Foundations on Problematic Soils

Expansive and collapsible soils are some of the most widely distributed and costly of geologic
hazards. These soils are subject to changes in volume and settlement in response to wetting and
drying, often resulting in severe damage to structures.

Geology and climate play significant roles in the distribution of these problematic soils . Soils
capable of expansion can occur in both tropical and arid climates; however, those located in arid
and semi-arid regions are subject to more extreme cycles of expansion and contraction than those
located in more consistently moist areas. Collapsible soils are most often encountered in arid
climates, where wind and intermittent streams deposit loose sediment (Mulvey, 1992, Rollins et
al., 1992).

Expansive Soil and Rock

Expansive soil and rock are characterized by clayey material that shrinks and swells as it dries or
becomes wet, respectively. In addition, trees and shrubs placed closely to a structure can lead to
soil drying and subsequent shrinkage. The parent (source) rock most associated with expansive
soils is shale, which can also be expansive. The volumetric changes associated with expansive
soil comprises one of the most expensive of geologic hazards. Structural damage due to
expansive soils is most prominent in many parts of India.

Problems often associated with expansive soils include:

1. Foundation cracks;
2. Heaving and cracking of floor slabs and walls;
3. Jammed doors and windows;
4. Ruptured pipeliness; and
5. Heaving and cracking of sidewalks and roads

Geologists work with geotechnical engineers to evaluate soil and rock prone to shrinking and
swelling. These areas are mapped and denoted for their expansion potential. Expansive soil and
rock be removed and replaced with non-expansive materials to provide a suitable foundation for
new structures. Expansive materials can also be chemically treated, preloaded, or prewetted to
decrease swell potential.

Fig. Expansive soils under very dry conditions. Severe soil shrinkage has resulted in desiccation
cracks.

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Collapsible Soil Overview

Collapsible soils consist of loose, dry, low-density materials that collapse and compact under the
addition of water or excessive loading. These soils are distributed throughout India, specifically
in areas of young alluvial fans, debris flow sediments, and loess (wind-blown sediment) deposits.
Soil collapse occurs when the land surface is saturated at depths greater than those reached by
typical rain events. This saturation eliminates the clay bonds holding the soil grains together
(Mulvey, 1992). Similar to expansive soils, collapsible soils result in structural damage such as
cracking of the foundation, floors, and walls in response to settlement. In one particular case of
soil collapse, 14 houses in a Cedar City, Utah neighborhood had to be jacked off their
foundations and relocated due to severe settlement (Rollins et al., 1992).

Human activities that facilitate soil collapse include:

1. Irrigation;
2. Water impoundment;
3. Watering the lawn;
4. Changing the natural drainage; and
5. Disposal of wastewater

Geologists work with geotechnical engineers to identify soils prone to collapse and evaluate
their potential to fail under loading and/or saturation. Collapsible soil be removed and
replaced with approved and properly compacted materials. Collapsible materials can also
be saturated (hydrocompaction) to force the soils to collapse prior to construction.

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 Foundation Practices & Rehabilitation of Structures on
Expansive Soils
Introduction
Fine grained soils of less than 0.002 mm particle size are generally classified as clays. The
important features of clay are plasticity and cohesion. In general, most of the particles in silt
range and coarser than silt are approximately equidimensional, while the most common shape of
almost all the clay size particles is platy. Mostly, clays are the products of chemical weathering
of rock and the original rock minerals undergo considerable changes to impart very different
properties to clays. There are several minerals which are classified as clay minerals. However,
the three main groups of minerals are kaolinite, illite and montmorillonite. The mineral
montomorillonite is the main constituent of clays classed as expansive soils which are known to
expand or swell when in contact with water and contract or shrink when dry. The typical
swelling/shrinkage behavior is due to the basic mineral composition of the montmorillonite.

The problem of damage to structure in expansive soil is worldwide. There is considerable

damage to built-up property. These soils occur in all the continents. The countries that are facing
problems with expansive soils are Australia, the United States, Canada, China, Israel, India, and
Egypt. In India about 20 per cent of total area is covered by expansive soils. The area of major
occurrence of Indian expansive soils is south of the Vindhyachal range covering almost the entire
Deccan Plateau. But there substantial areas of their occurrence in the other parts of the country as
well. Although popularly known as black cotton soil, the expansive soils in India are not always
necessarily of black colour. The parent materials associated with expansive soils are either basic
igneous or sedimentary rocks. The formation of Indian expansive soils is usually associated with
basalt. However, these occur on granite, gneiss, shale, sandstone, slate or limestone and also as
residual soils. Transported deposits up to 8 m depth have also been seen. The thickness of black
cotton soil cover is highly variable from 0.3 m to 15 m. The composition of soil shows
considerable variation with different depth horizons especially in their clay contents. The Indian
expansive soils are classified as clay or silty having 30-70 per cent clay fractions, 17-45 percent
silt and 10-25 per cent sand. The clay fraction is very rich in silica. These consist of
montmorillonite which in igneous rocks is formed by decomposition of feldspar and pyroxene
and in sedimentary rocks it is a constituent of rock itself.

Expansive soils are highly problematic, as they swell on absorption of water and shrink on
evaporation thereof. Because of this alternate swell and shrinkage, distress is caused to the
foundations of structures laid on such soils.

Expansive soil is commonly known as black cotton soils, because of their color and their
suitability for growing cotton. Black cotton soil is one of the major regional soil deposits in
India, covering an area of about 3.0 lakh sq.km. Expansive soils are problematic soils because of
their inherent potential to undergo volume changes corresponding to changes in the moisture
regime. When they imbibe water during monsoon, they expand and on evaporation thereof in
summer, they shrink. Because of this alternate swelling and shrinkage, structures founded on
them are severally damaged. The annual cost of damage to the civil engineering structures is
estimated at high.

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The range of chemical composition of black cotton soil is given in Table 1 (Katti, 1979). The
base exchange capacity of clay fraction is in the range of 100 to 130 m. eq/100 gm. The colour of
soil is generally dark but these may be brown or yellowish brown at greater depths. As the depth
increase, very often clay content decreases and relatively more carbonates in the form nodules,
‘kankar’, are also found. The light coloured soils are sometimes mistaken as non-expansive soils,
which may not be the case. Actully, colour is not a good guide to identify expansive soils.

In India, black cotton soils have liquid limit values ranging from 50 to 100%, plasticity index
ranging from 20 to 65% and shrinkage limit from 9 to 14%. The amount of swell generally
increases with increase in the plasticity index. The swelling potential depends on the type of clay
mineral, crystal lattice structure, cation exchange capacity, ability of water absorption, density
and water content. Swell in the vertical direction is called heave. Among the illite, kaolinite and
montmorillinite clay minerals, the montmorillinite possesses the greatest ability to swell by illite.
The Kaolinite does not swell. The different chemical compositions and crystalline structures of
these minerals give each a different susceptibility to swelling as shown in Table 2. Swelling
occurs when water infiltrates between and within the clay particles causing them to separate.
Kaolinite is essentially nonexpansive because of the presence of strong hydrogen bonds that hold
the individual clay particles together. Illite contains weaker potassium bonds that allow limited
expansion, and montmorillonite particles are only weakly linked. Thus, water can easily flow
into montmorillonite clays and separate the particles. Field observations have confirmed that the
greatest problems occur in soils with high monmorillonite content.

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Black cotton soils are very hard in dry state and possess high bearing capacity. In summer, it is
very common to see shrinkage cracks with hexagonal columnar structure, with vertical cracks as
wide as 10mm extending up to a depth of 3m or more. Soils containing expansive clays become
very sticky when wet and usually are characterized by surface cracks or a “popcorn” texture
(Fig.1) when dry. Therefore, the presence of surface cracks (Fig.2) is usually an indication of an
expansive soil.

Figure 1: Expansive soil with “popcorn”

Figure 2: Expansive soil showing cracks
texture
Extensive research is going on to find the solutions to black cotton soils. The present discussion
reviews innovative solutions along with conventional foundation practices to counteract the dual
problem of swelling and shrinkage posed by expansive soils. Besides, the present discussion
throws a light on causes of distress in lightly loaded structures founded on expansive soils and
also various measures to rehabilitate the distressed structure founded on them.

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Problems with Expansive Soils
The problem is more in case of light structures; those cannot counteract the upward thrust posed
by expansive soils. The damage will be apparent, usually, several years after construction. The
soil below will exert swelling pressure both upwards and laterally. As a result, the floor slab is
lifted up, leading to cracking of floor. Cracking is normally evident at the corners of window and
door openings. These usually assume in the form of diagonal cracks-a consequence of
differential settlement in the wall (Fig. 3 & 4). Often, utilities buried in soil as the water pipelines
and sewage lines, get damaged due to displacement in the soil in which they are buried. The
ensuing leakage further aggravate the situation. Roads that pass through expansive soil sub-grade
are subjected to heaving and shrinkage settlement of these treacherous soils. Both the lined and
unlined canals are subjected to the vagaries of expansive soils. The unlined canal slopes erode
and become soft. Canal beds heave up obstructing the functioning of the canal. The concrete
linings splinter like glass pieces on account of deleterious cyclic movement of background
swelling clay. This heavy results in seepage losses.

Figure 3: Cracks in exterior walls, as a Figure 4: Major cracks in exterior walls at

result of upward soil expansion doors and windows

Foundation Practices on Expansive Soils

It is necessary to note that all parts of a building will not equally be affected by the swelling
potential of the soil. Beneath the center of a building where the soil is protected from sun and
rain the moisture changes are small and the soil movements the least. Beneath outside walls, the
movement is greater. Damage to buildings is greatest on the outside walls due to soil
movements.

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Fig.5(a) Poor surface drainage, wet expanded Fig.5(b) Good surface drainage, dry stable
claly clay

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All three categories of methods are in use either singly or in combination, but the second is by
far the most widespread. The following conventional foundation practices and innovative
techniques can provide solutions to problematic soils under these categories.

Alternating the expansive soil

Replacement
CNS Layer
Sand Cushion
Fly Ash Cushion
Lime Treatment
Prewetting
Moisture Barriers
Providing a granular bed and cover below and around the foundation
Chemical stabilization of swelling soils
Stabilization by industrial waste
Stabilization by reinforcement
Bypassing the expansive clay
Deepened footings
Drilled shafts
Structurally supported floors
Underreamed pile foundations
Granular pile foundations
Granular pile anchors
Mitigating the movements in the structure
Flexible construction
Rigid foundation system

Providing a granular bed and cover below and around the

foundation:
Fig.6(a) shows a typical type of foundation under an outside wall. The granular fill provided
around the shallow foundation mitigates the effects of expansion of the soils.

Fig. 6 Foundation in expansive soil

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Sub excavating or replacing the Expansive Soil by Cushions

Figure 7: Subexcavating or Replacing the

Expansive Soil by Cushions
In this technique, the expansive soil is replaced either in part or full (Fig. 7) with a material that
doesn’t undergo swell. The load of the cushion provides the load necessary to counter heave.

Sand Cushion Method

Satyanarayana (1969) has suggested that the entire depth of the expansive soil stratum or a part
there of may be removed and replaced with a sand cushion, compacted to the desired density and
thickness. Swelling pressure varies inversely as the thickness of the sand layer and directly as its
density. Therefore, generally sand cushions are formed in their loosest possible state without,
however, violating the bearing capacity criterion. The basic advantage of the sand cushion
method is its ability to adapt itself to volume changes in the soil. However, the sand cushion
method has several limitations particularly when it is adopted in deep strata. Most of the
foundation engineers often suggest some arbitrary thickness for the sand cushion without
consideration to the depth of the zone of potential volume change which itself is difficult to
determine. The high permeability of sand creates conditions conducive to easy ingress and
accumulation of water from surface runoff.

CNS Layer Method

Replacement by soils with relatively impervious material may, to a great extent offset the
disadvantages of sand cushion method. Katti (1978) has developed a technique where by
removal of about 1m of expansive soil and replacement by cohesive non-swelling soils (CNS)
layer beneath foundations has yielded satisfactory results. Katti has successfully adopted it for
prevention of heave and resultant cracking of canal beds and linings and recommends it for use
in foundations of residential buildings also. According to Katti cohesive forces of significant
magnitude are developed with depth in an expansive soil system during saturation which is
responsible for reducing heave and counteracting swelling pressure. The behaviour is mainly
attributed to the influence of electrical charges present on the surface of clay particles on the
dipolar nature of water molecules, producing absorbed water bonds that give rise to cohesion.

Moorum is a typical example of CNS material. The cohesive bonds develop around the particles
at a faster rate than the ingress of water molecules into the interlayer of the expanding lattices of
montmorillinite, thereby reducing heave. The heave of expansive soil underlying a CNS layer
reduces exponentially with increase in thickness of the CNS layer and attains a value of no heave
around a depth of 1.0m.The shear strength of the underlying expansive soil at the interface and
below increases with the thickness of CNS layer. The ultimate bearing capacity after saturation

9
at the interface and 1m below interface have been found to increase compared with the value of
expansive soil in winter. Thus the expansive soil should be excavated up to of 1m below the
footing level and replaced with CNS layer, compacted to modified AASHO specifications,
projecting up to 1m beyond the foundations.

However, studies conducted later (Subba Rao et al., 1995) indicated that CNS Cushion was
effective in arresting
esting heave only during the first cycle of seasonal moisture fluctuations and,
during the subsequent cycles, the heave may be more than that recorded by a black cotton soil
without cushion. Besides, a soil conforming to the specifications suggested by Katti
Kat (1978) for
suitability as CNS material is difficult to find (Table 3).

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Fly Ash Cushion
Each one of the above methods has one limitation or the other, in terms of its efficacy or
economy. The studies have been carried out using fly ash as a cushioning material (Sree
Ramarao et al., 2005). Developments of cohesive bonds in a lime-stabilized fly ash cushion,
when stabilized with lime, is expected to produce an environment similar to the one obtained in
CNS material following saturation and consequently arrest heave. The results of the study
showed a new solution to the problem heave of expansive soil in the form of “Fly ash cushion
method.” It also solves the problem of fly ash utilization and disposal to some extent. If at a site
containing black cotton soil, the depth of the active zone is 3m, it would be sufficient if 1.5m of
expansive clay is removed and replaced with fly ash cushion to get the heave reduced
significantly. With the superstructure load causing further reduction of heave, the amount of sub-
excavation and replacement with lime stabilized fly ash cushion can be further reduced.

Deep Foundation Techniques

In this case, the foundation is made to rest at some depth by passing the soil in the active zone,
i.e. the zone within which volume changes in the soil occur due to seasonal moisture changes.

Drilled Pier Foundations

Drilled piers are commonly used to resist uplift forces caused by the swelling of soils. Drilled
piers, when made with an enlarged base, are called, belled piers and when made without an
enlarged base are referred to as straight-shaft piers.

Woodward, et al., (1972) commented on the empirical design of piers: "Many piers, particularly
where rock bearing is used, have been designed using strictly empirical considerations which are
derived from regional experience". They further stated that "when surface conditions are well
established and are relatively uniform, and the performance of past constructions well
documented, the design by experience approach is usually found to be satisfactory."

The principle of drilled piers is to provide a relatively inexpensive way of transferring the
structural loads down to stable material or to a stable zone where moisture changes are
improbable.

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 Fig. 8 Drilled pier in expansive soil

Fig. 9 gives a typical foundation design with grade beams and drilled piers (Chen, 1988). The
piers should be taken sufficiently below the unstable zone of wetting in order to resist the uplift
forces.

Fig. 9 Grade beam and pier system (Chen, 1988)

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There should be no direct contact between the soil and the structure with the exception of the
soils supporting the piers.

Under-Reamed Piles
Underreamed piles are bored cast in-situ concrete piles having bulb (s) towards their toes. The
underreamed pile, originally developed in Texas, USA have been considerably experimented
upon by Central Building Research Institute (C.B.R.I), Roorkee, India. In India, at about 3.5m
below the ground, movements are negligible and if foundations are anchored at that depth, they
will remain stable. Based on this principle, under-reamed piles (Sharma et al, 1978) were
adopted for foundations in expansive soils in India. The bulbs are provided generally in the
inactive zone where sufficient anchorage is available. The length of the pile may vary from 3.5 m
to 4.0 m in deep deposits of black cotton soils. In shallow deposits, the pile is carried down into
the nonexpansive layer to a minimum depth of 0.6m. The spacing of pile depends upon the plan
of the building, its loading and safe bearing capacity of piles. The spacing may vary 1.5 m to 3.0
m. A pile is provided under every wall junction in the plan of the building so that a point load on
the plinth beam is avoided. The Bureau of Indian Standards has also brought a code IS 2911: Part
III-1980 on under-reammed piles.

Fig. (a) Single-bulb cast in-situ under reamed pile Fig. (b) Multi-bulb under reamed pile

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14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
Granular Piles or Stone Columns
Ground improvement with granular piles is also one of the most preferred choices to improve
liquefaction resistance of loose sands and minimize settlements following a seismic event. The
range of soils, saturated uniform sands to silts which are most susceptible to damage due to
liquefaction, falls in the range of soils that can be improved by stone columns either by vibro-
vibro
compaction or vibro-replacement.
replacement. No damage was observed from the treated sites wherein stone
columns were used to improve the site characteristics and which were subjected to recent Loma
Prieta earthquake (Mitchell and Wentz Wentz, 1991).. Granular piles mitigate the potential for
liquefaction and damage by (i) preventing build up high pore pressure; (ii) providing drainage
path and (iii) increasing the strength and stiffness of ground.

Granular piles are often constructed through soft soils fully penetrating to an end-bearing
end
stratum. However, they may be constructed as floating piles, the tips ending within soft layer but
at depths where the strength of the soil is adequate. Granular pi
piles
les may fail individually or as a
group. The failure mechanisms for a single granular pile are as: a) pile, b) bulging and c) general
shear failures (Barksdale and Bachus
Bachus, 1983).

For single, isolated granular piles, the most probable failure mechanisms ar aree pile or bulging
failure. Pile mechanism controls the ultimate load for short GP resting on soft to medium stiff
bearing layer while bulging failure is most likely for long GP. The lateral confining stress
supporting the granular pile is usually taken as the limit pressure the surrounding soil can
mobilize as the pile bulges outwards. Most of the approaches in predicting the ultimate bearing
capacity of a single, isolated granular pile has been developed based on the above assumption.

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Fig. 11 Granular Pile or Stone Column with Bulging at Top

Fig. 12 Failure Mechanicsm (IS: 15284 Part 1 – 2003)

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Granular Pile-Anchor Foundation (GPAF) System
It has been observed that under-reamed pile foundations suffer from the difficulty of both
formation upon which the whole mechanism of anchoring depends. Phanikumar et. al (1996) felt
that the cost of under-reamed pile foundation is more for light structures where the cost of
structure itself is very low. In this technique, the foundation is anchored at the bottom a granular
pile to mild steel anchor plate with the help of a mild steel anchor rod. This is called a granular
pile-anchor (Fig.11) also counteracts the problem of shrinkage acting as a storage medium. As
the granular pile is a particulate medium, it cannot resist the tensile uplift force on the
foundation, and as such needs to be modified into a pile-anchor by the above mechanism. As the
expansive soil absorbs water, it swells and uplifts the foundation. But, an enormous resistance to
uplift is mobilized along the cylindrical pile–soil interface because of the shear parameters of the
Pile-soil Interface, and the shear resistance augmented by the lateral swelling pressure. Model
tests conducted in the laboratory revealed that heave and swell potential are enormously reduced
by the installation of granular pile anchors. The % reduction was about 90 to 95. It has also been
observed that the strength characteristics of the ambient soil surrounding the granular pile-anchor
showed a large improvement and that the composite ground showed improved bearing capacity.

Figure 13: Granular Pile-Anchor Foundation System

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Chemical Stabilization
Chemical stabilization of expansive soils can be adopted to alleviate the problems posed by these
soils to civil engineering structures. Chemical stabilization of expansive clays consists of
changing the physico-chemical around and inside of clay particles where by the clay requires less
water to satisfy the static imbalance and making it difficult for water that moves into and out of
the system. The most common chemical admixtures used in soil stabilization are lime and
cement.

Lime stabilization has been used successfully on major projects to minimize swelling of the
expansive soil. Generally, 3 to 8% by weight hydrated lime is added to the top several inches of
the soil (John et al). Lime continues to be widely used additive for modification of expansive
clays in view of its cost-effectiveness although limited success in many instances. Lime is
sparingly soluble in exchange reactions are less. Further, the lime diffusion into soil either from
lime piles or lime slurry pressure injection is hardly 38 to 50mm in 1 to 4 years unless extensive
fissure and crack system is present. The hydration of Portland cement is a complex pozzolanic
reaction that produces a variety of different compounds and gels. The results of mixing cement
with clay soil are similar to that of lime. It reduces liquid limit, the plastic index and the potential
of volume change, it increases the shrinkage limit and shear strength. For highly plastic clay, it is
not effective like lime in stabilization. Addition of 2 to 6% cement content can produce a soil
that acts as a semi rigid slab (John). Some investigators have tried and succeeded in minimizing
the swelling of expansive soil using chemicals like calcium chloride (CaCl2), calcium sulfate
(CaSo4), potassium chloride (Kcl), aluminum chloride (AlCl3), etc.

Stabilization by Industrial Wastes

Utilization of industrial wastes like fly ash, quarry dust, silica fume, copper slag, tannery sludge,
etc (Sabat et al, Stalin et al) in the geotechnical engineering field will solve the problem of
disposal of these wastes. Extensive research is carried and carrying by the geotechnical
investigators to reduce the swelling of expansive soils by using industrial wastes. Fly ash is a
waste material produced due to burning of coal for thermal power industries. It is a hazardous
material causing environmental pollution degradation. Fly ash is added to soils treated with lime
to increase the pozzolanic reaction and improve the gradation of granular soils. The pozzolanic
activity of silt soils has been improved by using a lime-fly ash ratio of 1:2. Liquid limit decreases
and plastic limit increases with increase in the percentage of fly ash. Generally, the plasticity
index reduces by about 50% when 20% of fly ash added. The optimum moisture content
decreases and maximum dry unit weight increase with increase in fly ash content. When the
non–plastic fly ash particles are added to the expansive clay the water content required for the
reorientation of the particles will be less (Pandian et al., 2004).

Stabilization by Reinforcement
Using fibers like jute fabrics, coir ropes, rubber tire chips, waste plastics, synthetic fibre etc can
successfully stabilize the expansive soils. The work reported by Raid R. Al-Omari and Faris J.
Hamodi (1991) showed the feasibility of using tensile geogrid for the purpose of controlling the
swell of plastic soils. Swelling tests using an enlarged oedometer revealed promising results. The
reinforcements were cylindrical geogrid of varying stiffness values embedded in clays of

25
different plasticity indices. The reduction in swell increased with increasing the geogrid stiffness,
apparently due to a strong ‘interference’ bond restricting the relative movement between clay
and the grid. A footings model test confirmed the effectiveness of the proposed technique.

Horizontal Moisture Barriers

Horizontal moisture barriers can be installed around buildings in the form of membranes or
paving, both flexible and rigid. Horizontal barriers are meant to prevent excessive intake of
moisture. Considerable success has been achieved with asphaltic membranes-catalytically blown
asphalt membranes or prefabricated sheets. Asphalt membranes can be used to cover the surface
of expansive soils so that non-expansive fill can be placed on top of the membranes. This
minimizes infiltration of surface water into the under slab soils.

Vertical Moisture Barriers

Vertical moisture barriers using concrete, ferrocement or any other impervious material around
the perimeter of the building, to cut off the source of water, can be very useful in minimizing
seasonal drying and shrinkage of the perimeter foundation soils and also in maintaining long-
term uniform moisture conditions beneath covered areas. Vertical moisture barriers should be
provided to a depth greater than the depth of seasonal moisture changes.

SERC Roorkee / Ghaziabad have developed technology for ferrocement waterproofing and water
barriers. Construction and same has been successfully used in field. Distress in Lightly Loaded
Structures Founded on Expansive Soils If the load is placed on the expansive soil is more, the
selling is arrested. When the imposed loads are light, the swelling is more pronounced. It is
interesting to note that it is rare that heavily loaded structures have problem with swelling soils
while it is the lightly loaded single and two storeyed buildings which experience maximum
distress.

Causes for Distress in Lightly Loaded Structures

The following are the causes for distress in lightly loaded structures founded on expansive soils:
 The construction of building on marshy area and water table is observed at a shallow
depth below the ground level.
 There is no flagging/plinth protection around the building.
 Growth of vegetation is observed around the building.
 Sump tank and sewage pipes are very close to the foundation.
 Wastewater and rainwater are disposed directly on the ground very close to the
foundation.
 Cracks at plinth, sill, lintel levels and differential heaving of flooring, shifting of walls,
extensive cracks are observed in internal and external walls of the building. It is due to
the high swelling and shrinking characteristics of expansive black cotton soil in the
foundation region.
 The presence of chloride and sulphate contents in fine aggregate are very high compared
to the permissible values aggregate could have affect the concrete durability, which in
turn have results severe corrosion of reinforcement in various members.

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Measures for Rehabilitation of Distressed Structures
Founded on Expansive Soils
The following restoration measures as suggested below to counteract the dual problem of
swelling and shrinking behavior of expansive clay (Rama Rao M, et al (2004), Sivapullaiah, et al
(2005), Prabhakar, et al (2005):

 Construction of additional one or two floors above the existing building should be done
so that the loading on the foundation would be more than the existing swelling pressure.
 The plinth beam should be separated from the natural ground by leaving an air gap of 8 to
10cm between the plinth beam bottom and natural ground. If the gap is not provided the
plinth beam have at least to be designed for upward pressure due to soil swelling.
 A flexible water proof apron (plinth protection) of about width 2.0m shall be provided all
round the building.
 Installation of horizontal/ vertical moisture barriers around the perimeter of the building.
 The internal non-load bearing walls with wide multiple cracks and dislocations shall be
removing completely and rebuilt. Before dismantling, the complete roof should be
supported by either steel or timber props.
 Flooring shall be redone after removing existing filled up soil up to about 1.5 m from the
floor level and replacing the same with well-compacted non-expansive materials placed
in layers not exceeding 30cm thickness.
 The sewer pipes with leak proof joints close to the foundation shall be beyond the
foundation media.
 Providing sump tank far from foundation region.
 Plantation of trees, plants and hedges within 3m distance around the building should be
avoided. This because of extensive watering of plants close to the building contributes to
swelling.
 Discharging rainwater collected from roof at a distance from the structure.

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