II. Mineralogy 7.

Triclinic System

Mineralogy in Civil Engineering Symmetry of elements

Civil engineering point of view
- The strength and durability of the
material depends on chemical
composition.
- use to determine which crystal system a
certain crystal does belongs.
- often called symmetry operation.

Civil Engineering Importance of Rock
forming minerals
- Civil engineers need to know the
properties of rocks precisely to
enable them to consider different
rocks for any required purpose as
1. Foundation Rock
2. Road Metal
3. Concrete Aggregate
4. Building stones
5. Flooring or roofing materials
Thus, properties of rocks such as strength,
durability, and appearance of rock can be
assessed only with knowledge of the
minerals that form rock.
1. Center of Symmetry
- an imaginary straight
line can be drawn
through it from any point
on its surface, with the
point of entry and exit
being similar
- example crystal Axinite-(Fe) (a triclinic
mineral)
2. Axis of Symmetry
- when an imaginary line can
be drawn through it and
the crystal can be rotated
360 degrees
- example Galena (has a
cubic symmetry)

A. Elementary Knowledge on
Symmetry Elements of 3. Plane of Symmetry
Crystallographic Systems - also known as mirror
plane
- Crystal is any solid material in which the - imaginary plane such
atoms arrange repeating order. that the area of the
These crystals can be classified into seven crystal on each side of
different systems the plane is a reflection of the area
on the other side
1. Cubic System - bilateral symmetry in biology (humas
2. Tetragonal System and animals share mirror symmetry)
3. Hexagonal System - Example e fluorite crystal (has nine
4. Orthorhombic System symmetry planes)
5. Monoclinic System
6. Trigonal System
 - comprises three axes, two are at
right angles to each other, and the
4. Axis of Rotatory Inversion
third axis is inclined
- a crystal is
- three axes are of different length
inverted through
- d prisms with inclined end faces.
its center
Some examples include Diopside,
- crystal remains
Petalite, Kunzite, Gypsum,
unchanged after
Hiddenite, Howlite, Vivianite
series of rotation
- Example Chalcopyrite
3. Orthorhombic System
- three axes and is at right angles to
5. Screw-axis of Symmetry
each other
- crystal remains intact when rotated - includes various crystal shapes
about an axis and translated parallel namely pyramids, double pyramids,
to that axis rhombic pyramids, and pinacoids
- rotational angle is 360°/n - example Topaz, Tanzanite, Iolite,
Zoisite, Danburite

6. Glide Plane of Symmetry

- combination of reflection and 4. Trigonal System
translation. - (base cross-section) there will be
three sides
- Crystal shapes include three-sided
Crystal Systems pyramids, Scalenohedral and
- one of the many classes of crystals, Rhombohedra
space groups, and lattices - example Ruby, Quartz, Calcite,
Agate, Jasper, Tiger’s Eyes
The Seven Crystal Systems

- an approach for classification

depending upon mineral’s lattice and 5. Hexagonal System
atomic structure - comprises four axes
- intersect each other at an angle of
sixty degrees
- Crystal shapes include Double
1. Triclinic System
Pyramids, Double-Sided Pyramids,
- most unsymmetrical crystal system
and Four-Sided Pyramids
- All three axes are inclined towards
- Example, Beryl, Cancrinite, Apatite,
each other, and of the same length
Sugilite
- include Labradorite, Amazonite,
Kyanite, Rhodonite, Aventurine
Feldspar, and Turquoise.
6. Tetragonal Systems
- consists of three axes
2. Monoclinic System
 - shapes of crystal include double and
eight-sided pyramids, four-sided
prism, trapezohedrons, and pyrite.
7. Cubic System
- most symmetrical one
- m. All three angles intersect at right
angles and are of equal length
- Crystal include octahedron, cube,
and Hexaciscoherdron
- Example: Silver, Garnet, Gold, and
Diamond
B. Physical Properties of Minerals
Minerals -materials that make up the Earth
and named on basis of Physical property
Physical Properties of Minerals - used
to determine the identity of the mineral
Isotropism - Minerals are grouped
according to their physical properties
 Isotropic - properties are the same
in all directions (gases, liquid,
amorphous, cubic minerals)
 Anisotropic - properties of material
vary with different crystallographic
orientations (wood, slate, ice,
tourmaline)
Polymorphism - being crystallized in
different Symmetry Systems and exhibit
different physical properties.
Physical Properties of Minerals
Most minerals can be characterized and
classified by: cohesion and elasticity,
specific gravity, light, magnetism, senses,
and crystal and aggregates habits.
A. Cohesion and Elasticity
Cohesion - The force of attraction existing
between molecules.
Elasticity - The force that tends to restore
the molecules of a body into original
position
*The result of cohesion and elasticity in a
mineral appears as: cleavage, parting,
fracture, hardness, and tenacity
Cleavage - Tendency of a crystalline
mineral to break
o Cubic - Tendency of a crystalline
mineral to break
o Octahedral - occurs on the crystal
plane forming octahedra
o Dodecahedral - occurs on the cyrstal
planes forming dodecahedra
o Rhombohedral – occurs parallel to
the faces of rhombohedron
o Prismatic – parallel to the vertical
prism
o Pinacoidal (Basal) – occurs parallel
to the base of a crystal, the crystal
plane
Parting - when the mineral is subjected to
external force ; breaks along planes of
structural weakness.
Fracture - If the mineral contains no
planes of weakness, it will break along
random directions called fracture
 o Conchoidal – smooth fracture (Qua,
glass)
o Fibrous and splintery – sharp
pointed fibers (Asbestos, Serpentine)
o Uneven or irregular – rough and
irregular surfaces
o Even – more or less smooth
surfaces, may resemble cleavage
o Hackly – jagged fractures with very
sharp edges (Mat)
Hardness
- resistance that a smooth surface of
a mineral offers to scratching
- indirect measure of the bond
strength in the mineral
o Malleable – A mineral that can be
hammered out without breaking,
into thin sheets. They are plastic
(Native metals) Ex. Silver
o Sectile – A mineral that can be cut
with a knife into thin shavings
(Native metals) Ex. Gypsum
o Ductile – A mineral that can be
drawn into wire (Native metals) Ex.
Gold
o Flexible – A mineral that bends but
retains it bent form. Does not
resume its original shape,
permanent deformation
o Elastic – A mineral that after
bending springs back and resumes
its original position. Ex. Copper

B. Specific Gravity

Specific gravity (SG) - unitless number

that expresses the ratio between the weight
of a substance and weight of an equal
volume of water.

Density (p) is the weight of a substance

per volume= g/cm3.

Jolly Balance

- device for determining the

specific gravity (relative
density) of solids and liquids.
- Invented by the 19th-century
German physicist Philipp Von
Jolly
Tenacity - resistance that a mineral offers
to breaking, crushing, bending, cutting,
Pycnometer
drawing or tearing.
- used for determination of specific
o Brittle – A mineral that breaks and
gravity of soil particles of both fine
powders easily (Sulfides,
grained and coarse-grained soils.
Carbonates, Silicates and Oxides)
Ex. Quartz
C. Light
Refractive Index - Refractive index (RI)
of a mineral is the ratio of velocity of light in
the vacuum (or air) to the velocity of light in
the mineral (n=c/v)
Diapheneity - is amount of
transmitted or absorbed by a solid
o Transparent - pass the object behind
it seen clearly
o Translucent - light transmitted but
the object is not seen
o Opaque - light wholly absorbed
Color - visible light region which is reflected
or transmitted from the mineral. It is
sometimes an extremely diagnostic property
of a mineral.
* Three primary categories: idiochromatic,
allochromatic, and pseudochromatic
1. Idiochromatic – are "selfcolored."
The mineral's hue is a dependable
and predictable feature. Examples
include the stones green Malachite,
red Cinnabar, and blue Azurite.
2. Allochromatic –have "different
colors" because of minute
impurities . In this instance, the
mineral's hue is a variable and
unpredictably occurring
characteristic. Examples: blue in
Amazonite (orthoclase), the yellow
in Heliodor (spodumene), and the
rose in rose quartz.
3. Pseudochromatic - Due to trickery
in light diffraction, pseudochromic
minerals are "falsely colored."
Examples include the hues
generated by priceless opal and the
labradorite's shiller reflections.
Streak - color of the mineral in powdered
form. It shows the true color of the mineral.
light
Streak Test - done by scraping an edge of
the mineral across a piece of unglazed
porcelain known as a "streak plate."
Luster - general appearance of a mineral
surface in reflected light.
o Metallic luster - strictly belongs to
opaque minerals, where light is
completely reflected from the
surface.
o Non-metallic luster - It may be
brilliant or faint where reflection is
poor.
Magnetism - orbital and spin motions of
electrons. Charged particle in motion
creates magnetic moment.
Response to a magnetic field
a. Diamagnetic – no attraction (repulsion)
b. Paramagnetic – weak attraction
c. Ferromagnetic – strong attraction
Senses
1. Taste – most minerals have no
taste
2. Odour – most minerals have no
odour
3. Feel – smooth, greasy, hars, cold,
sticky
 the United States are found at Hot Springs,
Arkansas, and Little Falls and Ellenville, New
York.

Uses of Quartz

- “cultured quartz” used in electronic

applications

C. Rock Forming Minerals of Quartz - used in a watch's mechanism because it

Family, Feldspar Family, Augite, has the ability to vibrate with a precise
Hornblende, Biotite, Muscovite, frequency
Calcite, Garnet and their Properties

B. Feldspar
Rock-Forming Minerals
Feldspar’s Characteristics
Around 4,000 distinct minerals have been
- used to describe the group of minerals
identified by scientists. Almost 90% of the
which are mischaracterized by the presence
rocks in the Earth's crust are composed of
of alumina and silica (SiO2) in their
tiny subset of these minerals.
chemical composition.

- most abundant mineral in Earth which

A. Quartz entails an approximated 60% of exposed
rocks, even soils, clays and other
Quartz’s Composition unconsolidated sediments.
- Quartz can be divided into three
categories, macro crystalline,
microcrystalline and cryptocrystalline. Location of Deposits

- quartz is very resistant to weathering, - most common rock-forming mineral on the

especially to physical and chemical
weathering.
Location of Deposits
the Alps; Minas Gerais, Brazil; Madagascar;
and Japan. The best quartz crystals from
Earth's crust. These minerals are found in
igneous rocks as they crystallize from
cooling magma. The top states producing
feldspar are North Carolina, Virginia,
California, Oklahoma, Idaho, Georgia and
South Dakota
Feldspar’s Composition

- Feldspar is a group of crystalline minerals

made up of aluminum silicates such as
potassium, sodium, calcium, or barium that
may be found in nearly all crystalline rocks.

There are two types of feldspar:
• Alkali Feldspar - includes orthoclase,
microcline, sanidine, and anorthoclase.
Color range is from white to brick red and is
typically opaque.
Hornblende deposits are located near Mount
Vesuvius and in Norway, Sweden, Italy,
Canada (Ontario) and the United States
(Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New
Jersey, New York).

• Plagioclase Feldspar - includes albite-

anorthite solid solution series. Color range is
from white to dark gray and it is typically
Uses of Hornblende
translucent.
It may be used primarily as a mineral
specimen. It is crushed and used as ballast
Uses of Feldspar for railroads and in the construction of
highways. It is cut for use as a dimension
- used in glassmaking, ceramics, and paint,
stone. The highest quality pieces are cut,
plastics, and rubber to a degree as a filler
polished, and sold under the name "black
and extender.
granite" for use as building facing, floor
tiles, countertops, and other architectural
uses.
C. Augite - A rock-forming mineral that
commonly occurs in mafic and intermediate
igneous rocks such as basalt, gabbro,
E. Biotite
andesite, and diorite.
Biotite is a rock-forming mineral found in a
wide range of crystalline igneous rocks such
Location of Deposits as granite, diorite, gabbro, peridotite, and
pegmatite.
Augite is a common constituent of lunar
basalts and some meteorites. Notable
crystal localities are in Germany, the Czech
Location of Deposits
Republic, Italy, Russia, Japan, Mexico,
Canada, and USA Biotite occurs in the lava of Mount Vesuvius,
at Monzoni, and many other European
locations. In the United States, it is found in
D. Hornblende - rock-forming mineral that the pegmatites of New England, Virginia
is an essential component of acidic and and North Carolina, as well as in the granite
intermediate igneous rocks including of Pikes Peak, Colorado.
granite, diorite, syenite, andesite, and
rhyolite.
Uses of Biotite

Biotite has a small number of commercial

Location of Deposits
uses. Ground mica is used as a filler and
extender in paints, as an additive to drilling
muds, as an inert filler and mold-release Uses of Calcite
agent in rubber products, and as a non-stick
Construction materials, abrasives,
surface coating on asphalt shingles and
agricultural soil treatment, aggregate for
rolled roofing. It is also used in the
building, pigments, pharmaceuticals, and
potassium-argon and argon-argon methods
other uses are all included.
of dating igneous rocks.

Location of Deposits
F. Muscovite
Mexico and the United States both have
Muscovite contains both potassium (K) and
sizable deposits of calcites with vivid colors
aluminium (Al), it is the common mineral
(other Iceland, England, Germany)
from the family of mica. The origin of the
name “Muscovite” is derived from “Muscovy
Glass” which is the type of glass were once
used in Russia. H. Garnet

The majority of garnet is created during

Uses of Muscovite
Many electrical components are made from
sheets of muscovite because of their high
heat and electrical insulating qualities.
the metamorphosis of sedimentary rocks
containing a lot of aluminum, like shale
Uses of Garnet

Since the Bronze Age, garnets have been

used as abrasives, gemstones for jewelry,
Location of Deposits and ornaments. Due to garnet's extreme
hardness and weather resistance, it can be
India (Nellore), Pakistan, Brazil, and the
used as a filler in concrete used in harsh
U.S. all have significant muscovite deposits
environments as well as a skid-resistant
(New England, Pennsylvania, Maryland,
road aggregate and in skid-resistant paints.
Virginia, North Carolina, Georgia, South
Dakota, New Mexico). Twinned crystals in a
rare Brazilian variety form yellow five-
pointed stars (star muscovite). Location of Deposits

Garnet stone is available in a wide range of

G. Calcite
Calcite is a widely dispersed mineral
renowned for its stunning growth and wide
variety of crystals.
shapes and colors due to its global
availability and abundance. The majority of
these gems are currently mined in Brazil,
the USA, India, and Sri Lanka, but they
have historically been found on almost
every continent.
D. Process Formation of All Minerals Types of Coal

Formation of Minerals Rank refers to steps in a slow, natural

process called “coalification,” during which
- Minerals can also be formed by other ways
buried plant matter changes into an ever
like: • Aqueous solution precipitation (i.e.,
denser, drier, more carbon-rich, and harder
from hot water flowing underground, from
material.
evaporation of a lake or inland sea, or in
some cases, directly from seawater)

• Precipitation caused by gaseous emissions Peat - Peat is the first step in the formation
of coal, and slowly becomes lignite after
• Metamorphism - the formation of new
pressure and temperature
minerals directly from the elements within
existing minerals under high temperature
and pressure conditions.
Lignite - Lignite coal, aka brown coal, is
• Weathering - the process by which the lowest grade coal with the least
minerals that are unstable at the Earth's concentration of carbon.
surface change into other minerals.

• Organic formation entails organisms

Subbituminous - Subbituminous coal is
forming minerals within shells (primarily
black in color and is mainly dull (not shiny).
calcite) and teeth and bones (primarily
apatite) (these organically formed minerals
are still called minerals because they can
also form inorganically) Bituminous - Bituminous coal is a middle
rank coal between subbituminous and
anthracite.
E. Coal and Petroleum

Coal - sedimentary deposit composed Anthracite - The highest rank of coal. It is

predominantly of carbon that is readily a hard, brittle, and black lustrous coal, often
combustible. Coal is black or brownish- referred to as hard coal.
black.

Graphite - Graphite may be considered the

Formation of Coal highest grade of coal, just above anthracite
and alternatively called meta-anthracite and
1. Formation of Peat
it is normally used as fuel.
2. Formation of Lignite Coal

3. Formation of Bituminous Coal

Mining of Coal
4. Formation of Anthracite Coal
There are Two Types of Mine of Coal

• Surface Mining

• Underground Mining

Coal in our Life
Coal accounts for over 37% of the world’s
electricity supply. It is fundamental in
powering homes and industry, providing
energy for transport and producing steel
and concrete.
Uses of Coal
Electricity Generation
Power generation is the primary use for coal
worldwide. Thermal coal is burnt
to create steam that drives turbines and
generators for the production of electricity.
Metal Production
Metallurgical (coking) coal is a key
ingredient in steelmaking. Coal converted
to coke is used to produce around 70% of
the world’s steel. Coal is also widely used
in the production of other metals including
aluminum and copper.
Cement Production
Coal is used as a key energy source in
cement production. By-products of coal
combustion such as fly ash also play an
important role in cement manufacture and
the wider construction industry.
Gasification and Liquefaction
Coal is heated and pressurized with steam
to produce ‘town’ gas for domestic
lighting, heating and cooking. It is liquefied
to make synthetic fuels similar to
petroleum or diesel.
Chemical Production
Syngas — from gasification — can be
further processed to produce chemical
building blocks such as methanol, ammonia
and urea.
Location of Deposits
China is the largest coal-producing country
in the world, with production reaching 3,942
million tones, a 2.5% growth.
Petroleum
• Petroleum is a substance that occurs
naturally.
• It is a dark liquid and occurs beneath the
earth’s surface.
• A large number of products like petrol,
diesel, lubricating oil, etc derive from
petroleum. Its compounds can be separated
with the help of fractional
distillation.
How is petroleum formed?
Petroleum is a naturally occurring,
flammable liquid, that are found in geologic
formations beneath the earth's surface.
It was produced when sea creatures died
and got covered with sand and clay. Under
high
pressure, these dead organisms changed
into
petroleum and natural gases.
Products produced in Petroleum
Refining Process Petroleum
Gas: Generally, liquefied petroleum gas is
useful for domestic fuel.
Gasoline: Procuration of petrol occurs from
this fraction.
Kerosene: It is used as domestic fuel and
also as fuel in jet engines.
Diesel oil or light oil: It is useful in the
automobile industry.
Heavy Oil or Lubricating Oil: This type
of oil is used in making lubricating oils.
Fuel Oil: It is essential for ships, central
heating, and factories.
Residue: We can procure products like
paraffin wax, bitumen from this
residue. It is useful for making roads and
roofing.
Petroleum Color and Viscosity
The color and viscosity of petroleum vary
markedly from one place to another. Most
petroleum is dark brown or blackish in color,
but it also occurs in green, red, or yellow.
Uses of Petroleum Product
Petroleum may be taken to oil refineries and
the hydrocarbon chemicals
separated by distillation and treated by
other chemical processes, to be used for a
variety of purposes like:
• Asphalt
• Diesel fuel, Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)
• Lubricating oils
Types of Petroleum
Petrochemicals
Petrochemicals are chemical products
derived from crude oil, although many of
the same chemical compounds are also
obtained from other fossil fuels such as coal
and natural gas or from renewable sources
such as corn, sugar cane, and other types
of biomass.
Fuel Oils
Fuel oil is used commonly for burning in
furnaces, boilers, stoves and lanterns to
generate heat. It comprises of long
hydrocarbon chains, such as alkanes,
aromatics and cycloalkanes. Fuel oil has
many different names but the most
commonly used terms are: Diesel fuel.
Gasoline
A volatile flammable liquid hydrocarbon
mixture used as a fuel especially for internal
combustion engines and usually blended
from several products of natural gas and
petroleum.
Kerosene
Typically, pale yellow or colourless and has
a not unpleasant characteristic odour. It is
obtained from petroleum and is used for
burning in kerosene lamps and domestic
heaters or furnaces, as a fuel or fuel
component for jet engines, and as a solvent
for greases and insecticides.
Some more Uses of Petroleum:
• Wax, used in the packaging of frozen
foods, among others
• Sulfur or Sulfuric acid
• Bulk tar
• Asphalt
• Petroleum coke, used in specialty carbon
products or as solid fuel.
• Paraffin wax
• Aromatic petrochemicals to be used as
precursors in other chemical production.
• Plastics
Conclusion
Both coal and petroleum are non- renewable
sources of energy. We should decrease the
intake of these resources.
F. Origin and Occurrence
Petroleum
1. Organic Theory
- Petroleum was formed from the organisms
living in the sea, primarily planktons and
algaes.
- The world's first oil well was drilled in
Pennsylvania, USA, in 1859.
- It is formed by the combination of
hydrocarbons and other substances, mainly
sulphur. When first collected in its natural
form, it is termed as crude oil.
2. Inorganic Theory
- The inorganic petroleum origin theory
considers that petroleum originates as a
simple hydrocarbon that was dispersed
from universal celestial bodies.
Coal
Coal is an organic rock that originated by the
accumulation of plant material and also
subsequent physical and chemical alteration of
the material over a long period of time.
When was petroleum first formed?
The first oil had actually been discovered by the
Chinese in 600 B.C. and transported in pipelines
made from bamboo. However, Colonel Drake's
heralded discovery of oil in Pennsylvania in
1859 and the Spindletop discovery in Texas in
1901 set the stage for the new oil economy.
Where was coal first discovered in the
Philippines?
In 1827, Coal was first discovered in the
Philippine islands in 1827 in the island of Cebu
although there was little interest from the
Spanish colonial government or private
individuals to exploit the resource until the
arrival of steamships in the archipelago.
Who first invented coal?
Coal has been used for heating since the cave
man. Archeologists have also found evidence
that the Romans in England used it in the
second and third centuries (100- 200 AD). In the
1700s, the English found that coal could
produce a fuel that burned cleaner and hotter
than wood charcoal.
How long fossil fuels will last?
It is predicted that we will run out of fossil fuels
in this century.
Oil can last up to 50 years, natural gas up to 53
years, and coal up to 114 years.