrients and chemicals, energy does not
cycle through an ecosystem. It is a one-way process.
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Flow of Energy
The flow of energy, commonly called "Pyramid of energy“, is a graphic representation of the amount of energy
trapped per unit time and area in different trophic level of a food chain, with producers forming the base and the top
carnivores at the tip. Pyramid of energy is always upright. It is so because at each transfer about 80 - 90% of the
energy available at lower trophic level is used up to overcome its entropy and to perform metabolic activities. Only
10% of the energy is available to the next trophic level.
Source: http://www.tutorvista.com/content/biology/biology-iv/ecosystem/energy-pyramid.php
INTERACTIONS IN THE ECOSYSTEM
There are two types of species interactions
 Trophic interaction involves the use of organism such as food by another.

 Non-trophic interaction does not involve eating and being eaten.
The Trophic Interactions

Herbivory Plant eating
Predation One member kills (predator) and utilizes the other member (prey)
Parasitism One member benefits (parasites) while the other is harmed (host)
Non-Trophic Interactions
Commensalisms One member benefits while the other is not harmed
Competition Two or more species compete for a limited resource
Mutualism Members are both benefited from the interaction
EARTH and the FOUR GREAT SPHERES
The natural systems of the Earth operate within the four great spheres.
These are the:
LITHOSPHERE – the outer,

rigid and solid layer of the
earth, located above the
asthenosphere and
contains the crust, the
uppermost mantle of the
mantle, the continents and BIOSPHERE – the
the plates integration of atmosphere,
hydrosphere and
lithosphere occupied by
living organisms
CRYOSPHERE – the solid
EARTH
309 ATMOSPHERE – a blanket
portion of the earth such as
the iceberg and glaciers of air that surrounds the
earth which consists of 21%
HYDROSPHERE – the oxygen, 78% nitrogen and
1% of myriad of gases like
Earth which is 75% of the
Earth.

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Source:
http://www.eoearth.org/article/four
%20integrated%20spheres
The Four Great Spheres:
 Atmosphere - The gaseous layer that surrounds the Earth. It receives heat and moisture from the surface
and redistributes them, returning some heat and all of the moisture to the surface. It supplies vital elements
needed to sustain life forms.
 Lithosphere - This outermost solid layer of the Earth provides a platform for most life-forms. The solid
bedrock bears a shallow layer of soil in which nutrient elements become available to organisms. The surface
of the lithosphere is made into landforms which provide varied habitats for plants, animals, and humans.
 Hydrosphere - The liquid portion of the Earth is principally the mass of water in the world’s oceans. Water
occurs as a gaseous vapor, liquid droplets, and solid ice crystals. It also includes solid ice in mountains and
continental glaciers called cryosphere. In the lithosphere, water is found in the uppermost layers in soils and
in ground water reservoirs.
 Biosphere - The life layer and the zone of interactions among the hydrosphere, lithosphere, and atmosphere.
These four great spheres are interrelated in CYCLE form. Cycles of different substances move endlessly
throughout the earth's biosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and lithosphere, existing in different forms and being
used by different organisms at different times, but always moving, always circulating. Most of the chemical elements
needed by living things for survival are not readily available. They are found in soil, water, atmosphere, and bodies of
water. Some substances have to undergo a constant sequence of changes. The cycling of nutrients on earth is called
BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES. Biogeochemical cycles are pathways by which chemicals circulate through
recombining and rearranging atoms to produce the original substance.
MAJOR CYCLES OF MATTER
ATMOSPHERE ↔ HYDROSPHERE ↔ LITHOSPHERE
 Water or Hydrologic Cycle

 Rock Cycle
 Chemical Cycles
 Carbon and Carbon dioxide cycles
 Oxygen Cycle
 Nitrogen Cycle
 Phosphorus Cycle
 Sulfur Cycle
WATER CYCLE
The total amount of water found on earth is about

75%, but the amount of precipitating freshwater
available to people is just a fraction of this total. Earth's
renewable supply of water is continually distilled and
distributed through the water or hydrological cycle.
 Evaporation accounts for almost 90% of the

water vapor in the atmosphere. When water
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molecules are warmed up by heat energy from the Sun, they receive enough energy to change from liquid to
gas. Wind increases the rate of evaporation, because it blows wet air away from the surface of the water and
replaces it with dry air which can soak up water vapor faster. The majority of water vapor in the atmosphere is
evaporated from the oceans.

 Transpiration occurs when water vapor is released by animals and humans when they breathe and by plants
when they perform photosynthesis.
 When water evaporates, the vapor is moved up into the atmosphere by rising air currents. The cooler
temperatures high in the atmosphere cause the vapor to condense into tiny droplets of water, forming
clouds. These clouds are moved around the earth on various air currents, colliding with other clouds on the
way. Eventually, water in these clouds falls out of the sky as precipitation—rain, snow, sleet, or hail.
 When precipitation falls on land, some of it seeps into the ground and becomes part of the ground water,
which feeds wells, springs, lakes, and rivers. Much of the precipitation flows over the ground as surface
runoff and joins rivers flowing back to the ocean through infiltration. Some of it is soaked up by plants and
drunk by animals or humans and then put back in the atmosphere through transpiration.
 This cycle occurs continually, transporting water from one side of the world to the other. The water you drank
today could have fallen as rain from ELSEWHERE last year!
ROCK CYCLE
The Rock Cycle is a group of changes. Igneous rock can

change into sedimentary rock or into metamorphic rock.
Sedimentary rock can change into metamorphic rock or into
igneous rock. Metamorphic rock can change into igneous or
sedimentary rock.
Igneous rock forms when magma cools and makes

crystals. Magma is a hot liquid made up of melted minerals. The
minerals can form crystals when they cool. Igneous rock can form
underground, where the magma cools slowly,
Source:
or above ground, where the magma cools http://www.galaxynet.com/~corvid/ear/images/eari_rock_
quickly. When it pours out on Earth's surface, cycle.gif
magma is called lava.
Igneous rock can form sedimentary rock. Wind and

water can break igneous rock into pieces. They can also carry rock pieces to another place. These rock pieces are
called sediments, dropped from the wind or water to make a layer. The layer can be buried under other layers of
sediments. After a long time the sediments can be cemented and compacted to make sedimentary rock.
All rocks can be heated. Heat and pressure from the innermost part of the Earth forms the rock. This heated
rock does not melt, but it does change. It forms crystals. If it
has crystals already, it forms larger crystals. Because this
rock changes, it is called metamorphic rock.
The rock cycle continues. Mountains made of metamorphic
rocks can be broken up and washed away by streams. New
sediments from these mountains can make new sedimentary
rock. The rock cycle never stops.
CARBON – OXYGEN CYCLE
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All living things are made of carbon. Carbon is also a part of the ocean, air, and even rocks. Because the
Earth is a dynamic place, carbon does not stay still. It is always moving!
Carbon released by burning biomass is re- absorbed by new growth biomass in a cycle. The carbon cycle
begins with photosynthesis where plants take in carbon dioxide from air.
Source: http://www.eoearth.org/article/Carbon_cycle
Carbon - Oxygen Transfer Biosphere ↔ Atmosphere
Carbon dioxide and water are put together with the aid of sunlight to produce organic compound, glucose.
Once a carbon atom is incorporated into organic compounds, its path to recycling happens quickly or slowly.
Photosynthesis: [Atmosphere → Biosphere]
Carbon Dioxide + Water + Sunlight → Sugar + Oxygen
CO2 + H2O + → C6H12O6 + O2
The basic elements of a water molecule are atoms of hydrogen and oxygen. In photosynthesis, the hydrogen
is combined with carbon atoms. This allows oxygen to be released into the atmosphere. It is one of the products of
photosynthesis.
Oxygen is used in the process of respiration. This process releases water into the atmosphere. The water is absorbed
by plants and the cycle can begin again!
Respiration: [Biosphere → Atmosphere]
Sugar + Oxygen → Carbon Dioxide + Water + Energy
C6H12O6 + O2 → CO2 + H2O +
Plants use carbon dioxide and sunlight to make their own food and grow. The carbon becomes part of the
plant. Plants that die and are buried may turn into fossil fuels made up of carbon like coal and oil over millions of
years. When humans burn fossil fuels, most of the carbon quickly enters the atmosphere as carbon dioxide.
Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas and traps heat in the atmosphere. Without it and other greenhouse
gases, Earth would be a frozen world. But humans have burned so much fuel that there is about 30% more carbon
dioxide in the air today than there was about 150 years ago, and Earth is becoming a warmer place.
NITROGEN CYCLE
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Source: http://www.koiacres.com/Koi-Care/biological-filtration.html
Nitrogen is the most common gas found in the earth's atmosphere. It is necessary for plant growth and for the
survival of all ecosystems!
Nitrogen is always found in the atmosphere, animal wastes, and dead and decaying organisms. However,
only a few organisms can use it as it is. These organisms "fix" the nitrogen for all other organisms to use. They are
called nitrogen fixing bacteria.
During nitrogen fixation, nitrogen-fixing bacteria found in the soils and in the roots of certain plants, change
free nitrogen into substances that other organisms can use. When the fixing process is finished, free nitrogen is
converted into nitrates, nitrites, and ammonia. These substances can be used by plants. As the plants become food,
the nitrogen can be used by animals.
The cycle is completed when bacteria in the soil carry out a process known as denitrification which converts
nitrates back to nitrogen gas. A side product of this reaction is the production of a gas known as nitrous oxide, N 2O.
Nitrous oxide, also known as "laughing gas" - mild anesthetic, is also a greenhouse gas which contributes to global
warming.
PHOSPHORUS CYCLE
Phosphorus enters the environment from rocks or deposits

laid down on the earth as phosphate rock that is commercially
available in form called apatite. Other deposits may be from fossilized
bone or bird droppings called guano. Weathering and erosion of
rocks gradually releases phosphorus as phosphate ions which are
soluble in water. Land plants need phosphate as a fertilizer or
nutrient.
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When plant materials and waste products decay through bacterial action, the phosphate is released and
returned to the environment for reuse.

Source:
Much of the phosphate eventually is washed http://ilc.royalsaskmuseum.ca/ilc6/pages/62b/63e/pf63ep2p into the
water from erosion and leaching. Again water plants 4.html and
algae utilize the phosphate as a nutrient. If the
phosphate is in shallow sediments, it may be readily recycled back into the water. In deeper sediments in water,
phosphates are responsible for the uplifting of rock formations for the cycle to repeat itself.
SULFUR CYCLE
Sulfur is found in the lithosphere (Earth's crust).

Sulfur (S) enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion, volcanic eruptions. During gas
exchange at ocean surfaces, and decomposition, H2S is
immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO 2)
SO2 and water vapor makes H 2SO4 (a weak sulfuric acid),
which is then carried to Earth as rainfall.
Sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots and

incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine. It then
travels through the food chain and is eventually released
through decomposition.
Source http://homepages.nyu.edu/~pet205/sulfur.html
Carbon, oxygen, nitrogen,
phosphorus and sulfur are the elements that cycle through
the biosphere. Most of these elements are critical to life
cycle. This is why Earth's biosphere can be described as being in a state of dynamic equilibrium. Things are
constantly moving and changing, substances enter and leave the atmosphere, then enters the hydrosphere, then to
the lithosphere or back, forming different compounds at different times and in different places that affect humans.
HUMAN IMPACTS
Human activities alter the flow of the biogeochemical cycles. Changes, whether positive or negative, have
been noted.
 Air Pollution - involves the release into the atmosphere of gases, finely divided solids, or finely dispersed
liquid aerosols at rates that exceed the capacity of the atmosphere to dissipate them or to dispose of them
through incorporation into solid or liquid layers of the biosphere. The following are the different types of air
pollutants:
 Carbon oxides - carbon monoxide, (CO) and carbon dioxide, (CO 2). Major sources of CO 2 are fossil
fuels burning and deforestation. CO 2 is a good transmitter of sunlight, but traps infrared radiation from
the Earth into space. Increasing the amount of CO 2 in the atmosphere reinforces global warming
 Nitrogen oxides, (N0X) - nitric oxide, (N0), nitrogen dioxide, (N02) and nitrous oxide (N2O). These are
produced from burning fuels including petrol, diesel and coal. It is a respiratory irritant, which may
worsen the symptoms of existing respiratory illness.
 Sulfur oxides – sulfur dioxide, (SO2) and sulfur trioxide, (SO3) Sulfur dioxide is produced by
combustion of sulfur-containing fuels, such as coal and fuel oils. Sulfur oxides can injure man, plants
and materials.
 Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) – These are released in vehicles exhaust gases either as
unburned fuels or as combustion products, and are also emitted by the evaporation of solvents and
motor fuels. These are compounds such as methane, (CH 4), benzene (C6H6) and bromine-containing
halons.
 Chlorofluorocarbons, also known as Freons, are greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming.
Gases that are released mainly from air-conditioning systems and refrigeration. When released into
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the air, CFCs rise to the stratosphere, where they come in contact with few other gases, which leads
to a reduction of the ozone layer.
 Photochemical oxidants – ozone (O3), PANs (peroxyacyl nitrates), hydrogen peroxide (H 2O2), hydroxy
radicals, (OH), and aldehydes such as formaldehyde, (CH 2O) formed in the atmosphere by the
reaction of oxygen, nitrogen oxides, and volatile hydrocarbons under the influence of sunlight
 Suspended particulate matter (SPM) – thousands of different types of solid particles such as dust
(soil), soot (carbon), asbestos, and lead, arsenic, cadmium, nitrate (SO 42-), salts, and liquid droplets of
chemicals such as sulfuric acid (H2SO4), oil, PCBs, dioxins and various pesticides.
Effects of Air Pollution:
 Acid rain - deposition of sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere descend to the Earth's surface in wet form
as rain or snow and in dry form as gases fog, dew, or solid particles. This is known as acid deposition
or acid rain.
 Thermal inversion - continual mixing of the air helps keep pollutants from reaching dangerous levels in
the air near the ground. Weather conditions trap a layer of dense, cool air beneath a less dense,
warm air in an urban or valley. This is called temperature inversion or thermal inversion.
 Global warming is a potential increase in average global atmospheric temperatures resulting from the
greenhouse effect.
 Greenhouse effect is the warming of the earth's surface and lower atmosphere that tends to intensify
with an increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide. The atmosphere allows a large percentage of the
rays of visible light from the sun to reach the earth's surface and heat it.
 Photochemical smog is produced by burning coal and heavy oil that contain sulfur impurities in power
plants, industrial plants, etc. The smog consists mostly of a mixture of sulfur dioxide and fog. . Smog's
unpleasant properties result from the irradiation by sunlight of hydrocarbons caused primarily by
unburned gasoline emitted by automobiles and other combustion sources.
 Suspended droplets of sulfuric acid are formed from some of the sulfur dioxide, and a variety of
suspended solid particles. .
 Water Pollution - occurs when a body of water is adversely affected due to the addition of large amounts of
unwanted materials to the water.
Sources and Effects of Water Pollution
 Fertilizers can increase the amounts of nitrates and phosphates in the water, which can lead to the
process of eutrophication.
 Allowing livestock to graze near water sources often results in organic waste products being washed
into the waterways, which can also lead to eutrophication.
 Improper disposal of hazardous chemicals down the drain introduce toxic materials into to the
ecosystem, contaminating the water supplies in a way that can harm aquatic organisms.
 Sewage generated by houses or runoff from septic tanks into nearby waterways contaminates water
system
 Leaks of oil and antifreeze from a car on a driveway can be washed off by the rain into nearby
waterways, polluting it.

 Land pollution is the degradation of the Earth's land surface through misuse of the soil by poor agricultural
practices, mineral exploitation, industrial waste dumping, and indiscriminate disposal of urban wastes.
 Soil Pollution
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Soil pollution is mainly due to chemicals in herbicides (weed killers) and pesticides (poisons which kill
insects and other invertebrate pests). Litter is waste material dumped in public places such as streets,
parks, picnic areas, at bus stops and near shops.
 Waste Disposal
The accumulation of waste threatens the health of people in residential areas. Waste decays,
encourages household pests and turns urban areas into unsightly, dirty and unhealthy places to live
in.
 Solid waste can be classified into different types depending on their source:
 Household waste is generally classified as municipal waste.

 Industrial waste as hazardous waste.
 Biomedical waste or hospital waste as infectious waste.
PART II – ANALYZING TEST ITEMS
1. Which process provides most of the oxygen found on Earth's atmosphere?

a. Aerobic respiration c. Fermentation
b. Dehydration synthesis d. Photosynthesis
Answer: d
Photosynthesis is the process of making organic food (glucose) by combining the hydrogen from water with
carbon dioxide. The oxygen from splitting water is released into the atmosphere.
Choice a: Aerobic respiration takes in the oxygen from the atmosphere,

Choice b: Dehydration synthesis is a mechanism of building up molecules by removing water, not
oxygen
Choice c: Fermentation is a form of anaerobic respiration which is done in the absence of oxygen.
2. All of Earth's water, land, and atmosphere within which life exists is known as __.
a. a biome c. a community
b. a biosphere d. a population
Answer: b
The biosphere is the sphere of life where the great four spheres are interrelated.
Choice a: A biome is an area with distinct climate.

Choice c: A community is a group of population in a given area.
Choice d: A population is a group of species in an area at a time.
3. Energy stored in organic molecules is transferred from producers to consumers. This is called _____.
a. a food chain c. an ecological succession
b. a natural selection d. the process of photosynthesis
Answer: a
The energy flow is from producer to consumer. It is a series of producer and consumer feeding relationship.
Choices b, c, d: Natural selection, ecological succession and photosynthesis are not description of a
pathway of producer-consumer relationship.
4. An ecosystem is represented by the diagram on the right. This ecosystem will be self-sustaining if ______.
a. the type of organisms represented by B are
eliminated
b. the organisms labeled A outnumber the organisms
labeled B.
c. the organisms labeled A are equal in number to
the organisms labeled B
d. materials cycle between the organisms labeled A
and the organisms labeled B
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Answer: d
An ecosystem is self-sustaining if there is a complete cycle between living and non-living parts of a physical
environment.
Choices a, b, c: The absence of one factor (biotic) or (abiotic) in an area cannot be considered a self-
sustaining ecosystem
5. Solid waste includes all of the following EXCEPT _____.

a. newspaper and soda bottles c. CO and CO2
b. food scraps and yard clippings d. junk mail and milk cartons
Answer: c
Carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide are air pollutants.
Choices a, b, d: [Newspapers and soda bottles] and [junk mail and milk cartoons] are recyclable in
solid wastes and [Food scraps and yard clippings] are compostible solid wastes
6. Which of the following processes is the main source of atmospheric oxygen?

a. Hydrolysis c. Photosynthesis
b. Oxygenation d. Respiration
7. Which information is represented by the diagram on the right?

a. Respiration and photosynthesis are interrelated.
b. Transpiration and condensation are related to water
cycle.
c. Predators and their prey are involved in many
interactions.
d. Decomposers release a material that acted on by other
organisms.
8. A certain plant requires moisture, oxygen, carbon dioxide, light

and minerals in order to survive. This shows that living
organisms is dependent on _____.
a. abiotic factors c. symbiotic

relationships
b. biotic factors d. carnivore-
herbivore relationships
9. In order to preserve the biosphere for the future generations, one must _____.
a. put all wild animals and game preserves
b. make use of technology to develop new herbicides
c. explore ways to drain and fill wetlands along the seacoast
d. understand how living things interact with their environment
10. A material in a cycle undergoes the following processes like photosynthesis, transpiration, evaporation,
respiration and condensation. Which of the following materials rely least on these processes?
a. Carbon cycle c. Oxygen cycle
b. Nitrogen cycle d. Water cycle
11. The use of ladybugs and “praying” mantises to eradicate insect pests in the garden is an example of _____.
a. abiotic control of insect pests c. exploitation of insect pests
b. biological control of insect pests d. use of biocides to kill insect pests
For Nos. 12 – 13, refer to the diagram on the below
Each circle in the diagram represents a specific location of different types of bacteria that plays a role in the
cycle.
317
Focus: Environment
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
12. What letter represents decomposing bacteria?

a. A c. C
b. B d. D
13. What letter is represented by denitrifying bacteria?

a. A c. C
b. B d. D
14. A student sets up a terrarium which contains moist soil, several plants and snails. Then he placed his
terrarium where the sun shines. Which of the following factors is NOT essential for the maintenance of his
terrarium?
a. A constant source of energy.
b. The introduction of another heterotroph into the terrarium.
c. A cycling of materials between organisms and their environment.
d. A living system capable of converting energy into organic compounds.
15. The diagram below represents a FOOD WEB. Which statement supports the information shown?
a. Sparrows and hawks are omnivores.

b. Snakes eat grass, grasshoppers and frogs.
c. Foxes, snakes and sparrows are secondary consumers.
d. Rabbits, mice and grasshoppers contain the greatest amount of food energy.
16. An activity that should help ensure a suitable environment for the future generations is the increased use of
_____.
318
Focus: Environment
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
a. biological controls c. fossil fuels

b. chemical dumps d. pesticides
17. The diagram below represents a food web.
If the food web is represented as a pyramid of biomass, the level of the pyramid with the least amount of
biomass would be the _____.
a. grass c. hawk
b. grasshopper d. mouse
18. Which human activity would be more likely to have a negative impact on the environment?
a. Investigating the use of the biological controls for the pests.
b. Using reforestation and cover cropping to control soil erosion.
c. Using insecticides to kill insects that compete with human for food.
d. Developing a research aimed toward the preservation of endangered species.
For Nos. 19 – 21, refer to the diagram at the right:
19. Letter B represents _____.

a. autotrophs c. decomposers
b. carnivores d. scavengers
20. What letter represents the nitrifying bacteria?

a. A c. D
b. C d. E
319
Focus: Environment
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
21. The diagram represents the cycling of _____.

a. carbon c. phosphorus
b. nitrogen d. sulfur
22. Which abiotic factor has the least effect on the ability of aerobic organisms to live and reproduce in a cave?
a. Shape of rocks inside the cave
b. Amount of oxygen inside the cave
c. Availability of moisture inside the cave
d. Amount of energy present inside the cave
CARBON - OXYGEN CYCLE
23. The carbon – oxygen cycle is shown above.
What process is represented by letters A and B?

a. A – transpiration B – excretion
b. A – excretion B – respiration
c. A – respiration B - photosynthesis
d. A – photosynthesis B – transpiration
24. Everything an organism does and needs in its environment is known as its _____.
a. habitat c. feeding level
b. adaptation d. ecological niche
25. Which statement below best describes an ecosystem?

a. It can exist with or without a source of energy.
b. It can have consumers even without producers.
c. It can exist on land but cannot in lakes, rivers or oceans.
d. It involves the interactions between biotic and abiotic factors.
PART III – ENHANCING TEST TAKING SKILLS
1.Depletion of the ozone layer is due to _____.

a.a decrease in temperature
b.a decrease amount of air pollutants
c. an increase in number of marine ecosystem
d.an increase in temperature due atmospheric pollutants
2.The thinning of the ozone layer may result to _____.

a.improvement of weather
b.the prevention of air pollution
c. an increase marine ecosystem stability
d.an increase in skin cancer among humans
3.The diagram on the right describes a biochemical process that occurs in

some organisms. Which statement below best explains the process?
320
Focus: Environment
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
a.The process used solar energy to convert oxygen into carbon dioxide
b.The process is respiration and the primary source of energy is the Sun.
c. The process is photosynthesis and the primary source of energy is the Sun.
d.The process converts energy in organic compounds into solar energy which is released into the
atmosphere.
4.Which situation below has had the most negative effect on the Earth’s ecosystem?
a.Use of air pollution control
b.Increasing human population
c. Recycling glass, plastics and metals
d.Use of natural predators to control insect pests
5.Which of the following factors is the major source of global warming?

a. Increased burning of fuels
b. Decreased mineral availability
c. Increased number of green plants
d. Decreased carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
6.Which process usually uses carbon dioxide molecules?

a. Active transport c. Autotrophic nutrition
b. Asexual reproduction d. Cellular respiration
7.Communities have attempted to control the size of mosquito populations to prevent the spread of Dengue fever
and malaria. Which of the following methods used will most likely cause the least ecological damage?
a.Draining the swamps where mosquitoes breed.
b.Spraying swamps with pesticides to kill mosquitoes.
c. Spraying oil over swamps to suffocate mosquito larvae.
d.Increasing populations of native fish that feed on mosquito larvae in the swamps.
8.An environment can support only as many organisms as the available energy, minerals and oxygen will allow.
What term best fit this statement?
a. Biological diversity c. Carrying capacity
b. Biological feedback d. Homeostatic control
9.Factories nowadays post negative impacts to the environment because they ___.
a.decrease the need for finite resources.
b.limit the amount of emissions produced per year.
c. utilize agricultural technology that decreases soil erosion.
d.have high energy demands that require the use of fossil fuels and nuclear fuels.
10. Given the diagram at the right. What term should describe
everything that is represented in the diagram?
a.Community
b.Ecosystem
c. Organisms
d.Population
11. Car exhaust has been blamed for increasing the amount
of carbon dioxide in the air. This added amount of carbon dioxide may cause _____.
a.global warming c. increased biodiversity
b.habitat preservation d. ozone destruction
12. Which of the following statements best describe how humans affect the dynamic equilibrium in the
ecosystem?
a.Strong winds increases water evaporation.
321
Focus: Environment
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
b.A typhoon causes a stream to overflow its banks.

c. Water pollution causes a decrease in fish populations in rivers.
d.The ozone shield helps prevent harmful radiation from reaching the Earth’s surface.
13. Which of the following statements below has contributed to the production of acid rain?
a.Passing environmental land pollution laws
b.Establishing reforestation projects in lumbered areas
c. Using pesticides for the control of insects that feed on lakes
d.Burning fuels that produce air pollutants containing sulfur and carbon monoxide
14. Which of the following statements best describe a stable environment?
a.It usually consists of one type of producer.
b.It usually consists of a great diversity of species.
c. It has complex food webs that have more heterotrophs than autotrophs.
d.It has simple food chains that have more consumers than producers.
15. In the DDT cycle, an unexpected result on the use of DDT was noted. Before the DDT was banned, DDT was
used to combat an organism called red mite. The population of the red mite increased rather than decreased,
while the population of insect predators of the red mite decreased. What can be inferred from this situation?
a.The red mites were immune to the effects of DDT.
b.Using pesticides is a reliable way to eliminate all insect predators.
c. The red mite and its insect predators were all competing for the same resources.
d.Environmental changes that affect one population can affect other populations.
16. Which sequence shows a correct pathway for the flow of energy in a food chain?
a.algae → snake → duck → deer
b.bacteria → grass → fox → owl
c. fungi → beetle → algae → mouse
d.grass → grasshopper → frog → snake
17. What would have existed on the primitive Earth given the environmental conditions as shown in the diagram?
a.Migration of vertebrates to cooler portion
of the Earth.
b.Development of heterotrophic life forms
from plants
c. Decrease in asexual reproduction in
primitive organisms
d.Evolution of the first heterotrophs from
aggregates of organic molecules
18. Which two organisms given below are
considered heterotrophic?
a. A and B c. C and E
b. B and C d. D and E
19. Dr. John Snow discovered that a cholera outbreak was caused by drinking water polluted by _____.
a. heat c. pesticides
b. industrial wastes d. sewage
322
Focus: Environment
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
20. In the carbon-oxygen cycle as shown on the diagram below, what two processes are involved in the cycle?
a. Hydrolysis and
oxygenation c.
Photosynthesis and
respiration
b.Evaporation and transpiration d. Nitrification and ammonification
21. Biogeochemical cycle is the pathway of all nutrients present on Earth in which the four great spheres –
atmosphere, hydrosphere-cryosphere, and lithosphere are interrelated. Which among the chemical cycles is
atmosphere not taking part?
a. Carbon cycle c. Phosphorus cycle
b. Oxygen cycle d. Sulfur cycle
For Nos. 22 – 23, refer to the

nitrogen cycle given.
22. What is the role of NO3 in the cycle?

a.For protein synthesis by plants
b.To produce atmospheric nitrogen
c. To synthesize ammonia by bacteria
d.For carbohydrates synthesis by animals
23. What is be the product formed as “wastes” in the cycle?

a.Urea
b.Sulfur
c. Carbon dioxide
d.Hydrogen sulfide
NITROGEN CYCLE
24. Pollutant/s often found in road runoff is / are _____.
a. industrial chemicals c. pesticide
b. oil d. sewage
25. Which of the following is NOT a major source of freshwater pollution?

a. Human and animal wastes c. Wetlands
b. Industrial wastes d. Agricultural chemicals
323

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SPECIALIZATION: PHYSICAL SCIENCES

SPECIALIZATION: PHYSICAL SCIENCES

PART I – CONTENT UPDATE

Ecology and Ecosystem:

 provides us with information to better understand the world around us;

which when grouped,

Different Kinds of Ecosystems

There are two types of ecosystem:

ENERGY FLOW IN THE ECOSYSTEM

Photosynthetic bacteria: Primary detritus feeders:

FOOD CHAIN and FOOD WEB

A food chain is a food relationship that shows the

Energy Flow in an Ecosystem

10% of the energy is available to the next trophic level.

INTERACTIONS IN THE ECOSYSTEM

There are two types of species interactions

 Trophic interaction involves the use of organism such as food by another.

The Trophic Interactions

These are the:

LITHOSPHERE – the outer,

SPECIALIZATION: PHYSICAL SCIENCES

The Four Great Spheres:

MAJOR CYCLES OF MATTER

ATMOSPHERE ↔ HYDROSPHERE ↔ LITHOSPHERE

 Water or Hydrologic Cycle

The total amount of water found on earth is about

 Evaporation accounts for almost 90% of the

The Rock Cycle is a group of changes. Igneous rock can

Igneous rock forms when magma cools and makes

Igneous rock can form sedimentary rock. Wind and

CARBON – OXYGEN CYCLE

Carbon - Oxygen Transfer Biosphere ↔ Atmosphere

Photosynthesis: [Atmosphere → Biosphere]

Carbon Dioxide + Water + Sunlight → Sugar + Oxygen

CO2 + H2O + → C6H12O6 + O2

Respiration: [Biosphere → Atmosphere]

Sugar + Oxygen → Carbon Dioxide + Water + Energy

C6H12O6 + O2 → CO2 + H2O +

Phosphorus enters the environment from rocks or deposits

Sulfur is found in the lithosphere (Earth's crust).

Sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots and

Effects of Air Pollution:

Sources and Effects of Water Pollution

 Household waste is generally classified as municipal waste.

PART II – ANALYZING TEST ITEMS

1. Which process provides most of the oxygen found on Earth's atmosphere?

Choice a: Aerobic respiration takes in the oxygen from the atmosphere,

Choice a: A biome is an area with distinct climate.

5. Solid waste includes all of the following EXCEPT _____.

6. Which of the following processes is the main source of atmospheric oxygen?

7. Which information is represented by the diagram on the right?

8. A certain plant requires moisture, oxygen, carbon dioxide, light

a. abiotic factors c. symbiotic

For Nos. 12 – 13, refer to the diagram on the below

12. What letter represents decomposing bacteria?

13. What letter is represented by denitrifying bacteria?

a. Sparrows and hawks are omnivores.

a. biological controls c. fossil fuels

17. The diagram below represents a food web.

For Nos. 19 – 21, refer to the diagram at the right:

19. Letter B represents _____.

20. What letter represents the nitrifying bacteria?

21. The diagram represents the cycling of _____.