AE 411 Prelim Module 3 - Continuity and Compressibility PDF

PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 03: Continuity and Compressibility
LEARNING
MODULE 03:
Continuity and
Compressibility
AE 411 – Aerodynamics 3
Prepared by:
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING FACULTY
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page
Continuity 4
Sample Problems – Continuity 7
Isentropic Flow 12
Compressible Flow 13
Energy Equation 13
Sample Problems – Energy Equation 14
Critical Mach Number and Critical Pressure Coefficient 16
Sample Problems - Critical Mach Number and Critical Pressure
18
Coefficient
Practice Problems 20
TIME COMMITMENT FOR THIS MODULE

Reading Material Time
Continuity
20 mins
Sample Problems – Continuity
Isentropic Flow
20 mins
Sample Problems – Isentropic Flow
Compressible Flow
Energy Equation 25 mins
Sample Problems – Energy Equation
Critical Mach Number and Critical Pressure Coefficient
Sample Problems - Critical Mach Number and Critical Pressure 15 mins
Coefficient
Activity
Practice Problems 50 mins
Assessment
Assessment 30 mins
Recitation 30 mins
Video Meeting
Online Lecture 50 mins
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This module discusses basic aerodynamic concepts and formulas related to

continuity, isentropic flow, and compressibility.
ACADEMIC HONESTY STATEMENT

As students, you are expected to perform tasks with intellectual and academic
integrity. The college assumes basic standard of conduct in academic requirements
that students will comply with honesty and will be credited only for their own efforts.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Course Learning Outcome (CLO)

CLO 1. Valuing the study of
supersonic aerodynamics and its Module Learning Outcome (MLO)
application on the aviation industry..
Topic Learning Outcome
CLO 2. Review basic thermodynamics
MLO 1. Measure the mass flow rate (TLO)
and aerodynamics by recalling
concepts and equations..
of a flow using the continuity TLO 8. Explain continuity using
equation. diagram and definition.
CLO 4. Quantify aerodynamic
quantities along flight using MLO 2. Evaluate aerodynamic TLO 9. Explain compressibility using
aerodynamic equations. quantities under compressible flow diagram and definition.
using isentropic relationship.
CLO 8. Display professional TLO 10. Solve compressible flow
commitment to ethical practice by problems using isentropic
showing sense of responsibility in relationships.
complying and compiling academic
requirement.
CLO 9. Have adequate knowledge on
Compressible Flows
CLO 10. Have adequate knowledge
on Shockwave formation and effects
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CONTINUITY
Figure 1. Steam tube with mass conservation.
The laws of aerodynamics are formulated by applying to a flowing gas several basic
principles from physics. For example, the physical principle: Mass can be neither
created nor destroyed.
To apply this principle to a flowing gas, consider an imaginary circle drawn

perpendicular to the flow direction, as shown in Fig. 1. Now look at all the
streamlines that go through the circumference of the circle. These streamlines form a
tube, called a stream tube. As we move along with the gas confined inside the
stream tube, we see that the cross-sectional area of the tube may change, say, in
moving from point 1 to point 2 in Fig. 1. However, as long as the flow is steady, the
mass that flows through the cross section at point 1 must be the same as the mass
that flows through the cross section at point 2, because by the definition of a
streamline, there can be no flow across streamlines. The mass flowing through the
stream tube is confined by the streamlines of the boundary, much as the flow of
water through a flexible garden hose is confined by the wall of the hose. This is a
case of “what goes in one end must come out the other end.”
Let A1 be the cross-sectional area of the stream tube at point 1. Let V1 be the flow
velocity at point 1. Now, at a given instant in time, consider all the fluid elements that
are momentarily in the plane of A1. After a lapse of time dt , these same fluid
elements all move a distance V1 dt, as shown in Fig. 1. In so doing, the elements
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have swept out a volume A1V1dt downstream of point 1. The mass of gas dm in this
volume is equal to the density times the volume; that is,
dm = 1 (A1V1dt)
This is the mass of gas that has swept through area A1 during time interval dt.
**The mass flow m through area A is the mass crossing A per unit time.
Figure 2. A stream tube.
From the equation of the mass above, for area A1,
𝑑𝑚 𝑘𝑔 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 = = 𝑚1 = 𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑉1 𝑜𝑟
𝑑𝑡 𝑠 𝑠
Also, the mass flow through A2, bounded by the same streamlines that go through
the circumference of A1, is obtained in the same fashion, as
𝑚2 = 𝜌2 𝐴2 𝑉2
Since mass can be neither created nor destroyed, we have m1 = m2. Hence,
𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝜌2 𝐴2 𝑉2
This is the continuity equation for steady fluid flow. It is a simple algebraic equation
that relates the values of density, velocity, and area at one section of the stream tube
to the same quantities at any other section.
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INCOMPRESSIBLE AND COMPRESSIBLE FLOW
It is necessary to point out that all matter in real life is compressible to some greater
or lesser extent. That is, if we take an element of matter and squeeze it hard enough
with some pressure, the volume of the element of matter will decrease. However, its
mass will stay the same. As a result, the density p of the element changes as it is
squeezed. The amount by which p changes depends on the nature of the material of
the element and how hard we squeeze it, that is, the magnitude of the pressure. If
the material is solid, such as steel, then the change in volume is insignificantly small
and p is constant for all practical purposes. If the material is a liquid, such as water,
then the change in volume is also very small and again p is essentially constant.
1. Compressible flow—flow in which the density of the fluid elements can change
from point to point. Referring to the continuity equation, we see if the flow is
compressible, 1 ≠ 2. The variability of density in aerodynamic flows is particularly
important at high speeds, such as for high-performance subsonic aircraft, all
supersonic vehicles, and rocket engines. Indeed, all real-life flows, strictly speaking,
are compressible. However, there are some circumstances in which the density
changes only slightly.
2. Incompressible flow—flow in which the density of the fluid elements is always

constant. Referring to continuity equation, we see if the flow is incompressible, 1 =
2, hence,
𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2
Incompressible flow is a myth. It can never actually occur in nature, as previously

discussed. However, for those flows in which the actual variation of p is negligibly
small, it is convenient to make the assumption that p is constant, to simplify our
analysis.
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Sample Problems
1. Consider a convergent duct with an inlet area of 5 m2. The air enters this duct with
a velocity of 10 m/s and leaves the duct with a velocity of 30 m/s. What is the area of
the duct exit?
Given: A1 = 5 m2
v1 = 10 m/s
v2 = 30 m/s
Required: A2
Solution:
*See that the velocities given are less than 100 m/s. Therefore, the flow is
incompressible.
𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2
𝐴1 𝑉1 𝐴2 𝑉2
=
𝑉2 𝑉2
𝐴1 𝑉1
𝐴2 =
𝑉2
𝑚
5 𝑚2 𝑥 10 𝑠
𝐴2 = 𝑚
30 𝑠
𝑨𝟐 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟕 𝒎𝟐
2. Consider a divergent duct with inlet area with an inlet area of 3 m 2 and an exit
area of 6 m2. Air enters this duct with a velocity of 95 m/s. What is the velocity at the
exit?
Given: A1 = 3 m2
A2 = 6 m 2
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v1 = 95 m/s
Required: v2
Solution:
*See that the velocity given is less than 100 m/s. Therefore, the flow is
incompressible.
𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2
𝐴1 𝑉1 𝐴2 𝑉2
=
𝐴2 𝐴2
𝐴1 𝑉1
𝑣2 =
𝐴2
𝑚
3 𝑚2 𝑥 95 𝑠
𝑣2 =
6 𝑚2
𝒎
𝒗𝟐 = 𝟒𝟕. 𝟓
𝒔
3. Consider air flowing in a divergent duct with an inlet Mach number of 0.2, with an
area 7 ft2 and temperature of 520 ºR. If area at the exit is 16 ft2, what is the velocity
of the air at that point? Assume k = 1.4 and R = 287.08 J/kg.K.
Given: A1 = 7 ft2
A2 = 16 ft2
T1 = 520 ºR
M1 = 0.2
k = 1.4
R = 1716 ft.lb/slug.ºR
Required: v2
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Solution:
*See that the Mach number given is less than 0.3. Therefore, the flow is
incompressible.
𝑣1
𝑀=
√𝑘𝑅𝑇1
𝑣1 = 𝑀 𝑥 √𝑘𝑅𝑇1
𝑣1 = 0.3 𝑥 √1.4 𝑥 1716 𝑥 520
𝑓𝑡
𝑣1 = 335.3093
𝑠
𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2
𝐴1 𝑉1 𝐴2 𝑉2
=
𝐴2 𝐴2
𝑓𝑡
7 𝑓𝑡 2 𝑥 335.3093 𝑠
𝑣2 =
16 𝑓𝑡 2
𝒇𝒕
𝒗𝟐 = 𝟏𝟒𝟔. 𝟔𝟗𝟕𝟖
𝒔
4. Consider a convergent duct with an inlet area of 8 m2. The air enters this duct with
a velocity and density of 120 m/s and 2. The air then leaves the duct with a velocity
of 180 m/s. What is the area of the duct exit?
Given: A1 = 5 m2
v1 = 10 m/s
v2 = 30 m/s
Required: A2
Solution:
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*See that the velocities given are less than 100 m/s. Therefore, the flow is
incompressible.
𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2
𝐴1 𝑉1 𝐴2 𝑉2
=
𝑉2 𝑉2
𝐴1 𝑉1
𝐴2 =
𝑉2
𝑚
5 𝑚2 𝑥 10 𝑠
𝐴2 = 𝑚
30 𝑠
𝑨𝟐 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟕 𝒎𝟐
5. Consider a divergent duct with inlet area with an inlet area of 3 m2 and an exit
exit?
Given: A1 = 3 m2
A2 = 6 m 2
v1 = 95 m/s
Required: v2
Solution:
*See that the velocity given is less than 100 m/s. Therefore, the flow is
incompressible.
𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2
𝐴1 𝑉1 𝐴2 𝑉2
=
𝐴2 𝐴2
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𝐴1 𝑉1
𝑣2 =
𝐴2
𝑚
3 𝑚2 𝑥 95 𝑠
𝑣2 =
6 𝑚2
𝒎
𝒗𝟐 = 𝟒𝟕. 𝟓
𝒔
area 7 ft2 and temperature of 520 ºR. If area at the exit is 16 ft2, what is the velocity
of the air at that point? Assume k = 1.4 and R = 1716 ft.lb/slug.ºR.
Given: A1 = 7 ft2
A2 = 16 ft2
T1 = 520 ºR
M1 = 0.2
k = 1.4
R = 1716 ft.lb/slug.ºR
Required: v2
Solution:
*See that the Mach number given is less than 0.3. Therefore, the flow is
incompressible.
𝑣1
𝑀=
√𝑘𝑅𝑇1
𝑣1 = 𝑀 𝑥 √𝑘𝑅𝑇1
𝑣1 = 0.3 𝑥 √1.4 𝑥 1716 𝑥 520
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𝑓𝑡
𝑣1 = 335.3093
𝑠
𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2
𝐴1 𝑉1 𝐴2 𝑉2
=
𝐴2 𝐴2
𝑓𝑡
7 𝑓𝑡 2 𝑥 335.3093 𝑠
𝑣2 =
16 𝑓𝑡 2
𝒇𝒕
𝒗𝟐 = 𝟏𝟒𝟔. 𝟔𝟗𝟕𝟖
𝒔
ISENTROPIC PROCESS & FLOW RELATIONSHIP
An isentropic flow is
- An adiabatic process is one in which no heat is added or taken away.

- A reversible process is one in which no frictional or other dissipative effects
occur.
- An isentropic process is one which is both adiabatic and reversible.
Thus, an isentropic process is one in which there is neither heat exchange nor any
effect due to friction. The source of the word isentropic is a defined thermodynamic
variable called entropy.
Isentropic processes are very important in aerodynamics. For example, consider the
flow of air over the airfoil. Imagine a fluid element moving along one of the
streamlines. There is no heat being added or taken away from this fluid element;
heat-exchange mechanisms such as heating by a flame, cooling in a refrigerator, or
intense radiation absorption are all ruled out by the nature of the physical problem
we are considering. Thus, the flow of the fluid element along the streamline is
adiabatic. At the same time, the shearing stress exerted on the surface of the fluid
element due to friction is generally quite small and can be neglected. Thus, the flow
is also frictionless. Hence, the flow of the fluid element is both adiabatic and
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reversible (frictionless); that is, the flow is isentropic. Other aerodynamic flows can
also be treated as isentropic, for example, the flows through wind tunnel nozzles and
rocket engines.
Note that even though the flow is adiabatic, the temperature need not be constant.
Indeed, the temperature of the fluid element can vary from point to point in an
adiabatic, compressible flow. This is because the volume of the fluid element of fixed
mass, changes as it moves through regions of different density along the streamline;
when the volume varies, work is done, hence the internal energy changes, and
hence the temperature changes. This argument holds for compressible flows, where
the density is variable.
Isentropic relationships:
𝑘−1
𝑇2 𝑉1 𝑘−1 𝑝2 𝑘 𝜌2 𝑘−1
= ( ) =( ) = ( )
𝑇1 𝑉2 𝑝1 𝜌1
COMPRESSIBLE FLOW
Compressible flow is defined as a flow in which the density of the fluid elements can
change from point to point. The variability of density in aerodynamic flows is
particularly important at high speeds, such as for high-performance subsonic aircraft,
all supersonic vehicles, and rocket engines. Indeed, all real-life flows, strictly
speaking, are compressible. However, there are some circumstances in which the
density changes only slightly.
ENERGY EQUATION
Note that compressible flow, high-speed flow, and massive changes in energy go
hand in hand. Therefore, one of the fundamental physical principles that we must
take into account is that “Energy can be neither be created nor destroyed. It can only
change form.”
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Energy equation can be defined as
It can be written in terms o f T by using h = cpT . Hence, energy equation becomes
𝑣12 𝑣22
𝑐𝑝 𝑇1 + = 𝑐𝑝 𝑇2 +
2 2
𝑣12
𝑐𝑝 𝑇1 + = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
2
The equation above relates the temperature and velocity at two different points along
a streamline. Again, if all the streamlines emanate from a uniform flow far upstream,
then this equation holds for any two points in the flow, not necessarily on the same
streamline. Moreover, it is just as powerful and necessary for the analysis of
compressible flow as the isentropic relationships.
Sample Problems
1. An aircraft is flying an altitude where the pressure and density are 150,000 Pa
and 1.5 kg/m3, respectively. The aircraft is travelling at a flow velocity of 350 m/s and
at a point on the wing, the velocity increased to 440 m/s. What is the temperature at
the point on the wing? Assume that Cp = 1004.78 J/kg.K and R = 287.08 J/kg.K.
Given: P1 = 150000 Pa
ρ1 = 1.5 kg/m3
v1 = 350 m/s
v2 = 440 m/s
Cp = 1004.78 J/kg.K
Required: T2
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Solution:
𝑝1
𝑇1 =
𝜌1 𝑅
150000
𝑇1 =
1.5 𝑥 287.08
𝑻𝟏 = 𝟑𝟒𝟖. 𝟑𝟑𝟒𝟗𝟓𝟖𝟗 𝑲
𝑣12 𝑣22
𝑐𝑝 𝑇1 + = 𝑐𝑝 𝑇2 +
2 2
𝑣12 𝑣22
𝑐𝑝 𝑇1 + − = 𝑐𝑝 𝑇2
2 2
𝑣2 𝑣2
𝑐𝑝 𝑇1 + 21 − 22
𝑇2 =
𝑐𝑝
3502 4402
(1004.78 𝑥 348.3349589) +
𝑇2 = 2 − 2
1004.78
𝑻𝟐 = 𝟑𝟏𝟐. 𝟗𝟓𝟒𝟏 𝑲
2. Consider an aircraft flying with a velocity of 450 ft/s at altitude where all the
conditions are at standard sea level. At a point on the wing, the velocity is 550 ft/s.
Calculate the temperature at this point. Assume Cp = 6006 ftlb/slug.R.
Given: T1 = 519 ºR
v1 = 450 ft/s
v2 = 550 ft/s
Cp = 6006 ftlb/slug.R
Required: T2
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Solution:
𝑣12 𝑣22
𝑐𝑝 𝑇1 + = 𝑐𝑝 𝑇2 +
2 2
𝑣12 𝑣22
𝑐𝑝 𝑇1 + − = 𝑐𝑝 𝑇2
2 2
𝑣2 𝑣2
𝑐𝑝 𝑇1 + 21 − 22
𝑇2 =
𝑐𝑝
4502 5502
(6006 𝑥 519) +
𝑇2 = 2 − 2
6006
𝑻𝟐 = 𝟓𝟏𝟎. 𝟔𝟕𝟓𝟎 𝑲
CRITICAL MACH NUMBER AND CRITICAL PRESSURE COEFFICIENT
Consider the flow of air over an airfoil. We know that as the gas expands around the
top surface near the leading edge, the velocity and hence the Mach number will
increase rapidly. Indeed, there are regions on the airfoil surface where the local
Mach number can be greater than freestream Mach number. By definition, that free-
stream Mach number at which sonic flow is first obtained somewhere on the airfoil
surface is called the critical Mach number of the airfoil. In the example, the critical
Mach number Mcr for the airfoil is 0.61. As we will see later, Mcr is an important
quantity, because at some free-stream Mach number above Mcr the airfoil will
experience a dramatic increase in drag.
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Figure 3. Illustration of critical Mach Number
For a given free-stream Mach number M∞, this equation relates the local value of Cp
to the local Mach at any given point in the flow field, hence at any given point on the
airfoil surface.
𝑘
1 𝑘−1
2 1 + 2 (𝑘 − 1)M∞ 2
𝐶𝑝 = [ ] −1
𝑘M∞ 2 1
(𝑘
1 + 2 − 1)M 2
{ }
Let us pick that particular point on the surface where M=1. Then, by definition,
Cp=Cpcr. Putting M=1 into the preceding Cp equation, we obtain
𝑘
2 2 + (𝑘 − 1)M∞ 2 𝑘−1
𝐶𝑝𝑐𝑟 = {[ ] − 1}
𝑘M∞ 2 𝑘+1
For the equation for the Mcr, we can use the Prandtl-Glauert equation as it gives the
variation of Cp at a given point on the airfoil surface as a function of M∞.
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𝐶𝑃0
𝐶𝑝 =
√1 − 𝑀∞ 2
When the flow becomes sonic at the point of minimum pressure, the pressure
coefficient given by the prior equation is precisely the value given by the Critical
Pressure Coefficient.
𝑘
𝐶𝑃0 2 2 + ( 𝑘 − 1 ) M∞ 2 𝑘−1
= {[ ] − 1}
√1 − 𝑀∞ 2 𝑘M∞ 2 𝑘+1
The value of M∞ that satisfies the equation shown is that value when the flow
becomes sonic at the point of maximum velocity (minimum pressure). That is, the
value of M∞ obtained from the equation is the critical Mach number for the airfoil. To
emphasize this, we write it with M∞ replaced by Mcr.
𝑘
𝐶𝑃0 2 2 + (𝑘 − 1)Mcr 2 𝑘−1
= {[ ] − 1}
2 𝑘Mcr 2 𝑘+1
√1 − 𝑀cr
In addition, if M∞ is increased slightly above Mcr, a “bubble” of supersonic flow will

occur, surrounding the minimum pressure point. Correspondingly, Cd will still remain
reasonably low, however, if M∞ is still further increased, a very sudden and dramatic
rise in the drag coefficient will be observed. The freestream Mach number at which
Cd begins to increase rapidly is defined as the Drag-Divergence Mach number. Note
that:
Mcr < Mdrag divergence < 1.0
Sample Problems
1. What is the critical value of the pressure coefficient Cpcr for an airplane flying at
500 knots in air at 25 degree Fahrenheit.
Given:
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V = 500 knots = 843.33 ft/s
T = 25 °F = 485R
Required: Cpcr
Solution:
𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑏
𝑎 = √𝑘𝑅𝑇 = √1.4 𝑥 1716 𝑥 485 𝑅
𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔 𝑅
𝑎 = 1079.428 𝑓𝑡/𝑠
𝑉 843.33 𝑓𝑡/𝑠
𝑀= =
𝑎 1079.428 𝑓𝑡/𝑠
𝑀 = 0.7812
𝑘
2 2 + (𝑘 − 1)M∞ 2 𝑘−1
𝐶𝑝𝑐𝑟 = {[ ] − 1}
𝑘M∞ 2 𝑘+1
1.4
2
2 2 + (1.4 − 1)0.7812 1.4−1
𝐶𝑝𝑐𝑟 = 2 {[ ] − 1}
1.4(0.7812) 1.4 + 1
𝑪𝒑𝒄𝒓 = −𝟎. 𝟒𝟖𝟖
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Practice Problems
Solve for the following problems. Show your complete solution. Round off your
answer to 4 decimal places. Box your final answer. Submit your work using Google
Classroom, under the specific classwork.
exit?
area 8 ft2 and temperature of 515 ºR. If area at the exit is 15 ft 2, what is the velocity
of the air at that point? Assume k = 1.4 and R = 1716 ft.lb/slug.ºR.
exit?
4. A pipe is gradually tapering in size, diminishing by 0.10256 sq ft per foot run. What
is the change in velocity per foot run where pipe is 4 sq ft in cross section, if the
velocity there is 90 ft/s? Is the velocity increasing or decreasing?
5. Air having the standard sea level density has a velocity of 100 ft/s at a section of a
wind tunnel. At another section having an area half as great as the first, the flow
velocity is 400 mph. What is the density at the second section?
6. Determine the pressure at the end of compression inside a cylinder (assume air
standard and isentropic process) if the initial pressure and temperature is 15 psi and
60F respectively. At the end of compression, the temperature is 460F.
7. Consider an aircraft flying with a velocity of 450 ft/s at altitude where all the
conditions are at standard sea level. At a point on the wing, the temperature is 500
ºR. Calculate the velocity at this point. Assume Cp = 6006 ft.lb/slug.R.
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8. An aircraft is flying an altitude where the pressure and density are 95000 Pa and
1.105 kg/m3, respectively. The aircraft is travelling at a flow velocity of 150 m/s and
at a point on the wing, the velocity increased to 180 m/s. What is the temperature at
the point on the wing? Assume that Cp = 1004.78 J/kg.K.
9. Consider an airfoil with a minimum pressure coefficient on the top surface of -0.90.
What is the critical Mach number of the airfoil?
10. What is the critical value of the pressure coefficient Cpcr for an airplane flying with
a RN of 8,000,000, chord of 3 ft, standard sea level condition.
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TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure Reference
1 (Anderson 2005). Introduction to Flight 5th Edition
2 Anderson J. (2005). Introduction to Flight (5th ed.)
3 (Anderson 2005). Introduction to Flight 5th Edition
TABLE OF REFERENCES
No. Reference
Anderson J. (2005). Introduction to Flight (5th ed.). 1221 Avenue of the
Americas, New York, NY 10020. Retrieved from
1
https://www.academia.edu/40465060/Introduction_to_Flight_Fifth_Edition_Hi
gher_Education
Anderson J. (2011). Fundamentals of Aerodynamics (5th ed.). 1221 Avenue
of the Americas, New York, NY 10020. Retrieved from
2
https://www.academia.edu/26269624/Fundamentals_of_Aerodynamics_5th_
edition_John_D_Anderson_Jr_Charm_Quark_
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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS

INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

TIME COMMITMENT FOR THIS MODULE

This module discusses basic aerodynamic concepts and formulas related to

ACADEMIC HONESTY STATEMENT

Course Learning Outcome (CLO)

Figure 1. Steam tube with mass conservation.

To apply this principle to a flowing gas, consider an imaginary circle drawn

Figure 2. A stream tube.

From the equation of the mass above, for area A1,

INCOMPRESSIBLE AND COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

2. Incompressible flow—flow in which the density of the fluid elements is always

Incompressible flow is a myth. It can never actually occur in nature, as previously

𝑣1 = 0.3 𝑥 √1.4 𝑥 1716 𝑥 520

𝑣1 = 0.3 𝑥 √1.4 𝑥 1716 𝑥 520

ISENTROPIC PROCESS & FLOW RELATIONSHIP

- An adiabatic process is one in which no heat is added or taken away.

Energy equation can be defined as

It can be written in terms o f T by using h = cpT . Hence, energy equation becomes

CRITICAL MACH NUMBER AND CRITICAL PRESSURE COEFFICIENT

Figure 3. Illustration of critical Mach Number

In addition, if M∞ is increased slightly above Mcr, a “bubble” of supersonic flow will

Mcr < Mdrag divergence < 1.0

V = 500 knots = 843.33 ft/s

𝑪𝒑𝒄𝒓 = −𝟎. 𝟒𝟖𝟖

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