UNIVERSITY OF CALOOCAN CITY

Congressional Campus
SYLLABUS

Course name:

Course Code: RES003

Course credits: 3 units

Course description: This course covers primary considerations in conducting academic research which is an indispensable skill of any student.
Students will gain familiarity with the scientific method, ethical issues in research, measurement, research design, and research
methods.

Hours/Week: 3 hours/week

Course objectives/Learning Outcomes: The students who successfully complete this course will be able to:
a. define what research is;
b. appreciate the importance of research not only academically but also practically ;
c. identify the different research designs;
d. compare the different research approaches;
e. determine the purposes of each research approach;
f. choose appropriate sampling technique according to research design;
g. recognize various research methodologies;
h. differentiate various tools in data gathering;
i. determine the considerations in citation according to their field of specialization;
j. cite sources properly following APA Format;
k. consider ethics in conducting research;
l. plan for research conduct;
m. present research plan via live video conferencing.

Student Values/Competencies/Standards
In order to maintain the essence and vital goals of education even through a different mode of learning, the students are expected
to achieve the following:
a. Explore research language, ethics, and approaches;
b. Be aware of the ethical principles of research, ethical challenges, and approval processes.
c. Apply knowledge of ethical issues in research.
d. Select appropriate research designs and research methods to address hypothetical and real-world problems.
e. Develop professionally relevant knowledge in the selection and evaluation of research designs and methods.
f. Critically review literature relevant to their field or interests and determine how research findings are useful in
forming their understanding of their work, social, local and global environment;

Course Outline and Timeframe:

Study Period Topic Source/ Reference Learning Activities

Week 1 I. Course Overview See Module 1 Activity 1.1

June 15-21 II. Definition of Research
III. Purpose of Research Online-based sources, reading materials Activity 1.2

Week 2 IV. Research Design See Module 2 Activity 3.1

June 22-28 ● Descriptive
● Experimental Reading material provided Activity 4.1

V. Research Approaches Online-based searching for further information

● Qualitative/ Quantitative
● Applied/ Basic
● Deductive/ Inductive

Week 3 VI. Variables See Module 3 Activity 3.1

June 29-July 5 ● Independent Variables
● Dependent Variables Reading material available Activity 3.2

(MIDTERM) Exam to be posted in group online (or any course site)* Activity 3.3

Week 4 VII. Population and Sampling See Module 4 Activity 4.1

July 6-12 ● Probability Sampling
● Non-Probability Sampling Printed material available Activity 4.2

PowerPoint Presentation

Week 5 VIII. Stages of Research Process See Module 5 Activity 5.1

July 13-19 Parts of Research
Chapter 1-2-3-4-5 Video Conference/ Recorded video presentation/ Planning/ Pre-writing/Writing
 PowerPoint Presentation

Week 6 IX. APA Style See Module 6 Activity 6.1

July 20-26 X. Ethical Considerations In Research Video or PowerPoint Presentation
● Plagiarism and how to avoid it Activity 6.2
● Research plan live online presentation**
(FINALS) Online Presentation (Chapters 1-3)
4-5
* Apart from Facebook Group/Page, course sites like Quipper, Blackboard, etc.
** May be live or recorded

This syllabus is subject to change at any time at the discretion of the professor.
 UNIVERSITY OF CALOOCAN CITY
College of Liberal Arts and Sciences

METHODS OF Research
(Module)
Prepared by:
NESS ARLOS/PEREYRA
 MODULE 1
Topic 1: Course Overview
Week 1
Read: Pages 1-2 of the course outline

Topic 2: Definition of research

Research is one of the most interesting courses in tertiary, as it gives you a degree of control and discretion over what you learn. It offers you the opportunity of

verifying, clarifying, exploring – or even finding – new facets of a subject or area of interest.

Morphemically speaking, the term “research” can be sliced into two, re and search which give suggestion and implication that an object of research has been done

before and the purpose of the present researcher is to agree, improve or contradict the results of a previous study (Adanza, et al., 2009).

Research is an inquiry and analysis process; it is systematic, methodical, and ethical. Research may help solve practical problems and increase knowledge. It is

different than other forms of discovering knowledge (like reading a book) because it uses a systematic process called the Scientific Method.

______________________________________________________________________________
ACTIVITY 1.1
______________________________________________________________________________
Give more definitions of research from different sources
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Topic 3: Purpose of Research

People do research on a regular basis, but they are often unaware of doing so. They also seek information. They can think and act in certain ways through research

findings. It helps them in identifying orders and their effect on the person and community, thus improving effective treatments to enhance the quality of life of the

individuals. Research decreases the potential of making poor or risky choices to protect them from misconceptions and harmful beliefs. This is the force behind the

food people eat, the pensions they buy, the cars they drive, the medicines they take, the mobile phones they use, the electricity they use and much more.

______________________________________________________________________________
ACTIVITY 1.2
______________________________________________________________________________
List down some other purposes of research that help you in your practical life.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Topic 4: Research Design

MODULE 2
Research design serves as the glue which holds the research project together. A design is utilized to organize the research to prove each part of the research is
Week 2
intact to one another in address the central research questions (Trochim, 2015).

Several ways to design a study may be used to test a hypothesis (an informed and educated prediction or

explanation about something). The research design that is chosen depends on the type of hypothesis (e.g. Does X

cause Y? or How can I describe X and Y? or What is the relationship between X and Y? ), how much time and

money the study will cost, and whether or not it is possible to find participants. The researcher has to consider

each of these points when designing the study and writing the research plan.

There are various kinds of research design, however, most of them fall into two categories: descriptive and

experimental.

Descriptive Studies

A descriptive study is one in which information is collected without changing the environment (i.e., nothing is

manipulated). Sometimes these are referred to as "correlational " or "observational" studies.

In human research, a descriptive study can provide information about the naturally occurring health status, behavior, attitudes or other characteristics of a

particular group. Descriptive studies are also conducted to demonstrate associations or relationships between things in the world around you.

Descriptive studies can involve a one-time interaction with groups of people (cross-
GROUP
sectional study)
A Compared at
or a study might follow individuals over time (longitudinal study). GROUP
the same
Descriptive studies, in which the researcher interacts with the participant, may involve B
time
GROUP
surveys or interviews to collect the necessary information.
C
Descriptive studies in which the researcher does not interact with the participant include

observational studies of people in an environment (e.g., "fly on the wall") and studies involving data

collection using existing records (e.g., medical record review).

Experimental Studies
Case for Descriptive Study
Unlike a ACTIVITY
descriptive 2.1
study, an experiment is a study in which a treatment, procedure, or program is intentionally introduced, and a result or outcome is observed. The
A researcher wants to know why individuals in Community A have a higher rate of a rare
American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language defines an experiment as "A test under controlled conditions that is made to demonstrate a known truth, to
form of cancer when compared to those living in Community B. To find out the reasons for
examine the validity of a hypothesis, or to determine the efficacy of something previously untried."
the differences in cancer rates in these two communities, the investigator surveyed
residents about their lifestyle, noted the types of businesses that were present in the
community and searched medical rThe learner understands the principles and uses of
surveys, experiments and scientific observations ecords. The researcher found that
 higher rate of cigarette smoking in this community and residents tended to delay or skip
going to the doctor for an annual checkup. In Community B, the largest employer was a
department store and on average, residents did not smoke as much as residents from
True experiments have four elements: manipulation, control, random assignment, and random selection. The most important of these elements are manipulation and
Community A. However, like individuals from Community A, Community B residents tended
control. Manipulation means that something is purposefully changed by the researcher in the environment. Control is used to prevent outside factors from influencing
to delay or skip their annual checkup with their doctor.
the study outcome. When something is manipulated and controlled and then the outcome happens, it makes us more confident that the manipulation "caused" the
Discussion Questions
outcome. In addition, experiments involve highly controlled and systematic procedures in an effort to minimize error and bias, which also increases our confidence
1. What makes this a descriptive study?
that the manipulation2.Why did
"caused" the the researcher collect information about the lifestyle of community
outcome.

Another key elementresidents? What

of a true experiment aboutassignment.
is random the type Randomofassignment
businesses present
means that in groups
if there are eachorcommunity?
treatments in theMedical
experiment, participants
records?
are assigned to these groups or treatments, or randomly (like the flip of a coin).
3. Can the investigator establish that the chemical plant and cigarette smoking are
the cause
This means that no matter who the for the higher
participant is, he/she rate of cancer
has an equal chance ofamong those
getting into all thein Community
groups A?in an experiment. This process helps to
or treatments

4.orCan
ensure that the groups the are
treatments investigator establish
similar at the beginning thatso that
of the study lower
theresmoking ratesthatand
is more confidence the absence
the manipulation (group orof a
treatment) "caused"
chemical factory explains the lower rate of cancer among those in Community B?
the outcome. More information about random assignment may be found in section Random assignment.

ACTIVITY 2.2

Topic 5:

Research
Experimental Study

Case 1

An investigator wants to evaluate whether a new technique to teach math to elementary school students is more effective than the standard teaching

method. Using an experimental design, the investigator divides the class randomly (by chance) into two groups and calls them "Group A" and "Group B."

The students cannot choose their own group. The random assignment process results in two groups that should share equal characteristics at the

beginning of the experiment.

In Group A, the teacher uses a new teaching method to teach the math lesson. In Group B, the teacher uses a standard teaching method to teach the

math lesson. The investigator compares test scores at the end of the semester to evaluate the success of the new teaching method compared to the

standard teaching method. At the end of the study, the results indicated that the students in the new teaching method group scored significantly

higher on their final exam than the students in the standard teaching group.

Case 2

A fitness instructor wants to test the effectiveness of a performance-enhancing herbal supplement on students in her exercise class. To create

experimental groups that are similar at the beginning of the study, the students are assigned into two groups at random (they cannot choose which

group they are in). Students in both groups are given a pill to take every day, but they do not know whether the pill is a placebo (sugar pill) or the

herbal supplement. The instructor gives Group A the herbal supplement and Group B receives the placebo (sugar pill). The students' fitness level is

compared before and after six weeks of consuming the supplement or the sugar pill. No differences in performance ability were found between the

two groups suggesting that the herbal supplement was not effective.

Discussion Questions:

1. What makes both studies experimental?

2.What type of information might the investigator collect in these two studies to see if the treatment (e.g. new teaching method or herbal

supplement) is effective?

3.Can the researcher establish cause and effect in either or both studies?

4.What would happen if the researcher allowed the students to study together or talk about the different methods that were being used to

teach the math lesson? Would this be a good or a bad idea? How would this influence the study results?

5.What if the fitness instructor allowed participants to take other herbal supplements in addition to the supplements being tested? Would this

be a good or a bad idea? How would this influence the study results?

Approaches

Research can be approached in the following ways:

✔ Quantitative/Qualitative
✔ Applied/Basic
✔ Deductive/Inductive

QUANTITATIVE VS. QUALITATIVE

TAKE NOTE Quantitative Qualitative
● ●
Various research projects integrate a number of approaches,
Quantitative approach focuses on collecting and analyzing numerical
for example, combination
Qualitative research is more subjective than Quantitative research.

●
data.
of quantitative and qualitative approaches It includes analyzing and focusing on a research topic's less

● It concentrates on measuring thescale, range, frequency etc. measurable elements, such as beliefs, behaviors, and perceptions.

ofphenomena. ● Although this type of research can be easier to start, the results can

● Although initially difficult to design, this form of research is typically also be challenging to interpret and present; results can also be more easily

highly detailed and organized, and results can be easily collated and statistically questioned.

presented.

BASIC VS. APPLIED RESEARCH

Basic Applied
● The primary aim of Basic Research is to improve knowledge generally, ● AppliedResearch is designed from the start to apply its findings to a

without any particular applied purpose in mind at the outset. particularsituation.

● For example, what are protons, neutrons, and electrons composed of? ● For example, Cure for COVID-19

What are branches of government?

DEDUCTIVE VS. INDUCTIVE

Deductive Inductive
● Deductive research moves from general ideas/theories to specific
● Inductive research moves fromparticular situations to make or

particular &situations: the particular is deducedfrom the general, e.g. broad inferbroad general ideas/theories.

theories. Particular Situation

General Ideas General Ideas

Particular

Situation
Examples of Deductive and Inductive Approach

Imagine you wanted to learn what the word ‘professional’ meant to a range of people.

Deductive Approach

You would want to have a clear theoretical position prior to collection of data. You might therefore research the subject and discover several definitions of

‘professional’ from, for example, several professional associations. You could then test this definition on a range of people, using a questionnaire, structured

interviews, or group discussion. You could carefully select a sample of people based on age, gender, occupation etc.

The data gathered could then be collated and the results analyzed and presented.

This approach offers researchers a relatively easy and systematic way of testing established ideas on a range of people.

Inductive Approach

If you adopted this approach you might start by talking to a range of people asking for their ideas and definitions of ‘professional’. From these discussions you

could start to assemble the common elements and then start to compare these with definitions gained from professional associations.

The data gathered could then be collated and the results analyzed and presented.

This approach might lead you to arrive at a new definition of the word – or it might not! This approach can be very time-consuming, but the reward might be in

terms of arriving at a fresh way of looking at the subject.

Source: University of Bradford, School of Management

Topic 6: Variables MODULE 3

The purpose of all research is to describe and explain variance in the world. Variance
Week 3 is simply the difference; that is, variation that occurs naturally in the world or

change that we create because of a manipulation. Variables are names that are given
) to the variance we wish to explain.

A variable is either a result of some force or is itself the force that causes a change in another variable. In experiments, these are called dependent and independent

variables respectively.

When a researcher gives

an active medication to

one group of people and a

placebo, or inactive

medication, to another

group of people, the

independent variable is the medication treatment. Each person's response to the active medication or

placebo is called the dependent variable.

This could be many things depending upon what the medication is for, such as high blood pressure or

muscle pain. Therefore, in experiments, a researcher manipulates an independent variable to

determine if it causes a change in the dependent variable.

As mentioned learned earlier in a descriptive study, variables are not manipulated. They are observed

as they naturally occur and then associations between variables are studied. In a way, all the variables

in descriptive studies are dependent variables because they are studied in relation to all the other variables that exist in the setting where the research is taking

place. However, in descriptive studies, variables are not discussed using the terms "independent" or "dependent." Instead, the names of the variables are used when

discussing the study. For example, there is more diabetes in people of Native American heritage than people who come from Eastern Europe. In a descriptive study,

the researcher would examine how diabetes (a variable) is related to a person's genetic heritage (another variable).
Determine which is the Independent and Dependent Variables in the scenario below. Justify your answers.
ACTIVITY 3.1
Case Example for Independent and ____________________________________________________________
Dependent Variables
In a study with a similar design as the previous example, researchers looked at the effects of nutrition on reading ability. In Group A, children ate at least three
In an experimental study looking at____________________________________________________________
classical music exposure and reading ability in children, the researcher divided the children into two groups (Groups A and B). In
ounces of dark green vegetables every day for one month. In Group B, children were fed their regular diet. At the end of the month, the children took a reading
Group A, the children listened to Mozart for one hour every day for one month. In Group B, parents were instructed to refrain from playing classical music around
____________________________________________________________
comprehension test. Those who ate the green vegetables every day for one month (Group A) did not vary in their test scores when compared to Group B.
the child for one month. At the end of the month, all children were given a reading comprehension test. Those who listened to Mozart daily (Group A) scored
____________________________________________________________
significantly higher on the reading test. In this case, the reading comprehension test score is the dependent variable and exposure to Mozart’s music is the
____________________________________________________________
independent variable. This is because the test score is dependent on whether or not the child listens to Mozart’s music. The independent variable, exposure to
____________________________________________________________
Mozart’s music, is independent because it is something that can be manipulated or changed by the researcher.
____________________________________________________________

Identify which variables are dependent and independent in the following examples:

Example: ACTIVITY 3.2

Physical activity and weight loss

Dependent Variable: weight loss

Independent Variable: physical activity

1. Positive feedback and self confidence

Dependent Variable:

Independent Variable:

2. Headache and aspirin

Dependent Variable:

Independent Variable:

3. Muscle mass and weight-training

Dependent Variable:

Independent Variable:

4. Calcium consumption and bone density

Dependent Variable:

Independent Variable:

5. Blood pressure and salt intake

Dependent Variable:

Independent Variable:

Variables are important to understand because they are the basic units of the information studied and interpreted in research studies. Researchers carefully analyze

and interpret the value(s) of each variable to make sense of how things relate to each other in a descriptive study or what has happened in an experiment.

Identify the variables that are under investigation in the following descriptive study:
ACTIVITY 3.3
Topic 7: Population and Sampling MODULE 4

Sampling is defined as the method of selecting certain members of a bigger community

Week 4 (population). The normal goal is to sample those participants so that they will
Many children who live in the Bronx, a borough of New York City, are developing asthma. In a descriptive study investigating this problem, parents whose children
be representative of the entire community. ) live near a freeway, whether their child regularly sees a healthcare provider,
have asthma are asked about whether they smoke around their child, whether they
Sampling is the process
their family whereby participants
income level are selected
and also if there forina their
is a history research
familystudy. It involves
of asthma. selecting
Prior research a small
has shown group
that offactors
these participants toan
may have represent a bigger
influence on the group. It is
All women in the Philippines

used because development

inclusion ofofall members
asthma of a group is difficult or impractical (e.g. all female students in the Philippines; all male athletes). However, research projects
in children.

Discussion Questions
are designed to ensure that there are enough participants to generate useful information that can be generalized to the represented group.
1,000 women in clinic
1. What are the variables that are under investigation in this study?

2. If you were the researcher, what other variables would you study to see if it may contribute to developing asthma? Why?
Case Example for Sampling
3. Given the variables presented in the example and the variables that you thought of, why would these variables be useful to the researcher?
200 women
A researcher will study the nutrition among Filipino women. To find participants to interview, she requested a list of names and contact information for all women

from a community clinic. These women had already provided consent and had agreed to be contacted about participating in future research studies. The list

included 1,000 names of potential participants for the nutrition study. The investigator chose 200 of the women from this list to contact for possible inclusion in

the study.

Discussion Questions

1. What is the purpose of selecting a smaller group of participants from a larger group?

2. Do the women included on this list represent the larger group?

3. Would you choose participants differently if this was your study? If so, how would you do it?

4. What would happen if the investigator chose individuals from the list that she knew? Would this affect the results of the study?
Sampling strategies are divided into two main groups: probability andnon-probability sampling

Probability sampling

Probability samplinguses random sampling techniques to create a sample. It is based on the fact that each member of a population has a known and fair probability of

being chosen.

Types of Probability Sampling

Simple random sampling is a completely random method of selecting subjects. These can include assigning numbers to all subjects and then using a random number

generator to choose random numbers.Classic ball and urn experiments are another example of this process (assuming the balls are sufficiently mixed). The members

whose numbers are chosen are included in the sample.

Systematic Samplingmeans choosing every “nth” participant from a complete list. For example, every 5th person listed is chosen.

Stratified random sampling involves partition of a population into smaller sub-groups known as strata. In stratified random sampling, or stratification, the strata are

formed based on shared attributes or characteristics of members such as income or educational attainment.

Cluster sampling divides the population into groups, then takes a random sample from each cluster.This method is used when there are different subsets of groups

present in a larger population. These groups are known as clusters. Cluster sampling is commonly used by marketing groups and professionals.

Multi-Stage Random sampling uses a combination of techniques.

Non-Probability Sampling

Non-Probability Sampling is a sampling technique where the odds of any member being selected for a sample cannot be calculated. It relies on the subjective

judgement of the researcher.

Types of Non-Probability Sampling

Convenience Sampling, as the name suggests, involves collecting a sample from somewhere convenient to the researcher: the mall, local school, church. Sometimes

called accidental sampling, opportunity sampling or grab sampling.

Purposive Samplingis choosing a sample based on their knowledge about the population and the study itself. The study participants are chosen based on the study’s

purpose.

Expert Samplinginvolves drawing the sample from a list of experts in the field.

Heterogeneity Samplingor Diversity Sampling is a type of sampling where the researcher deliberately chooses members so that all views are represented. However,

those views may or may not be represented proportionally.

Quota Sampling is setting the groups (i.e. men and women) in the sample proportionally to the groups in the population.

Snowball Sampling involves research participants recruiting other members for the study. This method is particularly useful when participants might be hard to find.

For example, a study on working prostitutes or current heroin users.

Topic 8: Stagesof the Research Process

MODULEHowever,
Research, as defined, is systematic. A researcher has to consider each step accurately. 5 sometimes the transition from one step to another is not definite.

Week 5

)
In 1991 there was a study of the personal characteristics of 48 highly successful

women. The 48 were contacted through the chairpersons of woman’s business

networks across England. The names of potential respondents were passed to the

researchers, who wrote to the women concerned and invited them to participate in the

survey, which included the completion of a questionnaire and interview with the

researcher.

What sampling strategy do you think was used in this study?

During the research, it may be necessary to go back and forth between steps to correct additional data, do additionalreading or adjust a timetable. On the other

hand, students need to carefullywork out a timetable for deadline of completion of each stage. Timetable is quite essential for the success of a study.

Below are the steps to be considered in conducting a research. Plan for your research paper by plotting a schedule for each step.
ACTIVITY .1
Steps Target Date

1. Establish a general field of interest; discuss with group mates (brainstorm)

2. Conduct initial and background reading on the topic to be researched to identify what is

already understood and recommend an appropriate research methodology to be chosen.

3. Narrow your ideas and give it a title to a workable topic or research proposal. Decide which

methods are most suitable for collecting data, e.g. questionnaire; observation; analysis of

available information etc.

4. Prepare information gathering 'tools,' such as questionnaires, interview sheets etc. This can

take a considerable amount of time, so allow plenty of time to do so.

5. Collect, study and interpret data gathered. There will certainly be a need to continue reading

on the topic in order to create relations with other current and relevant research. This will take

a significant amount of time so give plenty of time to do so.

6. Write first draft of research project report.

7. Revise and re-write the study; submit the study

YOUR RESEARCH: Getting Started

1. Establishing a general field of interest

Your interest on the research subject is a vital. You will spend a lot of time and effort on your research thus, a high interest is necessary. High interest will take you

through the challenges, setbacks and irritations encountered by most researchers.

ACTIVITY 3.2 Why are you interested in the above subject or topic? Write your ideas below.
What are your research interests? Write your thoughts in the space below. At this stage,

just keep your ideas broad and general.

This time, try and think about your research title and possible research approach. Use

the table below to try and think this through. At this point, your ideas are just

temporary, so nobody will commit you to them-you can change your mind!

Title Approach Methodology The ‘tools’ or

(Think of a title which briefly describes the (i.e. positivistic/ (e.g. case, study, methods to collect

nature of your proposed research) phenomenological) survey, cross-sectional primary data, e.g.

studies etc.) questionnaire,

autobiography,

interviews etc.

2. Initial and background reading

This step is necessary for several reasons:

✔ It is important to identify what works have been previously done in the topic are. It is a waste of time and effort if you will come up with a research

outcome that has been accomplished by someone else.

✔ Consequently, it can help you define research possibilities and tailor or angle your specific research project to gain more insight or viewpoints on the

subject chosen.
✔ This in turn will help you build a research approach that fits the project you have selected.
✔ It will help you to justify your choice of research topic at the projectproposal stage to your supervisor/tutor.

TAKE NOTE

One helpful tip for initial and background reading is to first pick a few key books or
3. Data and Information Gathering

articles
Your research paper on the
should chosen
include subject
empirical research arearesearch
or primary and data.
useThe these
followingas
area guide
ways todata:
to gather find other related texts
as a starting
Interviews with key persons in an organization: point
these may be face for
to face or byyour quest
telephone for or
or cell phone, information.
by email.
Focus groups: discussion and interviews

Participant observation may be conducted in a relevant social situation such as supermarkets, schools, and the likes.

Questionnaire survey can be done using printed or electronic like Google Forms (www.google.com) and Survey Monkey (www.surveymonkey.com).

Apart from these ways, other approaches may also be used such as autobiography, diary methods, Internet, etc.

INTERVIEWS

Interviews may be classified into three: structured, semi-structured, and unstructured.

Structured Interviews involve the use of questionnaires based on a prearranged and identical set of questions. The questions should be read in a neutral voice to

avoid influencing the interviewee on his or her response.

Semi-structured Interviews are done with a list of themes or ideas to be discoursed and asked by the interviewer. However, the interviewer may add or omit parts

depending on the situation or the flow of the discussion.

Unstructured Interviews are informal discussions where the interviewer wants to explore in-depth a particular topic in a spontaneous way.

FOCUS GROUPS

ACTIVITY
Focus groups are used 3.3
to gather data, types ofinresearch
political topic, etc.).
The researcher creates a relaxed atmosphere and records in some waywhat is being said through tape-recorder, video, or note-taker.
What usually
theformsproject might favor
of opinions, froma semi-structured or of
a selected group unstructured
people on interview approach?
aparticular and pre-determined topic (e.g. consumer topic,
Interviews, whether they What
be structured
types of or semi/unstructured,
research project mightcan sometimes
favor be problematic.
a structured What factors
interview approach?
Write in the space below.
might affect the outcome of any particular
Writeinterview? (Write
in the space in the space below)
below

The purpose of the discussion is introduced and discussion ground-rulesagreed. The researcher encourages free discussion, but is ready tointervene if necessary to

resolve group problems.

Focus groups can be a useful way of finding out what the main issues andconcerns of any group are. This can help in questionnaire design or todevelop a future

interview strategy. They can be a useful way too, ofbringing to the surface issues that might not otherwise have beendiscovered: the dynamics of a group can often

make people bolder inadvancing their opinions.

ACTIVITY 3.4

What might happen in a focus group to cause the researcher tointervene? Write in the space below.

PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION

Participantobservation is when a researcher attemptsto observe in some way in the groupbeing researched and to share in theexperiences being recorded and

analyzed.It can be used in association with other research approaches or as theprimary way of gathering data. It can be a good way of getting below thesurface of

any situation and to help reveal or unravel complex causalsocial processes.

Participant observation may be classified as: Complete participant, Complete observer,Observer as participant, andParticipant as observer.

Try to identify to which classification does each of the scenarios in Column B fall.

COLUMN A COLUMN B

1. Complete participant A. Observing team-building exercises (taking part, but only in

asuperficial way, without real emotional involvement).

2. Complete observer

B. study of leadership styles in action

3. Observer as participant

C. a detached study of consumer behavior in a supermarket

4. Participant as observer
 D. Attending and fully participating in an assessment center

selection day and taking an active part in all the activities

QUESTIONNAIRES

Major points to consider in preparing a questionnaire:

1. Questionnaires promotedata collection by asking all, or asample, to respond to the same questions. They canbe in both printed and electronic forms.

2. Five types of questionnaire approaches:

a. On-line (electronic)

b. Postal (printed)

c. Delivery & collection (printed)

d. Telephone (electronic/printed)

e. Interview face to face/group (electronic or printed)

3. A researcher must be definite on what he wants to learn and what data he needs to attain in order to enlighten him in his study. He also needs to look

forward on how he is going to organize the information he will gather.

4. The validity (the extent to which the data accurately measureswhat they were intended to measure) and reliability (theextent to which the data

collection method will yield consistentfindings if replicated by others) of the data you collect dependon the design of the questionnaire and the words that you use.

5. Questions can be open or closed:

a. Open questions: a question is posed, but space is leftfor the respondent’s own answer

e.g. Please tell me which brand you prefer, and why in the spacethat follows

b. Closed: where a limited number of alternative responses to theset question are provided. These can be in list, category, ranking,scale/rating, grid or other

quantitative form. They can be pre-codedon a questionnaire to facilitate analysis.

e.g. Please tick the box shown below with the brand you prefer

6. The order and flow of questions should be logical to therespondent.

7. There can be a low rate of return with questionnaires, so theyneed to be introduced

carefully and courteously to potentialrespondents. This introduction can include the use of a coveringletter; offering a prize or other inducement can also improve the

rate of return of questionnaires.

8. All questionnaires should be piloted, if possible, with a smallgroup before the main research to assess their value, validityand reliability.
Topic 9: APA Citation
MODULE 6
Citations help readers locate your sources. They help to continue the scholarly conversation. American Psychological Association (APA) style is one of the most
Week 6
common formats for citing sources.It is a publication manual widely used by professionals, researchers and students in the social and behavioral sciences, including
)
fields like education, psychology, and business.

APA requires FOUR ELEMENTS of every citation:

● Who- Author of content

● When- Date content was published
● What- Title of content
● Where- Publication information. This can be the website you got it from or the journal or book's publication information.

Overview of references

An APA format reference and an APA format citation are two different things. They are two separate things, with different purposes, and styled differently.

A reference displays all of the information about the source — the title, the author’s name, the year it was published, and the URL. References are placed on the final

page of a research project. Here’s an example of a reference:

Wynne-Jones, T. (2015). The emperor of any place. Candlewick Press.

An APA format citation is an APA format in-text citation. These are found within your paper, anytime a quote or paraphrase is included. They usually only include the

name of the author and the date the source was published. Here’s an example of one:

Both ways to credit another individual’s work — in the text of a paper and on the final page — are key to preventing plagiarism. A writer must use both types in a

Hypertrophic
paper. If you cite something cardiomyopathy
in the is even
text, it must have discussed
a full in on
reference thethe
book,
finalThe Emperor
page of Any Place.The main character, Evan, finds a mysterious
of the project.

In-text Citation diary on his father’s desk (the same desk hisfather died on, after suffering from a hypertrophic cardiomyopathy attack). Evan

Showing where theunlocksthe truth to his

original information father
came andisgrandfather’s
from much simpler past
than(Wynne-Jones, 2015).the name of the author and the year nearby immediately next to the
one may think.Place

quotation or information you used.This lets your readers identify where the information originated.

APA allows for the use of two different forms of in-text citation, parenthetical and narrative. Both forms of citation require two elements: author’s name and year

of publication. The only difference is the way that this information is presented to the reader.

Parenthetic citations are the most widely used type of in-text citations for scholarly research, in which the two required referencing elements are provided in

parentheses at the end of the article.

Example:

from positive psychology theory (Seligman, 1998)

Narrative citations allow the author to provide one or more of the required reference elements within the paragraph, which avoids the text from being too

redundant or burdensome.If only one of the two reference elements is used in the paragraph, the other is given parenthetically.

Example:

Seligman (1998) posited that…

If there are two authors listed in the source entry, then the parenthetical reference must list them both:

as has been shown (Simon&Peter, 1998)

In the narrative text, join the names with the word "and."

as Simon and Peter (1998) demonstrated…

If there are three or more authors listed in the source entry, then the parenthetical reference can abbreviate with “et al.”, the latin abbreviation for “and others”:

(Smith et al., 2008)

The author’s names are structured differently if there is more than one author. Things will also look different if there isn’t an author at all (which is sometimes the

case with website pages).

References Page

Here are some pointers to keep in mind when it comes to the references page in APA format:
●
This VIP page has its very own page. Start on a fresh, clean document.
●
Center and bold the title “References” (do not include quotation marks, underline, or italicize this title).
●
Alphabetize and double-space ALL entries.
●
Use a readable font, such as Times New Roman, Arial, Calibri, or Lucida.
●
Every quote or piece of outside information included in the paper should be referenced and have an entry.
●
Even though it’s called a “reference page,” it can be longer than one page.
●
Only include the running head if it is required by your teacher or you are writing a professional paper.
Sample reference page for a student paper:

Topic 10: Ethical Considerations in Research

Ethical concerns may emerge at all stages of research.

The following are the main issuesto consider, although the ethical issues surrounding these items are notalways clear-cut (Saunders et al. 2003):

1. The rights of privacy of individuals

2. Voluntary nature of participation – and the rights of individuals towithdraw partially or completely from the process

3. Consent and possible deception of participants

4. Maintenance of the confidentiality of data provided by individuals oridentifiable participants and their anonymity

5. Reactions of participants to the ways in which researchers seek tocollect data

6. Effects on participants of the way in which data is analyzed andreported

7. Behavior and objectivity of the researcher

 REFERENCES

APA citation guidelines (n.d.) Retrieved from https://www.scribbr.com/category/apa-style/

Glen, S. (2015, June 26). Probability Sampling: Definition, Types, Advantages and

Disadvantages. Retrieved from StatisticsHowTo.com: Elementary Statistics for the rest of

us! https://www.statisticshowto.com/probability-sampling/

Kirschenbaum, M. & Barbeau, E. (2011 October 31). Guide to APA Format Papers. Retrieved from

https://www.easybib.com/guides/citation-guides/apa-format/

Neville, C. (2007). Effective Learning Service: Introduction to Research and Research Methods.

https://www.unrwa.org/sites/default/files/introduction-to-research-and-research-methods

U.S. Department of Health & Human Services Office of Research Integrity. (n.d.) Retrieved from

https://ori.hhs.gov/module-1-introduction-what-research