CHAPTER 5

LEARNING THEORIES RELATED TO

EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY
Teachers are now aware that teaching and learning can be enhanced by technology.
Likewise, technology begins to change the vision of education because it appears to be an
important component of a teaching-learning program. Nowadays, many teachers are using
technology along with the application of appropriate theories of learning.

Technology allows the students and teachers to live within the four pillars of education:
learning to be, learning to do, learning to live together, and learning to learn. Because of these,
Information and Communication Technology focused on computer assisted instructions. Both
teachers and students use the computer to learn new ideas and recent researches, which are
unknown and search about them. New innovation of technology is shaping the future of higher
education and influencing teaching methodologies. The globalization of technology continues to
change the way we live and work. Teaching and learning are more effective when technology is
added to the classroom and when used to improve students’ learning and to help them reach their
goals. Effective use of technology will benefit the learning process if it motivates the learner and
provides an authentic learning experience that continues beyond the virtual or physical
classroom. Also, teachers have to be aware of the interest students have in the technological
world and take this interest and use it as a means to develop competitive individuals for society,
the country and the world.

What is Learning?

The following diagram and discussion will make you realize what learning is:

LEARNING

PRODUCT- It involves relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge as a result of an

experience or practice.
PROCESS- It is a process of acquiring, remembering, and applying skills, knowledge, attitudes
and other modes of response.

The concepts about learning in the diagram exemplify that learning is both a process and
a product. It also emphasizes acquiring knowledge or skill after an experience and practice.

This is illustrated in the following:

 Clara does not usually eat ampalaya at home. Her teacher in Technology and Livelihood
Education showed a Powerpoint presentation about the food value of ampalaya such as
a good source of Vitamin A, Vitamin C, iron, and phosphorus. Following the lesson, the
class prepared recipes using ampalaya as the main ingredient. Because of this
knowledge, she started to eat ampalaya. Her mother was so glad to know that Clara
learned to eat vegetables.
 Ramon was amazed with the knowledge he learned from surfing the internet through his
computer. He obtained different views about the things he can access from the internet.
 David was taught to use the electronic mail by his teacher. He found that he could hear
fresh news from friends through e-mail. From then on, he checks his e-mail everyday and
sends e-mail to them.

Principles of Learning and their Application in the Classroom

Teachers make use of principles in designing classroom episodes. Classroom episodes are
the collection of activities to realize the intended learning outcomes. The following are the
principles of learning and how they can be applied in classroom setting.

Principles Intended Learning Outcome Classroom Episode

Learning by doing is more effective
than sitting and listening
present concepts in various ways
Show aesthetic sense through finger Encourage the students to move
painting freely like a wind blowing. Let the
students move their hands like
blowing wind. Students apply
finger painting on a cardboard
imitating how the wind blows
Explore the reaction Have the students pour cup of
of metal to acid. vinegar in an aluminum pot and let
it stand for 30 minutes to 1 hour

Learning is aided by formulating
and asking questions
More effort is put forth when tasks
are challenging
Explain how colors are produced
using primary colors.
Compare and contrast a cellphone
and a computer
and heat it. Pour the vinegar in a
glass and see what happened.
There's discoloration to the portion
of the pot where the vinegar was
heated. There's also a change in the
color of the vinegar.
Acid reacted on metal
Application: Do not use metal in
keeping fruit salad in the
refrigerator. The salad will be
spoiled. Why?
The fruit salad has pineapple which
is acidic. The pineapple will react
to the metal container, which will
give the salad a rancid taste.
The teacher asks the students how
colors are produced.
The Teacher asks the following
questions:
1. What are the primary colors?
2. Which color is produced if you
mix red and yellow? (students get
their water color and mix red and
yellow in a container)
3. Which color is produced when
you mix red and blue? (Students do
the same as in
number 2 but using red and blue
colors.)
4. Which color is produced when
you mix yellow and blue?
Some students hold on to their
cellphones and look at what they
 can do with it. Other students are
seated in front of a computer and
list what they can do with it.

Students with cellphone report their

list of can be done with the
cellphone and what service can be
obtained from it.

The same will be done by those in

front of the computer.

Students then summarize their

Readiness is related to the learner's
stage of development and their
previous learning
Describe the events that will
happen when there is a typhoon
findings.
Illustrate the effects of a strong
typhoon.
Write a story about what happens to
crop and plants when there is a
typhoon.

LEARNING THEORIES

How teachers view the role of technology and media in the classroom depends very much
on their beliefs about how people learn. Over the past half-century, there have been several
dominant theories of learning. Each has implications for instruction in general and for the use of
technology and media in particular. Driscoll (2005) discusses learning theories and their impact
on teaching decisions in greater detail.

The analysis and application of the learning theories will also determine the appropriate
technology application in classrooms to ensure the efficient and effective integration.
Technology made a lot of modifications on how teachers and students access, gather, analyze,
present, and transmit information by giving them more power in the classroom (Dooley, 1999).

Learning theories provide a pedagogical basis for understanding how students learn. As McLeod
notes:
Each theoretical perspective offers benefits to designers but the perspectives must be taken into
context depending upon the situation, performance goal(s), and learners. And since the context
in which the learning takes place can be dynamic and multi-dimensional, some combination of
the three learning theories and perhaps others should be considered and incorporated into the
instructional design process to provide optimal learning.

Behaviorism

Here are the key concepts about behaviorism and their relevance to educational technology.

Key Concepts

earning that focuses on objectively

 Behaviorism is a theory of animal and human learning that focus observable behaviors
and discounts mental activities. Behavior learning as nothing more than the acquisition of
new behavior.
 Experiments of behaviorists identify conditioning as a universal learning process. There
are two different types of conditioning, each yielding a different behavioral pattern:

1. Classic conditioning occurs when a natural reflex responds to a stimulus. The most
popular example is Pavlov's observation that dogs salivate when they eat or even see food.
Essentially, animals and people are biologically “wired” so that a certain stimulus will produce a
specific response.

2. Behavioral operant conditioning occurs when a response to a stir reinforced.

Basically operant conditioning is a simple feedback system: If a reward or reinforcement follows
the response to a stimulus, then the response becomes in the future. For example, leading
behaviorist B.F. Skinner used reinforcement techniques to teach pigeons to dance and bowl a ball
in a mini-alley.

In behaviorism, the learners are passive and just responding to stimuli. The teachers
design the learning environment. They shape the learners' behavior by positive and negative
reinforcement. The teacher presents the information, then the students demonstrate their
understanding from the teacher's presentation. Students assessment is in the form of tests.

In behaviorism, the following are the relevant educational technology which can be used.
1. Observation of learners are bases for identifying materials for reinforcing learning.

Example are cards, mathematics counters, pictures and charts to be used for learners who learn
best with the use of visuals.

2. Selecting stimulus. Some learners need varying stimuli in order to learn. There are learners
who learn faster by being exposed to real objects or actual experiences while others learn from
pictures and stories.

3. Educational technology used by the teacher can help elicit the outcomes which are easily
observed like use and production of proper words in writing a story, creating greeting cards for
special occasions, using the dictionary to get the word meaning throwing and catching ball
correctly in physical activities and other observable behavior which correspond to expected
outcomes.

4. Educational technology to be utilized in developing mastery learning can be used in

behavioral approaches. Students are repeatedly exposed to a technology until such

time that mastery of a skill, knowledge, and attitudes is manifested by the students.

5. Technology to promote motivation, classroom management, and special education

needs are also used in behaviorism. Example is the technology or art of storytelling to motivate
students to imbibe values like honestly, respect, patriotism, good classroom behavior like
orderliness and systematic presentation of assignment, good or proper eating habits,
thoughtfulness and cooperation.
Possible Learning Activities is Behaviorism

1. Instructional cues to elicit correct response. Examples are: hand signals, signages like

danger, speak softly, speak louder, forming circles or lines and direction (left, right, up,

down, forward, etc.)

2. Practice paired with target stimuli. Teachers can provide standards which the students

can follow for proper action and behavior like standards for reading properly, standard for
joining a field trip or safety rules when working in a laboratory.

3. Reinforcement for correct responses. The teachers can adopt varied ways to encourage

students to do well in class like praises, tap on the shoulder, a smile, ask the class to clap for
good deeds and many more acknowledgement of success in class work.

4. Building proficiency. The teacher can adopt ways to encourage students to be proficient in
communication skills, mathematics skills work skills and other class activities.

Cognitivism

Key Concepts

Cognitivism focuses on the "brain". It involves processing and storing information which
are very important in the process of learning. Cognitive structure which is called schema
constitutes the internal knowledge structure. Schema maybe combined, extended or altered to
show new information. Learners process, store, and retrieve information for later use-creating
associations and creating a knowledge set useful for living. The learner uses the information
processing approach to transfer and assimilate new information The teacher manages problem
solving and structured search activities, especially with group learning activities. The teacher
provides opportunities for students to connect new information to schema.

Relevance of Cognitivism to Educational Technology

With this idea, cognitivists believe that learning develops through receiving, storing, and
retrieving information. Instructional designers must analyse thoroughly and consider appropriate
tasks needed to allow learners to effectively and efficiently process the information they
received. Instructional material designers must consider the relevant learner characteristics that
will promote or impede cognitive processing of information such as the following:

 Conduct task analysis and learner analysis

 Create tests
 Create learning materials according to any of the Instructional Design Models

Constructivism

Key Concepts

Learning is an active process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based
upon their current/past knowledge, social interactions, and motivation which affect the
construction of knowledge, social interactions, and motivation.

Educators focus on making connections between facts and fostering understanding in students.
Instructors tailor their teaching strategies to student responses and encourage students to analyze,
interpret, and predict information. Teachers also rely heavily on open-ended questions and
promote extensive dialogue among students. Constructivism calls for the elimination of a
standardized curriculum. Instead, it promotes using curricula customized to the students' prior
knowledge. Also, it emphasizes hands-on problem solving.

Constructivism is a movement that extends beyond the ideas of cognitivism, considering

the engagement of students in meaningful experiences as the essence of experiential learning.
Shifting from passive transfer of information to active problem solving d discovery,
constructivists emphasize that learners create their own interpretations world of information.
They argue that students situate the learning experience within own understanding.
The role of instruction is to provide students with ways to assemble knowledge rather than to
dispense facts. Constructivists believe that learning occurs most effectively when students are
engaged in authentic tasks that relate to meaning contexts (1.e, learning by doing). The ultimate
measure of learning is therefore the ability of the student to use knowledge to facilitate thinking
in real life, an approach that fits with the learning abilities of 21” century learners need for an
uncertain future, in which they must solve problems that not only capitalize on their existing
knowledge but also require them to seek additional information or skills in finding effective
solutions.

Relevance of Constructivism to Educational Technology

Constructivism is characterized by open-ended expectation where results and methods of

learning themselves are easily measured and may not be consistent with each learner.

TECHNOLOGY UTILIZATION

Principles of Effective Instruction

As a classroom teacher, your role is to establish learning environments that foster the
defined outcomes for your learners. At times, those outcomes may be based on local or national
learning standards; at other times they may be based on negotiated outcomes with your
individual leaners. Whichever direction you take, you need to think continually about how to
engage your students in the learning process.

As educators continually seeking ways to improve our practice, it is important to consider

how to engage learners in their learning. Because one common feature across all classroom
Settings is the variety of learning levels and needs among students, it is also critical to determine
the best ways to meet the needs of all our learners. Teachers need to become skilled at
differentiating instruction to ensure that all learners are challenged adequately and appropriately
in their learning.

The following principles of effective instruction have evolved from a variety of sources.

1. Assess prior knowledge. Before you can properly provide instruction, you should

gather relevant information about each student's knowledge and skill level. You
need to know what knowledge your students already have learned. To learn from Opp most
materials and activities, students must possess prerequisite knowledge and skills. (Newby,
Stepich, Lehman, & Russell, 2010).

2. Consider individual differences. Learners vary in terms of personality general aptitude,

knowledge of a subject, and many other factors. Be aware of the multiple learning needs of your
students. For example, whether a language other than English is spoken in a child's home. You
need to consider the technology and media experiences your students have had and what
resources are essential to hell your students learn. Effective instruction allows individuals to
progress at different rates, cover different materials, and even participate in different activities
(Cooper Varma, 1997).

3. State objectives. For you and your students to know where instruction is going and what is to
be accomplished, the goals must be specified. Learning objectives must match expected
outcomes or standards (Mager, 1997).

4. Develop metacognitive skills. The skills of selective monitoring, evaluating, and adjusting
their approaches enhance students' learning and help to make them lifelong learners. Learners
need assistance in understanding how they learn and what resources help in that process.
(Nelson, 1992)

5. Provide social interaction. Teachers and peers serving as tutors or group members can
provide a number of pedagogical as well as social supports. Learners gain experience and
expertise when collaborating with others in and beyond the classroom. (Jonassen, Howland,
Marra, & Crismond, 2008)

6. Incorporate realistic contexts. Learners are most likely to remember and to apply authentic
knowledge presented in a real-world context. Rote learning leads to "inert knowledge"; that is,
learners know something but cannot apply it to real life, students benefit from understanding
how their knowledge and skills fit into the world around them (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking,
2000)

7. Engage students in relevant practice. The most effective learning experiences are those
requiring learners to practice skills that build toward desired outcome. Learner participation
increases the probability of Practice, especially in varying contexts, improves retention rate and
the to apply the new knowledge, skill, or attitude. Practice promotes deeper, longer lasting
learning (Morrison & Lowther, 2010).

8. Offer frequent, timely, and constructive feedback. Student learning requires accurate
information on misconceptions, misunderstandings, and weaknesses. Learners need to know if
their thinking is on track. Feedback may come from a teacher, a tutor, electronic messages from
a computer, the scoring system of a game, or oneself. In addition to knowing that responses are
incorrect need to know why they have been unsuccessful and how they can improve their
performance. Further, knowing details about their correct responses in how and why they are
accurate helps students understand more about what they have learned (Black & William, 1998).

Principles of Effective Technology Utilization

Teachers are expected to be competent in the use of technology in their teaching

(Bowing, D'Onofrio, & Marker, 2006). This is especially true when working with 21" century
learners and addressing the skills outlined for them, for which teachers not only need to use
technology effectively in their teaching but also need to guide students in using those tools to
enhance their learning. The advent of newer technologies requires critical decisions related to the
best tools to integrate into teaching.

The National Education Technology Standards for Students (NETS-S), noted in the
following list specifically outline expectations for students use of technology to guide their
learning (International Society for Technology in Education [ISTE), 2007).

 Creativity and Innovation

 Communication and Collaboration
 Research and Information Fluency
 Critical Thinking, Problem Solving, and Decision Making
 Digital Citizenship
 Technology Operations and Concepts

Many of these standards address the essential elements for success in acquiring 21"
century knowledge and skills. Teachers also have standards for acquiring these skills. These are
also provided by the ISTE namely:
  Student Learning and Creativity
 Digital-Age Learning Experiences and Assessments
 Digital-Age Work and Learning
 Digital Citizenship and Responsibility
 Professional Growth and Leadership

As a teacher, you will be expected to enhance students' abilities to engage in the use of
technology to support their learning and address these six areas of competency, also known as
technology literacy skills.

You can combine knowledge and skills related to content areas and information literacy
skills by using technology in ways that help students learn information and communicate
knowledge. For example, in a science lesson on weather, you can present a problem to your
students that will require them to search websites for data or information, use communication
tools to collaborate with outside experts, generate solutions to the problem collaboratively, and
present their ideas to classmates using creative resources. By approaching your instruction in that
manner, you have addressed many of the standards by which your students will be measured and
will be given guided practice in developing their knowledge and skills.

Principles of Effective Media Utilization

We are continually learning from multiple sources of media that provide us wis
information and challenge our thinking. As users of these sources, we need skills to know how to
access them, how to understand and analyze the content, and now create new media messages
(Stanbury, 2009)

Text, television, video, and a host of the other media sources that will be covered the
other media sources that will be covered within this textbook are all valid and vital sources of
information. Your role is to guide your students to use these media as sources for their learning
in ways that are wise sate, and productive. For example, students need to learn to find multiple
sources to verify facts they may have heard on the television news. They need to learn to be
critical users of these resources to ensure that they are well-informed and their conclusions are
accurate. As mentioned earlier, the ISTE NETS-S address many of the skills learners need to be
successful consumers of the media resources surrounding them.
Furthermore, your teaching approach should provide students with opportunities to explore how
to use these media resources to communicate their knowledge.

Principles of Effective Text Utilization

Text is everywhere in students' learning experiences. Text materials include textbooks

fiction and nonfiction books, newspapers, booklets, computer screens, magazines, study guides,
manuals, and worksheets, as well as word-processed documents prepared by students and
teachers. Textbooks have long been the foundation of classroom instruction The other forms of
technology and media discussed in this textbook are frequently used in conjunction with and as
supplements to text-based materials. The 21st century learner encounters text as part of daily
interactions with technology and media. The ability to use text as a means to gather information
or to communicate is known as text literacy. The two aspects to becoming literate in the use of
text as part of the learning process are and writing. Reading is the ability to look at text and
gather knowledge from the message. Writing is the ability to generate text through tools such as
pencils, pens, or communicate. Both skills develop over time and the technology and me teacher
can help address their development.

Advantages

 Availability. Text-based materials are readily available on a variety of to many different

formats.
 Flexibility. Text is adaptable to many purposes and may be used in any well-lit
environment.
 Portability. Texts are easily carried from place to place and do not require any equipment
or power supply.
 User friendly. Properly designed text materials are easy to use, requiring no special effort
to "navigate" through them.

Limitations

 Reading Level - The major limitation of text materials is the reading level needed for
comprehension. Some students are nonreaders. Others lack adequate literacy skills for
text materials above their reading level. Still other lack the prerequisite knowledge to
comprehend the vocabulary and terminology.
  Memorization - Some teachers require students to memorize many facts and definitions,
which diminishes text materials to mere memorization aids.
 Vocabulary - Some textbooks introduce a large number of vocabulary terms and
concepts in a short amount of space, placing a heavy cognitive burden on students, which
may be overwhelming for some.
 One way presentation. Because most text materials are not interactive, they tend to be
used in a passive way, often without comprehension.
 Curriculum determination. Sometimes textbooks dictate the curriculum rather than
supporting it. Textbooks are often written to accommodate the curriculum guidelines of
particular states or provinces. Consequently, the preferences of these authorities
disproportionately influence textbook content and its treatment.
 Cursory appraisal. Selection committees might not examine textbooks carefully.
Sometimes textbooks are chosen by the "five-minute thumb test" whatever catches the
reviewer's eye while thumbing through the textbook.

Integration

The most common application of text materials is presenting information. Students are
given reading assignments and held accountable for the material during class discussions and on
tests. Teacher-made handouts can also complement a teacher's presentation, or students may use
them to study independently. Students can use text materials to augment either teacher-presented
information or other forms of media. Students frequently refer to supplementary printed
materials (such as books and magazines from the media center) to locate information on a
specific topic not covered in their textbook.

Teachers need to understand the best ways to use text to facilitate learning. Designing
good text-based materials involves a few basic elements:

 Font choice. Remember to select a clear font that helps learners to read the information.
Select only one or two fonts; it is not necessary to use many different typefaces in a
single document. Keeping it simple and clean is best when selecting fonts for your text
materials.
 Background and patterns. When putting text on a page, website, or PowerPoint
presentation, use backgrounds that are not busy with distracting images. Don't scrimp on
the page margins or use of space. It is better to use double spacing and wide margins,
making it easy for leaners of all ability levels to read.
 Arrangement. Use space and text styles like bold and italics, to help your learners find
the information quickly and easily. By using headings and changes in texts styles, you
guide your learners through the material to help them garner the important information.
This is especially useful when you have challenged … your classroom.
 Check and revise. Always be sure to proofread your materials. Spell-check software
helps but is not perfect. You might mean to type the word "then" only to manage to type
"hen." Your spell-checker will accept this as correct, when the meaning is clearly
impacted by the misuse of the word. You should also carefully review and be prepared to
revise your phrasing of certain critical text such as instructions to help ensure that all
your students will understand the message correctly.

Text-based materials are used in all subject areas and with students of all ages
once they learn to read. The media center provides a variety of text on countless topics
and in almost every conceivable format. Guidelines and examples are found in When to
Use Text-Based Materials and Using Text Materials in the Classroom.

Evaluation

As a teacher, you will want to consider all the types of text based materials your
students will be encountering in your classroom as well as their individual rea You'll
want to be sure that they are able to read and comprehend the messages that they
encounter. Address your students' literacy levels by assessing their reading ability and
putting them into appropriate learning groups to develop reading and literacy skills.
Address materials by taking the time to evaluate all reading materials in your classroom.
For example, textbooks are often prepared at a general grade-specific reading level
without regard to the actual reading levels of individual children in your classrooms. You
will also want to be sure that your students can read other content area text and resources
 as well. You will find the selection rubric: text materials at the end of this chapter helpful
when you review text-based materials in your classroom.

When to Use Text-Based Materials

Use when student learning will be enhanced by ...

Guidelines
Reading text information for which they will be
held accountable
Supplementing teacher-presented material
Using handouts that guide them through learning
activities
Implementing the survey, Question, Read, Recite
and Review method (SQ3R)
Example
Students read an assigned article from an online
source.
Students use library books, encyclopedias, or
newspapers to add to their knowledge of a topic.
Students use a step-by-step guide to write a book
report.
Students survey, ask questions, read, recite, and
review printed information about the Bill of
Rights.

Using Text Materials

Get learners actively involved with the materials. One technique is to have students use
the "SQ3R" method: Survey, Question, Read, Recite, and Review.

Survey stage requires students to skim through the text material and read the overview and/or
summary.

 Question stage requires students to write a list of questions to answer while reading.
 Read stage, students are led to look for the organization of the material, put brackets
around the main ideas, underline supporting details, and answer the questions written in
the previous step.
 Recite requires them to test themselves while reading and to put the content into their
own words.
 Review suggests that the students look over the material immediately after reading it, the
next day, a week later, and so on (Robinson, 1946).
 Direct student reading with objectives or questions, and provide a worksheet if one is not
included with the materials.

Emphasize the use of visuals in text materials and teach students to study visuals in an effort to
increase their comprehension of the content.