The Language of Sets

Set of numbers (Real, integer, rational, natural and irrational numbers)

In this unit, we shall give a brief, yet more meaningful introduction to the concepts of sets of numbers,
the set of real numbers being the most important, and being denoted by.

But first, to get to the real numbers we start at the set of natural numbers.

Natural numbers N
Natural numbers are those who from the beginning of time have been used to count. In most
countries they have adopted the Arabic numerals, so called because it was the Arabs who introduced
them in Europe, but it was in India where they were invented.

The set of natural numbers is denoted as N; so:

N={1,2,3,4,5,6…}

Natural numbers are characterized by two properties:

 The number 1 is the first natural number and each natural number is formed by adding 1 to the
previous one.
 When we subtract or divide two natural numbers the result is not necessarily a natural number,
so we say that natural numbers are not closed under these two operations. Natural numbers
are only closed under addition and multiplication, ie, the addition or multiplication of two natural
numbers always results in another natural number.

Integers Z
When the need to distinguish between some values and others from a reference position appears is
when negative numbers come into play. For example, when from level 0 (sea level) we differentiate
above sea level or deep sea. Or in the case of temperatures below zero or positive. So we can be at
an altitude of 700m, +700, or dive to 10m deep, −10, and it can be about 25 degrees +25, or 5
degrees below 0, −5.

To denote negative numbers we add a minus sign before the number.

In short, the set formed by the negative integers, the number zero and the positive integers (or natural
numbers) is called the set of integers.

They are denoted by the symbol Z and can be written as:

Z ={…,−2,−1,0,1,2,…}
We represent them on a number line as follows:
An important property of integers is that they are closed under addition, multiplication and subtraction,
that is, any addition, subtraction and multiplication of two integers results in another integer. Note that
the quotient of two integers, for instance 3 and 7, is not necessarily an integer. Thus, the set is not
closed under division.

Rational numbers Q
Rational numbers are those numbers which can be expressed as a division between two integers.
The set of rational numbers is denoted as Q, so:
Q ={p/q | p,q ∈ Z}
The result of a rational number can be an integer (−8/4=−2) or a decimal (6/5=1,2) number, positive
or negative. Furthermore, among decimals there are two different types, one with a limited number of
digits which it's called an exact decimal, (88/25=3.52), and another one with an unlimited number of
digits which it's called a recurring decimal (5/9=0.5555…=0.5^).

We call them recurring decimals because some of the digits in the decimal part are repeated over and
over again. If just repeating digits begin at tenth, we call them pure recurring decimals (6.8888…
=6.8^), otherwise we call them mixed recurring decimals (3.415626262…=3.41562^).
 
Note that every integer is a rational number, since, for example, 5=5/1; therefore, Z is a subset of Q.
In the same way every natural is also an integer number, specifically positive integer number. Thus
we have:
N⊂ Z⊂ Q
The rational numbers are closed not only under addition, multiplication and subtraction, but also
division (except for 0).

Irrational numbers I
We have seen that any rational number can be expressed as an integer, decimal or exact decimal
number.

However, not all decimal numbers are exact or recurring decimals, and therefore not all decimal
numbers can be expressed as a fraction of two integers.

These decimal numbers which are neither exact nor recurring decimals are characterized by infinite
nonperiodic decimal digits, i.e. that never end nor have a repeating pattern.

Note that the set of irrational numbers is the complementary of the set of rational numbers.
Some examples of irrational numbers are √ 2, π , ,∛ 5 and for example  π =3.1415926535… comes
from the relationship between the length of a circle and its diameter.

Real numbers R
The set formed by rational numbers and irrational numbers is called the set of real numbers and is
denoted as R.

Thus, we have:
R = Q∪ I
Both rational numbers and irrational numbers are real numbers.

One of the most important properties of real numbers is that they can be represented as points on a
straight line. We choose a point called origin, to represent 0, and another point, usually on the right
side, to represent 1.

A correspondence between the points on the line and the real numbers emerges naturally; in other
words, each point on the line represents a single real number and each real number has a single
point on the line. We call it the real line. In the next picture you can see an example:

THE LANGUAGE OF SET

What is a set?
A set is a collection of well-defined objects. The objects are called elements or members of the set.
The symbol ∈ is used to denote that an object is an element of a set, and the symbol ∉ denotes that
an object is not an element of a set.
 We use braces and commas also to denote a set.
 It is usually presented in capital letters.

Use of the word “set” as a formal mathematical term was introduced in 1879 by Georg Cantor. For
most mathematical purposes we can think of a set intuitively, as Cantor did, simply as a collection of
elements.

Examples:
A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12}
B = {x | x is positive integer less than 20}

Set
If S is a set, the notation
x ∈ S means that “x is an element of S”
x ∉ S means that “x is not an element of S

Example:
A= {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12 }
 2∈A
 3∉A
 4∈A
 13 ∉ A

B = {x | positive integer less than 20}

 1∈B
 19 ∈ B
 21 ∉ B

A variation of notation is used to describe a very large set.

Examples:
C= {1, 2, 3, …, 100} Set of all integers from 1 to 100
D= {1, 2, 3, …} Set of all positive integers
E= {…, -3, -2, -1} Set of all negative integers

Three ways of Describing a Set

1. Roster Method/ Listing Method/ Tabular Method/Enumeration Method
2. Set Builder Notation/ Rule Method
3. Interval Notation

1. Roster Method/ Listing Method/ Tabular Method/Enumetaration Method

o The elements of the set are enumerated and separated by a comma.
o List all the elements in the braces, if possible.

Y= {a, e, i, o, u} = {set of all vowels in the English alphabet}

W= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} ={set of number of dots in each face of a die}

2. Set Builder Notation/ Rule Method

o Describe the elements or members of the set
o Characterize all the elements in a set by stating property or properties they must have to
members, symbol is written as {x | P (x)}

Example:
In the notation Y= {a, e, i, o, u} which is in Roster Method, it is represented as
Y= {x | collection of vowel letters}. The symbol | is read as “such that”.
 
{x | x is an even number ≤ 10} Set Builder Notation
{2, 4, 6, 8, 10} Roster Method
Another example:
 {x | x is rational number}
Rational numbers are the set of all terminating and repeating decimals.
Q=a/ b
1 −3 −3
Examples of Q : ,
2 5 4
 
 {x ∈ ℤ | -3 < x < 6}
This is read as “The set of all element in the set of integers such that x is greater than -3 but less
than 6.”
What are the elements in this set?
Answer: {x ∈ ℤ | -3 < x < 6} = {-2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,}

3. Interval Notation
The interval notation is used to describe the set of real numbers in an interval.
There are 9 notations for intervals of real numbers.

Terminologies of Set

1. Unit Set
Unit set is a set that contains only one element.
Illustration:
A = { 1 }; B = { c }; C = { banana }

2. Empty set or Null set; ∅

Empty or null set is a set that has no element.
Illustration:
A={}
A set of seven yellow carabaos

3. Finite set
A finite set is a set that the elements in a given set is countable.
Illustration:
A = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 }
B = { a, b, c, d }

4. Infinite set
An infinite set is a set that elements in a given set has no end or not
countable.
Illustration:
A set of counting numbers
A = { …-2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, … }

5. Cardinal Number; n
Cardinal number are numbers that used to measure the number of
elements in a given set. It is just similar in counting the total number of elements in a set.
Illustration:
A = { 2, 4, 6, 8 } n = 4
B = { a, c, e } n = 3

6. Equal set
Two sets, say A and B, are said to be equal if and only if they have
equal number of cardinality and the element/s are identical. There is a 1 -1
correspondence.
Illustration:
A = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} B = { 3, 5, 2, 4, 1}

7. Equivalent set
Two sets, say A and B, are said to be equivalent if and only if they
have the exact number of elements. There is a 1 – 1 correspondence.
Illustration:
A = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 } B = { a, b, c, d, e }

8. Universal set
The universal set U is the set of all elements under discussion.
Illustration:
A set of an English alphabet
U = {a, b, c, d, …, z}

9. Joint Sets
Two sets, say A and B, are said to be joint sets if and only if they
have common element/s.
A = { 1, 2, 3} B = { 2, 4, 6 }
Here, sets A and B are joint set since they have common element
such as 2.
10. Disjoint Sets
Two sets, say A and B, are said to be disjoint if and
only if they are mutually exclusive or if they don’t have common element/s.
A = { 1, 2, 3} B = { 4, 6, 8 }

Subset of a Set
Set A is a subset of B, denoted by ⊆, if and only if all elements of A are also elements of B.
A= {x, y, z}
Subsets of A:
{}, {x}, {y}, {z}, {x, y}, {x, z}, {y, z}, {x, y, z}
n
number of subsets=2

Proper subset

SET OPERATIONS

Intersection of Sets
Given two sets A and B, their intersection denoted by A ∩ B denoted, is the set both common to
both A and B. In other words, the intersection of a set are those elements can be found for both A
and B.
Examples 1:
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
B = {3, 4, 5, 6, 7}
Therefore, we conclude that A ∩ B = {3, 4, 5}.
 
Example 2:
Let C= {a, b, c}, D= {b, c} and E={x, y, z, a}.
 C ∩ D = {b,c}
 D ∩ E= { } or ∅
 C ∩ E = {a}

Union of Sets
Given 2 sets A and B, their set union, denoted by A U B, is the set of elements that belong to either A
or B or to both.
A U B= {x | x ∈ A or x ∈ B}
The word “or” is our set definition of set union using set builder notation is an inclusive or. It means
that x is either element of A or B or to both. The union of a set is written without repeating the same
elements.
Examples: Let A = { 4, 5, 7}, B= {6,7} and C= {1, 5, 7}.
 A U B= {4,5,6,7}
 B U C= {1,5,6,7,}
  A U B U C = {1,4,5,6,7,}

Complement of Sets
The complement of a set A, denoted by A’ , is the set of all elements in the universal U that are not
elements of A.

Universal sets contains all elements in the given context and denoted by U.

Difference of Two Sets

The difference of two sets, is the set of all elements of A that are not elements of B. In symbol, this is
written as A – B.

Product of Sets
Cartesian product is also called the cross products. The product of two sets, denoted by A x B is
the set of all possible ordered pairs (a, b), where a ∈ A and b ∈ B.
Consider the sets A= {1,3} and B= {w,z}. Write the cross product of A X B.
A X B= {(1, w), (1, z), (3, w), (3, z)}
Since the elements of a cross product are ordered pairs , (1, w) is not the same as (w, 1). In fact, (1,
w) ∈ A X B but (w, 1) ∉ A X B.

VENN DIAGRAM
Venn Diagram is a pictorial representation of sets within an enclosing rectangle. The rectangle
represents the entire universal set U . Circles, squares, and other geometric figures represent some
subsets of the universal set. Regions that overlap represent the are common to sets.
The illustration below shows the representation of Venn Diagram depending upon on the set
operations performed. The color green means the included elements upon performing the operations.
U={1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
A={1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
B= {2, 4, 6, 8}