Chapter 2: Fluid Statics

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 2. Fluid Statics
2.1 Pressure at a Point

• Pressure relates to the normal force per unit area at a given point
acting on a given plane within the fluid mass of interest.

𝑃 = 𝐹𝐴

• Fluid statics consider flows in which there are no shearing stresses.

• Absence of shearing stresses greatly simplifies our analysis!

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 2. Fluid Statics
2.1 Pressure at a Point

Pzsinθ
Pz

(θ
ds Pzcosθ
Px
dy
F=Px(dy.1) w
dx
F=Py(dx.1)
Py
• The forces acting on the fluid element may be obtained by the equation:

𝐹 = 𝑃. 𝐴

•  is arbitrarily chosen to fit the desired conclusion.

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 2. Fluid Statics
2.1 Pressure at a Point

• Forces in the x-direction: σ 𝐹𝑥 = 𝑃𝑥 𝑑𝑦. 1 − 𝑃𝑧 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑑𝑠. 1 = 0

𝑑𝑠. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑑𝑦

∴ 𝑃𝑥 = 𝑃𝑧

• Forces in the y-direction:

1
σ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝑃𝑦 𝑑𝑥. 1 − 𝑃𝑧 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝑠. 1 − 𝜌𝑔 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦. 1 = 0
2

𝑑𝑠. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑑𝑥, and weight is negligible small,

∴ 𝑃𝑦 = 𝑃𝑧

Thus, 𝑃𝑥 = 𝑃𝑦 = 𝑃𝑧

• The pressure at a point in a fluid at rest, or in motion, is independent of

direction as long as there are no shearing stresses. -Blaise Pascal

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 2. Fluid Statics

2.1 Pressure at a Point

The pressure applied to a confined fluid increases the

pressure throughout the fluid by the same amount.

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 2. Fluid Statics
2.2 Head of a Fluid
• Pressure in a fluid at rest
P0 changes with a vertical
distance.
Z0

෍ 𝐹𝑧 = 0

𝑝∆𝑥∆𝑦 − 𝑝0 ∆𝑥∆𝑦 − 𝜌𝑔∆𝑥∆𝑦∆𝑧 = 0

𝑝 − 𝑝0 = 𝜌𝑔∆𝑧

• ∆𝑧 is used as a measure of pressure and is called pressure head (h):

𝑝 = 𝑝0 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ

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 2. Fluid Statics

2.2 Head of a Fluid

• The vertical height of the fluid determines the pressure, irrespective of

the shape.

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 2. Fluid Statics

2.2 Head of a Fluid

• Pressures are given in many different sets of units (e.g. Pa, N/m2,
lbf/in2, dyn/cm2)

• A common method of expressing pressures is in terms of head in m (or

feet) of a particular fluid.

• The pressure head is the height of a column of fluid of density 

required to give a pressure difference (p – p0):

𝑝 − 𝑝0
ℎ=
𝜌𝑔

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 2. Fluid Statics

2.2 Head of a Fluid

2.2.1 Class Exercise

Given the pressure of 1 standard atm as 101.325 kN/m2:

a) Convert this pressure to head (in m) of water at 4°C.

b) Convert this pressure to head (in m) of Hg at 0°C.

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 2. Fluid Statics
2.3 Measurement of Pressure

• Pressure is designated as either absolute or gage pressure.

Pmeasured > Patm

Pmeasured < Patm

• Absolute, gage and vacuum pressures are related by:

𝑝𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 𝑝𝑎𝑏𝑠 − 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 or 𝑝𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑝𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 +𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚

𝑝𝑣𝑎𝑐 = 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 − 𝑝𝑎𝑏𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 − 𝑝𝑣𝑎𝑐

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 2. Fluid Statics
2.3 Measurement of Pressure
2.3.1 Barometric Pressure

• A barometer is used to measure

atmospheric pressure (Patm).

𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 𝑝𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ

• For most practical purposes, the contribution

of the vapor pressure can be neglected
because it is very small:

𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ = 𝛾ℎ

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 2. Fluid Statics
2.3 Measurement of Pressure
2.3.2 Class Exercise

A mountain lake has an average temperature of 10°C and a maximum

depth of 40 m. For a barometric pressure of 598 mm Hg, determine:

a) The gage pressure at the deepest part of the lake (in Pa).
b) The absolute pressure (in Pa).

2.3.3 Class Exercise

The tank and drainpipe in Fig. below are filled with gasoline and glycerin
to the depths shown.
a) Determine the pressure on the drain plug at C.
b)Determine the pressure head in meter of water. Take
density of gasoline = 726 kg/m3 and glycerin = 1260 kg/m3.

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 2. Fluid Statics
2.3 Measurement of Pressure
2.3.3 Manometry
• Manometers consist of a transparent tube that is used to determine the
gage pressure in a liquid.

Manometer Rule: Simple U-tube manometer:

Start at a point in the fluid where the pressure
is to be determined and proceed to add to it the
pressures algebraically from one vertical fluid
interface to the next until you reach the liquid
surface at the other end of the manometer.
• a pressure term will be positive if it is below
a point since it will cause an increase,
• and it will be negative if it is above a point
since it will cause a decrease.
• This algebraic sum is equated to the ❖Determine PA?
pressure at the other end of the manometer.
𝑝𝐴 = 𝛾2 ℎ2 − 𝛾1 ℎ1

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 2. Fluid Statics
2.3 Measurement of Pressure
2.3.3 Manometry
• Differential U-tube manometer is used to determine the difference in
pressure between two points in a closed system.

Differential U-tube manometer:

❖ Determine (PA – PB )?

𝑝𝐴 − 𝑝𝐵 = 𝛾2 ℎ2 + 𝛾3 ℎ3 − 𝛾1 ℎ1

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 2. Fluid Statics
2.3 Measurement of Pressure
2.3.3 Manometry
• Inclined-tube manometer is used to accurately measure small
pressure differences.

Inclined-tube manometer:

❖ Determine
(PA – PB )?

𝑝𝐴 − 𝑝𝐵 = 𝛾2 𝑙2 sin 𝜃 + 𝛾3 ℎ3 − 𝛾1 ℎ1

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 2. Fluid Statics
2.3 Measurement of Pressure
2.3.4 Class Exercise

a) Determine an equation for PA-PB.

9.80𝑘𝑁 15.6 𝑘𝑁
b) For 𝛾1 = 𝑚3
, 𝛾2 = 𝑚3
, ℎ1 = 1 𝑚, ℎ2 = 0.5 𝑚,

𝑤ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 PA−PB ?

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 2. Fluid Statics

2.3 Measurement of Pressure

2.3.5 Class Exercise

A closed tank contains compressed air and

oil (SGoil = 0.9). A U-tube manometer using
mercury (SGHg = 13.6) is connected to the
tank; h1 = 36 in, h2 = 6 in and h3 = 9 in.

Determine the air pressure.

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 2. Fluid Statics
2.3 Measurement of Pressure
2.3.6 Class Exercise

The inclined-tube manometer shown in Fig. is used to measure small

pressure changes.

Determine the difference in pressure between points A and E if the

manometer liquid, mercury, is at the level shown.
The pipe at A contains water, and the one at E contains natural gas.
For mercury, density = 13 550 kg/m3. and for water = 1000 kg/m3

Neglect the specific weight of the natural gas so that the pressure at E is
the same as that at D.

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 Syllabus

✓ Introduction to Fluid Mechanics and its Basic Concepts

✓ Properties of Fluids
✓ Pressure and Fluid Statics
• Mass, Bernoulli and Energy Equations
• Flow in Pipes
• Losses in Piping System
• Piping Network and Pump Selection

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 References

• Munson, B. R., Young, D. F., and Okiishi, T. H. 2006.

Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics. 5th ed. Wiley: New York.
• White, F.M. 1998. Fluid Mechanics. 4th edition. McGraw-Hill: New
York.
• Geankoplis. C.J. 1993. Transport Processes and Unit Operations.
Prentice Hall: New Jersey.
• Fox, R.W., McDonald, A.T. & Pritchard, P.J. 2004. Introduction to
Fluid Mechanics. 6th edition. Wiley: New York.
• Holland, F.A. 1995. Fluid Flow for Chem. Engineers. 2nd edition.
Edward Arnold: London.
• Welty, J.R., Wicks, C. E., Wilson, R. E. 2001. Fundamentals of
Momentum, Heat and Mass Transfer. 4th ed. John Wiley: New
York.

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