1 〜ばかりか not only~ but also 2 あまり due to an excess of, because speaking to those with a higher social

ess of, because speaking to those with a higher social status than the
is a Japanese particle meaning “only, just”. is a noun meaning “excess”. It may be used as a speaker or when addressing customers and clients.
When used together with the particle か , they form a conjunction in formal, written Japanese to express that a Although usually used as a standalone verb,
conjunction meaning "that's not all". An unexpected state strong emotional or mental state has caused some result. It いっらしゃる may replace the いる in the Japanese て
or occurence follows this conjunction. This unexpected follows nouns (along with the particle no) or verbs in いる progressive form. (Example sentence #4.) Further, it
state is usually followed by one of the particles さえ or plain form. may replace the ある in である to create an honorific
も, which serves to strengthen the unexpectedness. polite copula. (Example sentence #5.) Finally, it may
The construction A ば か り か B さ え is Noun + の + あまり follow the -te form of -i adjectives, in which case it also
therefore often translated as ""not only A, but also B". "A" Verb.inf + あまり acts as an honorific polite copula. (Example sentence #6.)"
and "B" may be nouns, verbs in plain form, or adjectives. いっらしゃる conjugates in line with the other
1． 幸せのあまり涙が出てきました。 irregular " あ る " honorific verbs: "i", rather than "ri", is
Adjective ばかりか Adjective さえ I was so happy that I cried. used in constructing the "ます" form and its derivatives.
Noun ばかりか Noun さえ 2． 怒りのあまり窓をたたき壊した。
Verb.plain ばかりか Verb.plain さえ I was so angry that I put my fist through the window. Dictionary form: いらっしゃる
3． テレビゲームに熱中するあまり成績が悪くなり Simple past: いらっしゃった
1. イギリスでは若者ばかりか老人さえクリケット ました。 Polite form: いらっしゃいます
に夢中です。 I was so obsessed with video games that my grades Polite past: いらっしゃいました
In England, not only young people, but also the started to slip.
elderly, are obsessed with cricket. 4． 多くの親が、子供の勉強を優先したあまり、社 1. 1 時に先生がいらっしゃいます。
2. この会社の製品は高いばかりか安全性にも疑問 会の一員としての責任を忘れがちになっている。 The teacher will be here at one o'clock.
がある。 Many parents overemphasize the importance of 2. 先ほど彼のお母様がいらっしゃいましたが、す
Not only are this company's products expensive, but study, which has caused a tendency for children to ぐに帰られました。
there are also questions regarding their safety. forget their responsibilities as members of society. His mother was here a few minutes ago, but she left.
3. 「優良な農地」は荒れ放題だったばかりか「無 3. お医者さまは何時頃いらっしゃる予定ですか。
償譲渡」も空約束だった。 What time does the doctor plan on coming here?
Not only has all of the "excellent farmland" been 3 いらっしゃる to come, to go, to be 4. 本を読んでいらっしゃる。
ruined, but promises of its "voluntary conveyance" is the honorific form of the verbs "to come" ( 来 He is reading a book.
also proved to be empty. る , "kuru"), "to go" ( 行 く , "iku") and "to be" ( い る , 5. 平田さんでいらっしゃいますか。
"iru"). As an honorific, it is used to show respect when Are you Mr. Hirada?
 carries the nuance that whatever follows relies on the
6. 息子さんはまだ若くていらっしゃる。 condition or situation marked by う ちに , while あい だ 7 がたい hard to, can hardly, difficult to
Your son is still young." simply indicates the interval. is an auxiliary adjective used in formal Japanese
to express the idea that something is extremely difficult or
The customary Japanese service industry V.inf.nonpast + uchi ni impossible for someone to accomplish. It is directly
greetings いっらしゃい and いっらしゃいませ are the いるうちに・- while s.o. is there suffixed to the ます stems of verbs.
plain and polite imperative form of い っ ら し ゃ る , 読まないうちに・- before s.o. reads
respectively. 読んでいるうちに・- while s.o. is reading Verb.masu-stem + がたい
i-adj.nonpast + uchi ni
4 う え （ に ） as well, in addition, besides, not 若いうちに・- while s.o. is young 1. 朝のニュースは信じがたい内容だった。
only〜but also〜 na-adj.nonpast + na + uchi ni There was something unbelievable in this morning's
is a conjunction which introduces an additional, にぎやかなうちに・- which it is lively news.
emphatic statement. noun + no + uchi ni 2. 彼は厳しすぎて私には近寄りがたい。
今日のうちに・- before the end of the day He is so strict that it's virtually impossible to approach
Sentence + 上に him."
1. 雨が降らないうちに公園でサッカーをしましょ
1. 彼はハンサムな上に性格もいい。 う。 8 ことだ "the important thing to do is..."
Besides the fact that he is good looking, he has a nice Let’s play some soccer at the park before it rains. an expression we use often when giving advice
personality. 2. 暗くならないうちに帰ってきなさい。 to someone. We especially use it when giving advice on
2. 彼女は部屋を探してくれた上にご飯もごちそう Come home before it gets dark. something that is going to help someone achieve a goal or
してくれた。 meet an objective. ~[verb]ことだ has the same meaning
Not only did she look for a room, she even treated me 6 かい Informal question particle as ～ [verb] こ と が 大 事 だ ("it's important to do ~").
to dinner. is a sentence-ending particle used in informal male Therefore, when you want to say that doing X is crucial to
speech to change a declarative sentence into a yes-no achieve a certain goal, you can use ~[verb]ことだ.
5 うちに while, before, during question. ~[verb]ことだ
is a conjunction which is used to designate a 1. アメリカに行ったことがあるかい。
period in which some condition or situation remains in Have you ever been to America? 1. 日本語が話せるようになりたければ、一生懸命、
effect. うちに is similar to あいだ in that they can both 2. 一緒に野球をしたいかい。 JapanesePod101.com を聞くことだ。
be used to express an interval of time. However, うちに Do you want to play baseball? If you want to be able to speak Japanese, listening to
 JapanesePod101.com is the key. えがわからなかった。 that something is going to happen, it does not. It is
2. 政治に詳しくなりたいなら、毎日、新聞を読む This question is so difficult that even he, great teacher roughly equivalent to the English phrase "almost",
ことだ。 though he is, couldn't figure out the answer. however, its usage is limited to what is directly observable
If you want to get up to speed on politics, it's by the speaker.
important to read the newspaper every day. 10 せめて at the very least　
is an adverb that indicates a minimum limit, and Verb.masu-stem + sō ni naru (そうになる)
9 さすが as might be expected; after all; that while this limit would not satisfy the speaker
naturally completely, it is the very least that he or she is hoping for. 1. あまりに疲れていたので道で倒れそうになった。
(sometimes さ す が に ) is an adverb that Like all adverbs in Japanese, せめて precedes I was so tired that I almost passed out in the street.
expresses the speaker's strong feeling that something has what it modifies. 2. やっと海外に行けそうになったのに、仕事で大
turned out as expected. 失敗してしまった。
It may be used in a number of situations, i) せめて Number + Counter（ぐらい）〜 When it finally looked like I would be able to go
carrying a slightly different nuance in each. せめて三回ぐらい at least three times overseas, I screwed up at work.
ii) せめて N {ぐらい／（だけ）でも}
1) When さすが is used in mid-sentence position, it may せめて話し合い{ぐらい／（だけ）でも } at least a 12 その上 furthermore, in addition
indicate that while the speaker affirms the clause that conversation そ の う え is a relatively formal conjunction
precedes it, they also strongly believe or expect the iii) せめて N Prt. used to add information to what has just been said, and
contradictory sentence that follows it. せめて母に at least to my mother emphasize this added information.
2) さすが may also be used to strongly express that one's そのうえ may be used in sentence-initial position, or
expectations have been confirmed, or things have turned 1. せめて二時間ぐらいは準備の時間を下さい。 after a comma.
out as one has desired. Please give me at least two hours of preparation time.
3) In the form さすがの ~~ も, さすが implies that the 2. せめて英語で人と会話できるくらいになりたい 1. このレストランは安いです。その上おいしいで
item/person that follows の is highly-reputed. です。 す。
I would like to at least be able to have a conversation This restaurant is cheap. Furthermore, it's delicious.
1. 実は昨日は徹夜だったので、さすがに疲れまし with someone in English. 2. 彼は頭がいいです。その上格好いいです。
た。 He's smart. In addition, he's cool.
Actually, I stayed up all night last night, so I got tired, 11 そうになる almost; it appeared as if
as might be expected. something was going to happen 13 それどころか on the contrary; far from
2. この問題は難しすぎて、さすがの先生にも、答 is a phrase expressing that although it appears that; as a matter of fact
 is a conjunction used to indicate that something 15 ため therefore; in order to some other fact that follows from this. This added fact is
that has just been said (either by the current speaker or the is a noun meaning "something usually contradictory in nature, as in example sentences
person who was speaking just prior to him/her) is not useful/advantageous." It often follows uninflectable words #1 and #2, and often ends in a phrase such as わけではな
totally correct/accurate. そ れ ど こ ろ が adds additional (and the particles の or が) or inflectable words in their い
stress to the statement that follows it. participle form. In this case, tame has one of two context- Sentence A + だからといって +　Sentence B
dependent meanings.
1. 私は彼があまり好きでなかった、それどころか ため may indicate that the reason for the clause 1. 僕は恋人のことがとても好きです。だからと
憎んでさえいた。 that follows it is the clause that precedes it. In this case, 言って、すぐに結婚を考えているわけではあり
I didn't like him much. In fact, I actually hated him. tame acts similar to the English word "therefore." ません。
2. 彼は怠け者ではない。それどころか働き者だと ため may indicate that the purpose of the I really love my girlfriend. That said, it doesn't mean
私は思う。 clause that follows it is the clause that precedes it. In this I'm thinking about marrying her any time soon.
He's not a slacker. On the contrary, I think he's a hard case, tame acts similar to the English phrase "in order to." 2. 彼は頭がいいし毎日勉強していました。しかし
worker. In the above usages, tame is often followed by だからといってテストに合格するとは限りませ
the particle に. ん。
14 ただの usual; ordinary; common; plain * Noun + のため(に) He's bright, and he's studied every day. Be that as it
is a phrase used to indicate that something has * Verb/i-Adj, inf + ために may, he won't necessarily pass this test.
no special qualities that merit mentioning. It acts as an * na-Adj, stem + な/だった ために 3. ウナギは蛇みたいだからといって嫌う人がいる。
adjective. Some people dislike eels just because they look like
1. あなたのためならばなんでもします。 snakes."
ただの + Noun I would do anything for you.
2. 彼は心が広いために尊敬されている。 When used in sentence-initial position, だ か ら と
1. ただの腹痛だと思っていたら、盲腸だった。 He is looked up to for his breadth of mind. いって may be preceded by another conjunction, such as
I thought it was an ordinary stomach ache, but it was 3. 彼女に追いつくために私は歩みを速めた。 しかし or でも
appendicitis. I quickened my steps to catch up with her
2. ただの老人だと思っていたら、とんでもない !著 17 だが but, however, yet, nevertheless
名な名誉教授の方でした！ 16 だからと言って just because, however, that is a conjunction used at the beginning of a
I thought he was a run-of-the-mill old geezer, but holy said, be that as it may sentence to introduce contrary information. It corresponds
crap... He was a famous emeritus professor!" だからといって is a conjunction used to state to the English terms “but”, “nevertheless”, “however”, etc.
the speakers belief in what has just been said, and to add It is very formal, and is primarily used in written
Japanese. I can’t afford to buy a luxurious car like this. But just masu stems of verbs. It is similar in both meaning and
out of curiosity, how much is it? usage to the ながら form.
1. 彼はなかなかハンサムだ。だが、面白くない。 3.「禁煙席は、ただいま満席で待ち時間は 1 時間ほ
He's quite handsome, but he's not interesting. どです。」「ちなみに、喫煙席も満席ですか。」 It may be used in order to:
2. 彼女には才能がある。だが、チャンスがなかな ”We don’t have any non-smoking seats available right 1) indicate that a given action is still occurring
か巡ってこない。 now. We are sorry that you will need to wait for about one (particularly when used in the compound form つつある).
She’s got talent, but she doesn’t get many hour.” “By the way, a smoking seat isn’t available either, 2) link two actions that occur at the same time. In the case
opportunities." is it?” that the two actions have no relation to each other, or are
opposite in meaning or connotation, the compound form
ですが is another formal conjunction with the same 19 っけ particle indicating forgotten つつも is often used.
meaning as だ が that may be used in both spoken and information 3) indicate that an action occurs repetitively
written Japanese. Sentence ending particle っ け is a sentence- 4) merely act as a connective between two clauses, similar
ending particle used when you are asking a question to to the use of the て form for this function
18 ちなみに incidentally, by the way confirm something you had previously known, but can't
is a conjunction which is used to add recall. It may also be used to create a rhetorical, self- Verb.masu-stem + つつ
supplementary information which is not necessarily on the directed question.
topic but still related to what is being discussed. ちなみに っけ"replaces か, かな かしら, etc. at the end of the 1. お酒の飲み過ぎは体によくないと知りつつなか
is also used to ask for supplementary information. It is sentence it modifies. なかやめられない。
roughly equivalent to ”incidentally,” ”by the way” or ”for Although I know that drinking too much alcohol is
your information” in English. 1. 明日は何曜日だっけ？ harmful to my health, I just cannot quit.
What day is tomorrow, again? 2. この会社の業績は、回復しつつある。
ちなみに + sentence. 2. 彼女の誕生日はいつだっけ？ This company is on its way to improving business
When is her birthday, again? performance.
1. 今日宿題を忘れた生徒が 10 人もいました。ちな 3. 彼はもう国に帰ったっけ？
みに全員男子です。 I can't remember... Did he already go back to his 21 ては if; when; because
There were as many as 10 students who forgot their home country?" is a conjunction which presents an action/state
homework today. Incidentally, all of them are boys. as a topic about which a negative comment is given.
2. こんな高級車は買えないから興味ないけど、ち 20 つつ -ing; while; although
なみに、いくらですか。 is a conjunctive particle that attaches to the - 1) te form of V は
眠っては when/if one sleep; to sleep
2) te form of Adj(i/na) は The copula だ is a contracted (and therefore 24 とうとう in the end, never
小さくては when/if s.t./s.o is small less polite) form of で あ る . However, there are some is an adverb indicating the finality of something
3) N では differences in usage. Most importantly, である cannot be occurring or not occurring.
風邪では if s.o. is cold used to form an attributive (it cannot precede a noun). Like all Japanese adverbs, とうとう precedes
Thus, da can replace the final である, but not the first で the verb that it modifies.
1. こんなに忙しくては、いずれ病気になってしま ある of the following sentence.
います。 1. とうとう彼は殺された。
When I'm this busy, I usually get sick. 健康である限り、働き続けるべきである。 In the end, he was killed.
2. 会社の人が皆わがままでは、会社はやってはい As long as you are healthy, you ought to keep working. 2. ずいぶん待ったがとうとう来なかった。
けません。 I waited quite a while, but she never came.
If everyone in a company is selfish, a company cannot 23 であろう probably
get along well. is an auxiliary form of the Japanese copula であ 25 ところ about to, in the midst of, just did,
3. そんなに走り込んでは、大会前に体を壊してし る, used to express that the speaker's statement is merely almost did
まいますよ。 conjecture. It is also used as a softening device. is a noun meaning "place" that, through
If you run too much, you will ruin your health before [V, adj-i].inf + であろう Japanese interpretation of Chinese literature, has also
the tournament. Adj-na.stem + であろう acquired the meaning of "state" or “result." When
Noun + であろう modifying a verb, adjective or noun, と こ ろ is used to
22 である be (formal, written Japanese copula) indicate the exact time or circumstances under which an
is a formal copula mainly used in written Japanese. It 1. 不用意な言葉は大きな災いのもとになるであろ action occurs (or almost occurred).
conjugates the same as other ある class verbs. う。 The meaning of と こ ろ depends on the tense
Thoughtless speech may give rise to great disaster. and aspect of the word that precedes it:
1. 我々の旅行の目的は新しい工場を見学すること 2. しかし、我々が完全に理性的であるなら、子供 -After a verb in plain present form, it means "to be on the
である。 を欲しいと思うであろうか。 verge of doing something"
The purpose of our trip is to visit a new factory. But if we were wholly rational, would we want -After a verb in plain past form, it means "to have just
2. すべての人は法律に従うべきである。 children at all?" done something"
Everybody is bound to obey the laws. -After a verb in present progressive form, it means "to be
3. 問題は彼が私たちに同意するかどうかである。 であろう is used primarily in written Japanese. "だろう" in the midst of something"
The question is whether he'll agree with us. is the spoken form. -After a verb in past progressive form, it means "to have
been in the midst of something" ところ and とき differ in that the former represents ""underground,"" but in America, the word
-After adjectives,ところ means "to be in the state of the a state, while the latter represents a time. ""subway"" is used."
adjective"
-After nouns that represent time spans, such as 週末, とこ 26 ところが and then; however, but When と こ ろ が is used in the first sense
ろ is used to represent that period of time, or the state that (sometimes shortened to と こ が ) is a described above ("and then"), the が is optional, and it
existed during that time equivocally conjunctive particle used with one of two possible may be shortened simply to ところ.
ところ may be followed by the copula, or any meanings:
one of the particles が, で, に, へ or を 1. In resultative sentences, と こ ろ が is used to signify 27 ところで even if
that the cause that follows it occurs after, and as a result is a particle that follows verbs in plain past
i-Adjective ところ of, the clause that precedes it, or form, roughly equivalent to the Japanese ても form, and
na-Adjective + na + ところ 2. It is used to represent that something unfavorable, and the English phrase "even if". However, と こ ろ で " is
Noun + no + ところ contrary to one's expectations, has occurred. limited in its usage. It may only be used when the
Verb.plain ところ ところが (but not とこが) may also be used as presupposition made, or the predicted result is something
a conjunction at the beginning of a sentence, in which negative or undesirable.
1. 仕事に出かけようとしているところ へ電話が case, it implies that the occurrence of something contrary
鳴った。 to the speaker's expectations. It always follows verbs in Verb.plain-past + ところで
I was about to leave for work when the telephone their plain past form.
rang. 1. 朝早く起きたところで、家を出る時間は変わら
2. 彼は危ないところを助けてくれた。 Verb.plain-past + ところが ないでしょう。
He saved me from a dangerous situation. Sentence-1。ところが、Sentence-2。 Even if I were to wake up early in the morning, I
3. お忙しいところをご来社いただきありがとうご wouldn't be able to get out of the house any earlier.
ざいました。 1. 有名な選手の試合があるというので見に行った。 2. 栄養補助剤を飲んだところで、すぐ元気になる
Thank you for taking the time out of your busy ところが、その選手は下手でがっかりした。 わけじゃない。
schedule to pay a visit to our company. Because I'd heard that there was going to be a match If you take dietary supplements, that doesn't
4. とても寒かったので、一行は 凍死するところ between some famous players, I went to see it. But, necessarily mean you'll get healthy right away.
だった。 they played so poorly... I was disappointed.
It was very cold, and the party were almost frozen to 2. イギリスでは地下鉄のことを underground と言う 28 となると if ~~ is true; where ~~ is
death. ところが、アメリカでは subway と言う。 concerned
In England, the 地 下 鉄 is called the is a conjunctive phrase meaning "if the
preceding condition holds true, then so does the following of the test.
outcome", or "where the preceding item is concerned, the 1. タバコを吸う人が早く死ぬとは限らない。
following statement holds true". Smokers do not necessarily die young. 30 と共に as well as; with; at the same time
となると follows nouns and complete clauses. 2. 結婚すれば幸せになれるとは限らない。 とともに is a compound word composed of the
You will not necessarily be happy if you get married. particles と and に , and the word と も meaning
Noun + となると "together."
Clause + となると 3. 彼が土、日も忙しいとは限らない。 When to と み に follows uninflectable words,
He's not necessarily busy every Saturday and Sunday. such as nouns, it means ""together with"". (Example
1. 彼は討論となると誰にも劣らない。 4. １２月に雪が降るとも限らない。 Sentence #3.) When it follows inflectable words, such as
He is second to none when it comes to debating. There is no guarantee that it will snow in December. verbs (including the copula), it means "at the same time"
2. 母が来ないとなると誰か他の人を呼ばないとい or "as well as".
けない。 とはかぎらない vs. ともかぎらない
If my mother isn't going to come, I'll have no choice と は is a compound particle used to mark an Noun + と共に
but to call someone else. event, action, or state that is unexpected or surprising and Verb.plain-nonpast + と共に
causes people to have some emotional reaction. Both とは Noun/Adj(na)stem + である + と共に
29 とはかぎらない not always; not necessarily and とも can be used. By using とも, you can emphasize Adj(i)inf-nonpast + と共に
Usually, you use とは限らない or とも限らな the preceding phrase. In the second example sentence, the
い in the form, "clause + とは限らない" or "clause + と meaning implied is that one ""might get the flu on the day 1. 彼はサッカー選手であると共に医者でもある。
も 限 ら な い " to mean that what is described in the of the test."" When talking about an event that is extreme He is a football player, as well as a medical doctor.
preceding clause is not necessarily the case or not and not likely to happen such as this one, speakers usually 2. この論文は挑戦的な内容であると共に論争の余
necessarily true. use とも限らない. 地のあるものである。
This thesis contains controversial and challenging
Formation: Examples: content.
The clause preceding とはかぎらない or ともかぎらな 彼らが、明日の試合に絶対勝てるとは限らない。 3. 同志と共に歩む。
い should be in the informal form. 限 ら な い is the We can't assume that they will win tomorrow's game. I'm walking with a friend.
negative form of the verb 限る, which means "to limit."
So literally, it means, "not limited to [what is described in 試験の日に、インフルエンザにかからないとも限ら 31 と言うのに but; although; in spite of
the clause]." ない。 と いう のに , an idiomatic usage of the "noni"
Informal clause + とは限らない／とも限らない You can't rule out the possibility of getting flu on the day conjunction, is a conjunction to indicate that an
action/state takes place quite contrary to one's complete words or phrases, or being used in sentence-
expectations. initial position. 35 どころか not only, far from, much less
is a conjunction used as a conjunction used to
1. 明日は口頭試験だというのに、まだ何も準備し Word + と言っても strongly emphasize the statement that follows it.
てません。 Phrase + と言っても Because the emphasis is on the statement that
Even though I have an oral examination tomorrow, I Sentence-1 + と言っても + Sentence-2. follows ど こ ろ か , the statement that precedes is
haven't started preparing at all. interpreted on this basis. Therefore, ど こ ろ か may
2. もう寝る時間だというのに、息子はまだテレビ 1. もう夏だ。しかし、夏と言ってもイギリスの夏 connect two statements that seemingly agree with each
を見ています。 は暑いとは限らない。 other (as in example sentence #1) or two statements that
Bedtime has come and gone, but my son is still It's already summer. But even though I say "summer," seemingly conflict with each other (example sentences #2
watching TV. English summers are not always hot. and #3). When conflicting statements are joined, the
2. 宝くじが当たりました。と言っても 1 万円です connotation of the statement following ど こ ろ か is
32 と言うより rather than; more〜than〜 が。 always adopted.
と い う よ り （ は ） is a phrase that is used to I won the lottery. Well, I say that, but it was only 10- どころか directly follows verbs (in plain non-
provide a more accurate phrasing. thousand yen. past form), adjectives and nouns. The な after な
adjectives is optional.
1. 今年の冬は寒いというよりは涼しかった。 34 どうせ anyway, at any rate, might as well
It's probably better to say that this winter was "cool" is an adverb used to indicate the speaker's i-Adj, inf nonpast + どころか
rather than "cold." feeling that a given outcome has already been decided, na-Adj, stem/Noun + どころか
2. この景色は美しいというよりは幻想的だ。 and changing it is beyond his/her control. It often
I'm inclined to call this scenery "wondrous" rather indicates the speaker's disappointment in having resigned 1. なお子はアメリカに行ったことがないどころか
than "beautiful." himself/herself to fate. 日本を出たこともない
Not only has Naoko never been to America, she's
33 と言っても although; I say that, but... 1. どうせ行くんでしょ。 never even left Japan.
といっても is a phrase used to introduce new Anyway, whatever I say, you're going to go. 2. 今年の冬は寒いどころか暖かかった。
material that contradicts with what one has just said. It 2. どうせじきに分かることです。 Winter this year was far from being cold; it was
may be used to clarify a previous statement, if the speaker You'll find out sooner or later anyway. actually warm.
feels that it might be misleading. 3. どうせ英語を習うなら徹底的に学びなさい。 3. この焼き肉はおいしいどころか火が通っていな
と い っ て も acts as a conjunction, following At any rate, if you learn English, study it thoroughly. くて食べられなかった。
 That yakiniku was far from delicious. It was so attributive form of い-adjectives. The tense of the ながら It is most commonly used by parents or teachers when
undercooked that I couldn't even eat it. clause is determined by the tense of the clause that follows speaking to the children for whom they are responsible.
it.
36 どんなに〜ことか how incredibly ~! The emphatic particle も may follow ながら to Verb.masu-stem なさい
is an emphatic expression used to indicate a add extra emphasis on the contrasting information.
surprisingly high level of emotion on the part of the 1. 早く部屋を掃除しなさい。
speaker. i-Adjective + i + ながら Hurry up and clean your room.
na-Adjective ながら 2. 私の言うことをちゃんとききなさい！
どんなに + i-Adjective. inf. + ことか Noun ながら Listen to what I say!
どんなに + na-Adjective.stem + な/だった　ことか Verb.masu-stem ながら 3. 夕飯までには帰ってきなさいよ。
Get back home before dinner.
1. 司法試験に合格することがどんなに難しいこと 1. 失業問題もさることながら、環境問題も大切だ。
か。 While unemployment problems can't be ignored, Although it is possible for other forms of the verb な
How incredibly difficult it is to pass the bar exam! environmental issues are also very important. さる to suffix to ます stems　of other verbs, the なさい
2. 海外の大学を卒業することがどんなに大変なこ 2. 彼は、結婚するためにイランに帰るかもしれな form is easily the most common.
とか当時の僕にはわからなかった。 いと言いながらも、日本から帰った後の彼の計
At that time, I had no idea how incredibly difficult 画は依然としてめどが立っていない。 39 べき should, ought to, must
graduating from a foreign university could be. Although he says he might return to Iran to get is a particle used to indicate the action that one
married, his plans for after he leaves Japan are up in should take, or the state that something should be in.
37 ながら but, while, although the air. べ き directly follows verbs in plain, non-past
is a conjunctive particle that is extremely similar 3. 若いながら気が利いている。 form. The する in する verbs may be shortened to す, as
to the English word "while". Like "while", な が ら has He's young, but he's on the ball. seen in example sentence #3.
two distinct connotations, in that it can be used to indicate It is negated by suffixing a negated form of the
that two events are concurrent and related (see な が ら 38 なさい command copula, also demonstrated in example sentence #3.
(1)"), or, when clear from context, that two events are is the imperative form of the polite honorific
concurrent and contradictory. verb なさる. When suffixed to the ます stem of another Verb-plain.nonpast + べき
When used in the former sense, ながら directly verb, it acts as an auxiliary, expressing a polite imperative.
follows uninflectable words (i.e. nouns and な-adjectives), Although なさい is a polite form, it should not 1. 君は医者の忠告に従うべきだ。
the ま す stems of verbs and auxiliary verbs, and the be used if the listener is higher in status than the speaker. You should follow the doctor's advice.
2. 佐藤君が失敗するなんて驚くべきことだ。
It's surprising that Mr. Sato should fail.
3. 人は外見で判断すべきではない。
You shouldn't judge people by their looks.
Because べき is an expression of one's duty or
obligation, and should not be used when speaking to
people who are higher in rank or status than the speaker.
40 もの because, how, used to, should like
is a particle that can be used in either sentence-
final position, or as a conjunction to indicate a reason for
something. The reason is often one that is emotional, and
that emotion should be one that has existed for a long
period of time.
When used in sentence-final position, も の
often indicates feelings of dissatisfaction.
も の follows the predicative forms of
inflectable words.
Sentence + もの
1. この本、読みたくない。だって、むずかしいん
だもの。
I don't want to read this book because it's difficult.
2. A: どうしてその服、買わないんだい。
A: Why aren't you going to buy those clothes?"
This expression is often written in hiragana
only.
41 ものなら if one can do something
is a conjunction used to express a hypothetical
situation that is unlikely to happen. The pattern is usually:
"[potential form of verb] + ものなら" which means　"if
one can do something." By using this expression it is
implied that the speaker doesn't believe or is not sure that
the action that precedes ものなら)will happen.
When an imperative sentence follows も の な
ら, it means that the speaker is challenging the listener to
the action mentioned, while highly doubting that they will
be able to do it. (See the first and second example
sentences)
Verb. potential non-past form + mono nara
1. 俺たちに勝てるものなら、勝ってみろ！
If you can beat us, do it!
2. そんな短い間にやせられるもんなら、やせてみ
ろよ！
If you can lose weight in such a short period of time,
do it!
3. 宇宙へ行けるものなら、行ってみたい。
If I could go to the universe, I would love to.
4. 生まれ変われるものなら、今度は男になりたい。
If I could be born again, I would like to be a man.
42 わけだ the reason is that, for that reason
is a phrase which presents a reason for
something. In sentences where it is used as 「 ～ わ け
だ 」 , what comes directly before wake ( わ け ) is the
conclusion or deduction that the speaker has reached, in
relation to the previous sentence. When de (the – て form
of the copula) is used in place of da, this expression may
be used as an introduction to a subsequent statement,
which is the conclusion to the statement preceding wake
(わけ).
わけ acts as a dependent noun, and is preceded
by adjectives, verbs in their plain forms, and nouns
(followed by the である copula.)
Verb.informal-form + わけ
i-Adjective. informal form + わけ
na-Adjective/Noun + な/だった + わけだ
1. 母さんに、うそがばれたらしい。道理で、怒っ
ているわけだ。
Apparently Mom found out that I had lied. No wonder
she's angry.
2. 雪が降っているよ。道理で、寒いわけだ。
It's snowing! That's why it's so cold.
3. 田中君、居眠りしているよ。道理で、静かなわ
けだ
Tanaka-kun is sleeping! No wonder he's so quiet.
43 わけだ In other words...
can be used when you are rephrasing a sentence
to make it more understandable. The adverb つまり other
words is often used together when wake is used to
rephrase something. talking about. Put another way, わけだ would not be used expressions before わけだけど/わけだが are facts that
in a situation where the listener has no knowledge of what both the speaker and the listener are aware of.
Verb.informal-form + わけだ the speaker is talking about. This usage of わ け can be
i-Adjective. informal form + わけだ replaced with the explanatory particle no (の). Verb.informal-form + わけだが
na-Adjective/Noun + な/だった + わけだ i-Adjective. informal form + わけだが
Verb.informal-form + わけだ na-Adjective/Noun + な/だった + わけだが
1. 明日、ジョンは、アメリカへ帰るらしい。しば i-Adjective. informal form + わけだ
らく会えなくなるわけだ。 na-Adjective/Noun + な/だった + わけだ 1. 日本に来て 1 年が経つわけですが、どこにも旅
Apparently John's going back to America tomorrow. 行に行っていません。
That means we won't be able to see him for a while. 1.「元気ないね。どうしたの。」「この前、彼女に "It's been a year since I came to Japan, but I haven't
2.「このクイズは、僕でも解けたよ。」「つまり、 振られちゃって。。落ち込んでるってわけ。」 travelled at all."
だれでも解けるってわけだ。」 “You don't look happy. What's up?” 　 “ I recently 2. 俺たちは、試合に負けたわけだけど、一生懸命
　　“Even I was able to figure out that quiz!” “So you broke up with my girlfriend... so I'm feeling down.” やったから悔いはない。
mean anybody can solve it then.” 2.「彼と仲直りした？」「そのつもりだったのに、 So (as you know) we lost the game, but we did our
3.「わたしの父は、人の意見はまったく聞かない人 また、違うことでけんかしちゃったわけ。。。」 best, so we have no regrets.
だ。」「つまり、頑固おやじなわけだ。」 “Did you make up with him?”　“I meant to, but then 3. 富士山は、日本一高い山なわけだけど、日本一
“My dad never listens to what other people have to we started fighting about something else...” 美しい山でもある。
say.”　“In other words, he's a stubborn old man.” 3.「何で、彼と一緒に歩いてたの？」「駅で偶然 "As you are well aware, Mt. Fuji is the tallest
4.「彼の部屋には絶対入りたくないよ。」「それほ 会っただけで、彼と会ったのは、本当に 1 年振り mountain in Japan, but it is also the most beautiful.""
ど汚いわけだ。」 だったわけ。」 4. 彼女は、クラスで一番かわいいわけだけど、俺
“I don't want to go into his room at all.”　“You mean “Why were you walking with him?” “I ran into him at the は好きじゃないな。
it's that bad, huh?” station, and it had been a whole year since I last saw him, "She's the cutest girl in the class (as you know), but I
so...” don't really like her."""
44 わけだ Explaining a situation
When the speaker is explaining a situation or 45 わけだが As you know... 46 一方 more and more
retelling a series of events to the listener, わけだ can be When trying to explain something, we can use いっぽう when suffixed to a verb, indicates an
used at the end of a sentence. the variation「～わけだが、」「～わけだけど、」 in unreversing tendency for an action to occur in the
As seen in the examples below, it is used by the informal Japanese) as a phrase that prefaces what is going indicated direction. Verb.plain-nonpast + 一方
speaker when the listener knows what the speaker is to be explained. In the following examples, the
1. 水かさは増す一方だ。 host at Shinjuku's Kabuki-cho.
The water level is continuing to rise. 3. ボブさんの話ではこうだ。一方、田中さんはこ Verb.plain-past 上で
2. 成績はよくなる一方だ. う言っている。 Noun の上で
My grades are only getting better. That's what Bob says. But on the other hand, this is
what Tanaka says." 1. 企画書をよく読んだ上で結論を出して下さい
Read the planning paper carefully, and make your
47 一方で(は)〜他方で(は)〜 on the one 48 上 about, as relates to, because of, -wise decision based on what you've read.
hand〜, on the other hand〜 じ ょう is a suffix which indicates the idea of 2. 調査の上で回答するよう統計書をピーターに回
いっぽうでは~ たほでは~~ is a structure used "about", "as relates to" or "because of". It is similar to the した。
to compare contrasting actions, information or states. English suffix "-wise". I handed the statistics over to Peter, and told him to
Use of the で and は particles is optional, and じ ょ う suffixes directly to nouns, creating a examine them and get back to us.
in fact, the entire structure can be replaced by a single compound noun that can be used as an adjective by
instance of い っ ぽ う placed between the contrasting suffixing it with the possessive particle の 50 以上 since, now that, once, as long as
statements as a conjunction. (See formation sentence #2 Noun + 上 い じ ょ う is a conjunction that indicates the
and example sentence #3.) speaker's feeling that there should be a logical and natural
1) 一方、A。他方、B。 (On the one hand, there's A. 1. このテレビ番組は倫理上、問題がある。 connection between what precedes the conjunction and
But on the other hand, there's B.) Ethics-wise, there are some issues with this TV what follows it. Because it indicates only a logical
2) A。一方、B。 (A. But on the other hand, there's also program. connection, its English translation varies tremendously
B.) 2. 政治家は自らの行動に対する道義上の責任を回 based upon the context in which it is used.
避するきらいがある。 In this usage, い じ ょ う is often followed by
1. 太郎は、一方では大学で勉強しながら、他方で Politicians often have the dirty habit of avoiding the topic-marking particle は
は、会社を経営している。 ethical responsibility for their own actions.
Taro studies at a university on the one hand and Veb. inf + 以上
manages his own company on the other. 49 上で upon〜; after〜 N である + 以上
2. たかしは、一方では愛妻家だが、他方では、新 う え で is a compound particle that is used to
宿歌舞伎町のアイドルホストとして知られてい indicate that the clause that follows it happens after (and 1. イギリスの大学に来た以上はちゃんと卒業した
る。 based on information, etc. obtained from) the clause that い。
Takashi is a devoted husband on the one hand, but on precedes it. It follows verbs in plain past form, and nouns Since I came to university in the U.K., I want to
the other hand, he is also known as a well-known idol with the particle の. properly graduate.
2. 社会人である以上は働くべきだ。 打撃を被った。
So long as you are full member of society, you should This summer was cold. Therefore, seaside clubhouses 1) しだい may suffix nouns, creating a conjunction that
work. suffered a huge financial loss. expresses conditionality based on the condition/inclination
2. 日本の女の子はお洒落な子が多い。したがって of the root noun. This pattern is often used in the form "A
51 以外 outside of, other than, besides 彼女達は海外でよくもてる。 は B しだいだ" or "A は B しだいで ~~".
いがい is a dependent noun which means There are many stylish girls in japan. So they are very 2) しだい may suffix the ます stem of a verb, or to a
"outside of" or "other than." It directly follows nouns, and popular overseas." noun capable of acting as a す る verb, creating a
can be used as an adjective (by suffixing the particle の) compound meaning "as soon as this action takes place."
or an adverb (by suffixing the particle の). 53 得る possible; -able
え る is an auxiliary verb that expresses Noun 次第
Noun 以外の possibility or potential. It suffixes to the ま す stems of Verb.masu-stem 次第
Noun 以外に verbs.
う る is the literary form of え る It does not 1. 試験に受かるかどうかはあなたの努力と運次第
1. 私はサッカー以外の趣味はありません。 have its own negative form, making えない (the negative ですよ。
I don't have any hobbies outside of soccer. of える) its de facto negative. Whether you pass the exam or not depends on your
2. 韓国以外にどこかアジアの国に行ったことがあ effort and your luck.
りますか。 Verb.masu-stem + 得る (うる／える) 2. 家に戻り次第、すぐにお電話を差し上げます。
Have you been to any Asian countries outside of Verb.masu-stem + 得ない (えない) As soon as I get home, I will call you."
Korea?"
1. この状況では彼が裏切ることも十分にあり得る。 55 致します to do (humble version)
52 従って therefore; accordingly; consequently With him in this condition, it is quite possible that he いたします is the ます form of the humble
したがって is a conjunction that indicates that will betray us. version of する; to do. いたす is the plain form, but it is
the statement that follows it necessarily follows from the 2. 人生はどんなことでも起こり得る。 almost always used in the ま す form. 　 It is an
statement that precedes it. Anything is possible in the life of man." expression that puts the speaker's action in a lower
したがって is used in sentence-initial position. position to show respect to the receiver of the action.
54 次第 depending on; as soon as Just like する, it can be used on its own or in a compound
Sentence-1。したがって Sentence-2。 しだい is a noun meaning "order", "prerequisite" verb like 運転いたします
or "(historical) circumstances". It is often used to form a
1. 今年の夏は冷夏だった。したがって海の家は大 conjunction in one of the two following ways: 1. お部屋にご案内いたします。
 I will show you to your room. 2. 大学入学には勉強量は言うまでもなく、集中力 Getting through the prelims was a piece of cake.
2. 当店は、3 時に開店いたします。 も大切な要素である。
We will open at 3 o'clock. In order to get into university, you need concentration, 58 訳ではない doesn't mean that; not necessarily
3. ご自宅に配達をいたします。 and, needless to say, you need to do a lot of studying. わけはない is a phrase which is used to deny
We will deliver it to your house. 3. いうまでもなく、正直は最良の策である。 that the statement that precedes it is not necessarily a
It goes without saying that honesty is the best policy." logical conclusion. It may be used to deny something
This is a humble expression that is used in formal equivocally.
speech. Words with honorific お～or ご～ are often used 57 訳がない there is no reason why わ け functions as a dependent noun, and is
together with いたします わ け が な い is a phrase which indicates the preceded a verb in plain form, an adjective, or a noun
lack of a reason to believe something, or that a given (followed by the である copula.)
result does not follow from some line of reasoning.
わ け acts as a dependent noun, and follows i-Adjective + i + わけではない
56 言うまでもなく needless to say; not to verbs in plain form, adjectives, and nouns (followed by na-Adjective + na + わけではない
mention the である copula.) Noun + である + わけではない
いうまでもなく is an adverbial phrase implying Verb.plain-form + わけではない
that one need not say something, because it is obvious. i-Adjective + i + わけがない
It may be used in sentence-initial position, in na-Adjective + na + わけがない 1. 彼女の面倒をよく見ているけれど、彼女のこと
which case it indicates that what follows is it is obvious Noun であるわけがない を好きなわけではない。
(Example Sentence #3), or it may follow the topic- Verb.plain-form わけがない I often look after her, but it doesn't mean that I love
marking particle は , in which case, it indicates that the her.
clause that preceding the は is obvious (Example 1. こんな大変な仕事が君に出来るわけがない。 2. あなたの意見に反対するわけではないが、賛同
Sentence #1 & #2). There is no way you can do such a hard job. もしません。
2. よしがプロのダンサーであるわけがない。 I don't necessarily disagree with you, but I don't agree
Noun-phrase はいうまでもなく There's no way that Yoshi is a professional dancer." with you either.

1. この仕事は速読は言うまでもなく、書くスピー When わ け acts as an independent noun, this 59 訳 に は い か な い can't very well; have no
ドも要求される。 expression indicates that something occurs easily. choice but to
This job requires speed writing, not to mention fast わけにはいかない is a phrase indicating that
reading. 予選の通過はわけがない。 someone cannot do something due to some external
circumstance. It precedes verbs in their plain form. I didn't study for some time; then contrary to
When it follows verbs in plain affirmative form, expectations, my grades got better. 62 際 when; if; on the occasion of
it is often translated as "can't very well ~~". When it 2. 彼女の事がとても好きなのに、逆に嫌われてし さい is a dependent noun used in formal
follows verbs in their plain negative form, it is often まった。 Japanese to represent the possibility that something will
translated as "have no choice but to ~~" I really like her, but (contrary to my expectations) she occur, or the time that it actually does occur.
[ Verb.plain + わけにはいかない ] hates me." It is often used adverbially in the form "~~ (no)
さいに".
1. 来月に大会が控えているから、今月は練習を休 61 通り（に） the same way as; (in) the さ い follows verbs directly, and nouns (with
むわけにはいかない。 way; as the possessive particle の).
There's a tournament next month, so there's no way I とおり（に）is a noun meaning "way". When
can take a break from training this month. combined with the particle に , it creates an adverbial さ い may also be used in the adverbial
2. 今夜は父親の還暦祝いだから家に帰らないわけ form. と お り expresses the idea that someone does expression にさいして, which means "on the occasion of
にはいかない。 something or something takes place in the same way as ~~".
Tonight is my dad's 60th birthday, so I have no choice something else.
but to go home [where the party is]. と お り is used as a dependent noun in this Noun の際
context, following verbs in plain form, adjectives, and Verb.plain-nonpast 際
60 逆に contrary to one's expectation, nouns (followed by the particle の). Verb.plain-past 際
conversely と お り may also suffix directly to nouns, in Noun に際して
ぎ ゃ く に is an adverb used to introduce an which case it is pronounced どおり.
event which takes place contrary to one's 1. この薬を服用する際には、説明書をよくお読み
expectation/intention, or something stated in the preceding i-Adjective + i + 通り(に) 下さい。
sentence or clause. na-Adjective + na + 通り(に) When taking this medicine, please read the
ぎ ゃ く に is used in sentence-initial or clause- Noun の通り(に) instructions carefully.
initial position. When used in clause-initial position, it Verb.plain 通り(に) 2. この際、私が直接うかがって交渉してみます。
often follows the～たら form of a verb or a contrastive On this important occasion, I will negotiate with them
conjunction such as のに. (Example sentences #1 and #2.) 1. 結果は予想した通りではなかった。 myself.
The result was not what I had expected.
1. しばらく勉強しなかったら、逆に学校の成績が 2. この説明書の通りにやってください。 63 風 manner; style
よくなった。 Please do it as indicated in the manual." ふ う is an expression used to indicate manner,
style, fashion, etc. It is frequently combined with either Hurry up and clean that mold-covered floor.
the particle に to create an adverb meaning "in such-and- Masu Stem + がいがある 4. この都市はゴミだらけだ。
such manner" or the particle の to create an adjective This city is full of trash."
meaning "such-and-such style". 1. あなたは、いっぱい食べてくれるから、作りが
ふう acts as a normal noun, however, it can be いがあるわ。 だ ら け does not necessarily have a negative
suffixed to some nouns directly. (Example sentences #3 "You eat so much that the effort put into making it connotation, but can never have a positive one.
and #4.)" really pays off!"
2. たくさん作ったね！これは食べがいがあるよ 66 ～のに対して while one of them is ---, the
1. 居酒屋は日本風のパブのことです。 "Wow, you made a lot! This is definitely worth other is ---
An izakaya is a Japanese style pub. eating!" の に た い し て is used when describing the
2. あんな風に振る舞うなんて彼は気が狂ってるに difference in nature or characteristics of two things (in
違いない。 65 ～だらけ covered in; full of contrast to each other). It approximately means "while one
He must be crazy to behave like that. is a suffix used to indicate that something is of them is ---, the other is ---
3. こんな風にして私達は多くの時間を無駄にする。 covered with something (in a literal context) or full of
In this way, we will waste a lot of time. something (in a metaphorical context). It usually carries a Noun + な/だった + のに対して、[main clause]
negative connotation. Verb/i-adj.plain + のに対して、[main clause]
4. これがアメリカ風の生活様式だ。 だらけ directly follows nouns (never adjectives
This is the American way of life. or verbs), and is optionally followed by the particle の, in 1. 母は楽天的なのに対して、父は悲観的だ。
which case, the phrase that precedes it acts as an adjective. While my mother is optimistic, my father is
The kanji for ふ う may also be pronounced か ぜ pessimistic.
(meaning "wind"). The reading is normally easily selected Noun + だら 2. 東京では、3 月から 4 月に桜が咲くのに対して、
from context. 北海道では 5 月ごろに咲く。
1. 雨の中を歩いていたら靴が泥だらけになってし While Cherry blossoms bloom in March or April in
64 ～がいがある Worth it to do ~ まいました. Tokyo, they bloom in May in Hokkaido.
When you want to say that it is worth it to do When I walked through the rain, my shoes got 3. 日本では子供の数が減っているのに対して、他
something, you can attach kai (かい) to the ます stem of covered in mud. のアジア諸国では増えている。
a verb, as in 教 え が い が あ る , which means, "worth 2. 彼の素性は謎だらけです。 While the number of kids are decreasing in Japan, the
teaching." When used in this way, the pronunciation of kai His lineage is full of mysteries. number is increasing in the other countries in Asia."
(かい) changes to がい。 3. カビだらけの床を早く拭きなさい。
67 ～切る to finish doing something completely
き る is a verb meaning "to cut" in general.
When used as an auxiliary verb along with a verb
indicating a volitional action, it indicates "to finish doing
something completely."
食べる（to eat） 食べきる (to eat up)
読む（to read） 読みきる (to read -- through)
使う（to use) 使い切る (to use up)
It can be also used with a verb that does not
indicate a volitional action, such as 疲れる "get tired" or
困 る "get in trouble." In that case, it indicates that
someone or something gets completely into the state
expressed by the preceding verb. So,困りきる means "to
get in a lot of trouble" and 疲 れ き る means "to get
completely tired out" or "to be exhausted."
[ Verb masu-stem + kiru(きる) ]
1. 彼は、大盛りのカレーライス３杯を 1 時間で食
べきった。
He ate up three servings of large orders of curry rice
in one hour.
2. 僕は、あの 1,000 段の階段を上りきった。
I finished climbing 1,000 of those stairs.
3. あの海峡を泳ぎきるのは難しい。
It is tough to swim across that channel (completely)."
A similar is "verb +終える". The difference in That movie was so fun. It was worth the wait!"
nuance between "～きる" and "～おえる" is that when
you use " ～ き る ," you can emphasize that you do
something until the end and no more is left. On the other
hand, " ～ お え ろ " just expresses "to finish doing
something." For example, 飲 み き る can emphasize that
you've completely finished a drink and no more is left.
68 ～かいがある ～甲斐がある Worth it
to~
かい is a noun meaning, "worth someone's
efforts to do something." You often use it in the
expression, ~ したかいがあった to mean that by doing
something, one got good results.
When an action that you take yields a good result and
you want to talk about how the effort was worth it, use the
expression, V + か い が あ る . In this situation, use the
informal past tense form of the verb. You can also use a
noun indicating an action in the form of, noun +のかいが
ある, as in,勉強のかいがある. You see this in the second
example sentence below. The construction is　～のかい
があって、～した. V + かいがある)
1. 大学に受かりました！たくさん勉強した甲斐が
ありました！！
I passed the entrance exam for the university! It was
worth it, studying so much!!
2. あの映画はすごく面白かったです。待ってた甲
斐がありました！！