Nutritional Metabolism

Introduction to Cell & Biological Energy

By: Girma G. (Nutritionist)

(MSc. COMN, BSc. AHN, BSc. CNM)

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Learning Objectives

At the end of this Course students will be able to:

▪ Define cell
▪ Describe the unique characteristics of cells
▪ List out the different types of cells
▪ Describe the basic structure & function of cells
▪ Discuss the basic principles of cellular Energy

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 Brain Storming !

What is a Cell?

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 The Cell
Cell:
▪ A cells is a small, membrane
enclosed units filled with a
concentrated aqueous solution of
chemicals and endowed with the
extraordinary ability to create
copies of itself by growing and
then dividing in two.

▪ It is simplest forms of life & is the

fundamental units of life.

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 Types of Cells

▪ Prokaryotic Cell
▪ Eukaryotic Cell

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 Unique Characteristics of Cells

▪ Each cell performs a specialized function:

• Production of particular substances e.g.,
hormones
• Motor functions: e.g., muscle cells
• Signal & transmit messages e.g., nerve cells

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 Unique Characteristics of Cells…

▪ Each cell is regulated by complex systems of

cell-to-cell communication.
▪ Cells are not all alike
▪ Cells vary widely in their shape
E.g. A typical nerve cell- is enormously
extended & branched
while Egg cell is oval.

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 Basic Similarities of Cells

▪ Cells are fundamentally similar inside.

▪ They are composed of the same sorts of molecules,
▪ In all organisms, genetic information is carried in
DNA molecules.
▪ This information is written & regulated by the same
chemical code.

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 Basic Similarities of Cells…
▪ In every cell, the long DNA polymer chains are
made from the same set of four monomers, called
nucleotides,
▪ The information encoded in the DNA is read out, or
transcribed, into a chemically related set of
polymers called RNA.
▪ A subset of these RNA molecules is in turn
translated into a type of polymer called a protein.
▪ This flow of information from DNA to RNA to
protein is referred to as the central dogma.

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 The Central Dogma

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 Types of Cells

▪ Prokaryotic Cell
▪ Eukaryotic Cell

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 Types of Cells…

▪ Classification basis on:

– The presence or absence of a nucleus
▪ Organisms whose cells have a nucleus are
called eukaryotes
▪ Organisms whose cells do not have a nucleus
are called prokaryotes
E.g. Prokaryotic Cell: bacteria and
archaea.

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 The Eukaryotic Cells

▪ General, are bigger and more elaborate than

bacteria and archaea.
▪ Some live independent lives as single-celled
organisms, such as amoebae and yeasts.
▪ Others live in complex multicellular
organisms including plants, animals, and
fungi.

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 The Eukaryotic Cell…

▪ All eukaryotic cells have a nucleus.

▪ eukaryotic cells have a variety of other
organelles, most of which are
membrane-enclosed
▪ These organelles are common to all eukaryotic
organisms.

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 Cell structures & their Functions

Extracellular Matrix
▪ Cells are either closely packed or separated from one
another by an extracellular matrix.
▪ This matrix is a dense material made of protein fibers
embedded in a polysaccharide gel.
Plasma Membrane
▪ It is membrane that separates the interior of the cell from its
external environment, is also called Cell membrane.
▪ It is a lipid bilayer, acts as a barrier, receive information-
import & export molecules.

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 .

Phospholipid bilayer

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The Plasma membrane

● Serves as the gateway of all molecules

from and out of the cell.
● The membrane is permeable to a few
molecules and impermeable to others.
○ substance move freely such as:
■ H2O, CO2 , NH3, O2
● substance need carrier proteins;
proteins embedded in lipid bilayer.

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 .

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 .

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 .
•.

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 The Cytoplasm

The cytoplasm is viscous fluid containing organelles

▪ It has endomembrane system, a series of
membranes throughout the cytoplasm.
▪ The membrane divides cell into compartments where
different cellular functions occur.

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Cytoplasm…

▪ It has series of organelles responsible for:

• Modifying protein chains into their final form
• Synthesizing of lipids
• Packaging of fully modified proteins and lipids into vesicles
for export or use in the cell

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 The Cytosol

● The Cytosol is a concentrated aqueous gel of

large and small molecules.
▪ It is the part of the cytoplasm that is not contained
within intracellular membranes.
▪ In most cells, the cytosol is the largest single
compartment.

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 Cytosol…

▪ It contains large and small molecules,

▪ It is the site of many chemical reactions that
are fundamental to the cell’s existence.
▪ The early steps in the breakdown of nutrient
molecules take place in the cytosol.
• e.g. most proteins are made by ribosomes in
the cytosol

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 The Organelles

● The organelles are separate, recognizable

substructures with specialized functions.
▪ Organelles are responsible for the transport
of materials into & out of the cell.

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 The Nucleus
It is the most prominent organelle in a eukaryotic
cell.
▪ It is enclosed within two concentric membranes
that form the nuclear envelope.
▪ It contains molecules of DNA.
▪ DNA molecules become visible as individual
chromosomes

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 The Nucleus…

▪ The nucleus is the information store of the Cell.

▪ DNA carries the genetic information in prokaryotic
cells.
▪ Even though, Prokaryotic cells lack a distinct
nucleus; they do have DNA without a nuclear
envelope.

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 .

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 The Mitochondria

● Mitochondria is the powerhouse of the Cell

▪ Mitochondria are present in essentially all eukaryotic
cells,
▪ It is the most visible organelles in the cytoplasm.
▪ They appear as worm-shaped structures (highly folded-
Cristae).
▪ Individual mitochondria are found to be enclosed in two
separate membranes:

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 Mitochondria…

▪ The inner membrane formed into folds & projects into

the interior of the organelle.
▪ They are responsible for the oxidation of food
molecules to produce adenosine triphosphate
(ATP).
▪ They are the site of cellular respiration.
▪ Without mitochondria, cells couldn’t use oxygen to
extract the energy from the food molecules.

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 The Mitochondria…

▪ Mitochondria contain their own DNA and

reproduce by dividing in two.
▪ Mitochondria are thought to have been
derived from bacteria.

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 Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

▪ ER is an irregular network of interconnected spaces

enclosed by a membrane.
▪ It is the site where materials intended for export from
the cell, are made.
▪ This organelle is enormously enlarged in cells that are
specialized for the secretion of proteins.
▪ ER has two parts: Rough ER & Smooth ER

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 Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)…

Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)

▪ Ribosomes are attached to the outside
of the RER & make it appear rough.
▪ RER contains enzymes that recognize
& modify proteins.
▪ Proteins are modified as they move
through the RER.
▪ Once modified the proteins are packed
in transport vesicles for transport to
the Golgi body.
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 Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)...
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)
▪ Has a tubular membrane structure
▪ Continuous with the RER
▪ No or few ribosomes attached to them
▪ Lipids are made inside the SER
▪ Lipids are packed in transport
vesicles & sent to the Golgi bodies.

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 The Golgi Apparatus

▪ The Golgi apparatus are stacks of flattened,

membrane-enclosed sacs.
▪ They sort, tag & package fully processed proteins
& lipids in vesicles.
▪ The tags allow the substance to be sorted & packed
appropriately.
▪ Tags also indicate where the substance is to be
shipped.
▪ They are responsible to transport molecules either
secreted from the cell or transported to another cell
compartment.

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 The Lysosomes

▪ Lysosomes are small, irregularly shaped

organelles in which intracellular digestion
occurs.
▪ Peroxisomes are small, membrane-enclosed
vesicles that provide a safe environment for a
variety of reactions in which hydrogen
peroxide is used to inactivate toxic molecules.

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 The Lysosomes…

▪ Endocytosis : is a process of engulfing materials from

external medium into cells.
▪ Exocytosis : is a process of discharging cellular
waste materials from inside the into the external
medium.
▪ Most of the hormones and signal molecules that allow
cells to communicate with one another are secreted
from cells by exocytosis.

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 The Cytoskeleton

▪ It is responsible for directed cell movements.

▪ The cytosol is crisscrossed by long, fine filaments.
▪ This system of protein filaments, called the
cytoskeleton, is composed of three major filament
types.
● The thin filaments, also called the actin filaments;
occur in inside muscle cells,
– They serve as a central part of the machinery
responsible for muscle contraction.

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 The Cytoskeleton…
▪ The thickest filaments, also called
microtubules, because they have the form of
minute hollow tubes.
– In dividing cells, they help pull the
duplicated chromosomes in opposite
directions.
▪ Intermediate filaments, serve to strengthen
the cell.
▪ These filaments, gives the cell its mechanical
strength, controls its shape, drives and guides
its movements.

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 Transport across the Cell
Types:
❏ Passive transport

● Simple diffusion
● Channel- mediated facilitated diffusion
● Carrier- mediated facilitated diffusion
❏ Active transport
● Primary active transport
● Secondary active transport
● Bulk transport

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 Passive Transport

▪ Simple diffusion- media for the

transport of lipid soluble solutes
▪ Channel- mediated facilitated
diffusion- media for channel
protein (small lipid insoluble
molecules)
▪ Carrier- mediated facilitated
diffusion- media for transport
proteins

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 Active Transport

▪ Movements of molecules against

concentration gradient
A. Primary active transport
• Binding stimulated phosphorylation
( breakdown of ATP) of carrier
protein.
• Carrier protein undergoes
conformational change & release
molecules to opposite side of the
membrane.

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 Active Transport…
B. Secondary active
transport

• It is a coupled transport
• An energy required ‘’uphill’’
movement obtained from
‘’downhill’’ transport of Na+
• Hydrolysis of ATP by Na+/K+
pump required indirectly to
maintain (Na+) gradient

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 Active Transport…

C. Bulk transport: by endocytosis &

exocytosis
▪ It is a mov’t of many large molecules, that
cannot be transported by carriers.
▪ Endocytosis- is a process of taking in (into
the cell) of by specialized function of the
cell membrane
▪ Exocytosis- is a process by which some
large particles move out of the cell by
specialized function of the cell membrane

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Cellular Energy
There are two fundamental pathways:

▪ The Catabolic Pathways; a process of

breaking down of food molecules into
smaller parts:
• to generate a useful energy and
• a building blocks for cellular
needs.
▪ The Anabolic, or Biosynthetic,
pathways; use the energy produced by
catabolism to:
• drive the synthesis of the many
molecules that form the cell.
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 Cellular Energy…

▪ Cells obtain energy by oxidation (controlled burning) of

organic molecules. The energy is use to:
• live,
• grow, and
• reproduce,

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Group Discussion

How is Oxidation takes place

in the cells?

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 Oxidation…

▪ Oxidation occurs by two methods:

• Aerobically
• Anaerobically
▪ Aerobic oxidation:
• takes place in the presence of oxygen,
• oxygen uses to oxidized glucose or other
organic molecules to produce energy and
liberate CO2 and H2O as by products,
▪ This process is known as Cellular
respiration.

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 Oxidation…
Anaerobic oxidation:
• takes place in the absence of oxygen,
• doesn’t oxygen uses to oxidized glucose or
other organic molecules to produce energy
and liberate alcohol and CO2 as by products.

Glucose Alcohol + CO2 + Energy

● Resulted in partial breakdown of glucose

● Produce lactic acid

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 .

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 Oxidation and Reduction

Oxidation:
● The addition of oxygen atoms to a molecule.
● Result in electron transfer from one atom to another.
Reduction:
● Involves the addition of electrons to an atom.
○ E.g. Fe2+ is oxidized when it loses an electron to
become Fe3+,
○ whereas a chlorine atom is reduced when it gains an
electron to become Cl–.

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 Oxidation and Reduction…

▪ Oxidation and reduction always occur

simultaneously:
• I.e. If one molecule gains an electron in a reaction
(reduction), a second molecule must lose the
electron (oxidation).
• E.g. When a sugar molecule is oxidized to CO2 and
H2O, the O2 molecules involved in forming H2O gain
electrons and thus are said to have been reduced.

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 The Roles of Enzymes
Activation Energy
● Enzymes reduce the energy needed to initiate spontaneous
reactions.
● A molecule requires a boost of energy before it can undergo a
chemical reaction that moves it to a lower energy (more stable)
state.
● This boost is known as the Activation Energy.
▪ E.g. In the case of a burning book, the activation energy is
provided by the heat of a lighted match.
● Since, cells can’t raise their temperature to drive biological
reactions; the, enzymes do this role as activation energy.

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 The Role of Enzymes…
▪ Each enzyme binds tightly to one or two
molecules, called substrates.
▪ A substance that can lower the activation energy
of a reaction is termed a catalyst.
▪ Catalysts increase the rate of chemical
reactions.

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 The Role of Enzymes…
▪ Enzymes are among the most effective catalysts known.
▪ They can speed up reactions by a factor of as much as
1014 (i.e. trillions of times faster than the same reactions
would proceed without an enzyme catalyst).
▪ Enzymes therefore allow reactions that would not
otherwise occur to proceed rapidly at the normal
temperature inside cells.

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 The Role of Enzymes…

▪ Enzymes are highly selective.

▪ Each enzyme usually speeds up only one particular
reaction.
▪ Enzymes direct each of the many different molecules in
a cell along specific reaction pathways.
▪ Like all catalysts, enzyme molecules themselves remain
unchanged after participating in a reaction and therefore
can function over and over again.

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 Adenosine Triphosphate
ATP (adenosine triphosphate):
● Serves as a convenient and versatile store of energy that
can be used to drive a variety of chemical reactions in
cells.
● It is synthesized in an energetically unfavorable
phosphorylation reaction, in which a phosphate group is
added to ADP (adenosine-diphosphate).

ATP ADP and inorganic phosphate (Pi)

▪ The regenerated ADP is then available to be used for another
round of the phosphorylation reaction that forms ATP, creating
an ATP cycle in the cell.

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 ATP…

● Any reaction that involves the transfer of a

phosphate group to a molecule is termed
a phosphorylation reaction.
▪ Phosphorylation reactions are examples of
condensation reactions, and they occur in
cell processes:
• Activate substrates,
• Mediate the exchange of chemical
energy, and
• Serve as key constituents of
intracellular signaling.

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Reference:
1. Bruce Alberts, Dennis Bray, & et al. Essential cell biology
4th Edition. 2014. Published by Garland Science, Taylor
& Francis Group, LLC, an in forma business, 711 Third
Avenue, New York, NY 10017,USA.
2. Richard A. Harvey, PhD. Lippincott’s Illustrated
Reviews: Biochemistry 5ed. 2011. Lippincott Williams &
Wilkins, a Wolters Kluwer business.

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