CHAPTER EIGHT - TEACHING READING

Components of Evidence-Based Reading Instruction

* Phonological Awareness Training
* Phonological awareness is a broad term and consists of identifying and
manipulating parts of spoken language including words, syllables, onsets
and rimes, and phonemes.
* Phonemic awareness, which is a subcategory of phonological awareness,
is the conscious awareness that spoken language is made up of individual
sounds (i.e., phonemes).

Research -
* The findings…
Development of essential reading skills requires the teaching of phonological
skills, phonics skills, fluent text reading, and the use of comprehension strategies
Early literacy and language experiences are extremely important in promoting
foundational reading skills.
Inexpensive screening and assessment methods have been developed for
identifying kindergarten and first grade students who are at risk for reading failure
Reading problems of girls have not been identified as readily as the reading
problems of boys
Some instructional approaches, methods, and philosophies are not appropriate
for certain students
Explicit and systematic instructional approaches have been identified that work
well with students who have had difficulties learning to read.

Phonics Instruction
* Print is introduced and paired with corresponding sounds.
* Phonics instruction focuses on helping students learn the relationships between
graphemes and phonemes.
* The National Reading Panel (2000) and Put Reading First (2001) describe the
following six phonics instructional approaches:
* Analogy-based phonics - teaches students to decode unfamiliar words by
analogy to word families they know
* Analytic phonics - teaches students to analyze letter-sound relationships in
known words to help decode unfamiliar words
* Embedded phonics - teaches students letter-sound relationships during the
reading of text. Because readers encounter random letter-sound
relationships in their reading, this approach is not systematic or explicit
* Phonics through spelling - teaches students to segment words into
phonemes and to write letters for those phonemes
 * Onset-rime phonics instruction - teaches students to identify the sounds
of the letters before the first vowel (onset) in a one-syllable word and the
sound of the vowel (rime) in the remaining part of the word
* Synthetic phonics - teaches students explicitly to convert letters into
sounds and then blend them to pronounce recognizable words.

Fluency Instruction
* Fluency is the ability to read quickly and accurately.
* Research indicates that fluency in reading text is highly correlated to reading
comprehension.

Fluency and Theory

* Theory of Automaticity - high levels of fluency allow students to develop
automatically in reading. When automaticity is reached, an individual performs the
reading task so rapidly that it occurs effortlessly or without paying attention.
* Theory of Sight Word Efficiency - sight word vocabulary is a key component in
fluent reading. Sight word vocabulary includes the words that a learner has stored
in long-term memory. Fluent reading requires that the reader be able to recognize
individual words quickly and accurately
* Theory of Cumulative Deficit - sight word vocabulary grows rapidly beginning in
the third grade. The limited sight vocabulary of struggling readers restricts their
ability to read fluently, which, in turn, limits the amount of reading they can do and
they fall further behind in reading.
* Theory/Research of Processing Speed - the speed of naming letters is a basic
reading test and that letter reading fluency predicts word reading accuracy

Fluency and Stages of Reading Development  

* Pre Reading (Emergent Literacy)-Kindergarten
* Decoding—Grades 1–2
* Confirmation and Fluency—Grade 3
* Reading to Learn—Grades 4–8
* Reading for Multiple Viewpoints-Grades 9–12
* Reading to Construct New Knowledge   

Vocabulary Instruction
* Vocabulary refers to the words a person has learned and uses to communicate
effectively.
* Oral vocabulary (i.e., auditory processing of spoken words)
* Listening
* Speaking

* Reading vocabulary (i.e., visual processing of printed words).

* Reading
* Writing
 Comprehension Instruction
* Comprehension is an active process that enables the learner to understand the
words being read. Comprehension is the reason for reading, and it requires
purposeful and thoughtful interaction with text.
* The National Reading Panel (2000) reviewed 481 studies on text comprehension
and found seven instructional strategies that appear to have a solid scientific basis
for students without reading disabilities.

Comprehension Instruction
* NRP’s 7 instructional strategies:
* Comprehension monitoring
* Cooperative learning
* Use of graphic and semantic organizers
* Question answering
* Generating questions
* Recognizing story starters
* Summarizing

Comprehension Instruction for Students with Reading Disabilities  

* Comprehension interventions that are most effective support the view that
learning disabilities primarily result from language-based inadequacies
* The best overall reading comprehension program combines basic reading skills
instruction, reading fluency instruction, self-questioning strategies, comprehension
monitoring, and encouraging students to view their success as a function of their
own efforts.
* Vocabulary acquisition and fluency training are necessary but not sufficient
components of reading comprehension.
* Adjunct aids including highlighting, underlining, embedded questions, semantic
feature relationship charts, study guides, and mnemonic illustrations improve
comprehension. These adjunct aids only improve the specific passages that
include them. To promote transfer learning, explicit generalization training must be
provided.
* Self-questioning training that requires students to question the purposes and
structure of text and activate prior knowledge, focus on important information, and
monitor the flow of comprehension are likely to improve reading comprehension
when students possess the essential pre skills necessary to read the text.
* The combination of self questioning strategies and text-specific study
enhancements holds much promise for improving comprehension.
* For research-based strategies to improve reading comprehension, it is essential
for teachers to carefully design instruction; provide modeling, support, guidance,
extended application practice, strategic feedback, and appropriate attributional
feedback; and monitor student progress.
* Direct instruction (e.g., Reading Mastery and Corrective Reading) yields positive
outcomes in reading comprehension.
 * Whole language interventions yield the least positive outcomes.

Core Developmental Reading Approaches

* Basal reading approach
* Literature-based reading approach
* Whole language approach
* Language Experience approach
* Phonics approach
* Linguistic Approach: Word Families and Onset-Rime

Remedial Reading Programs

* Reading Mastery & Corrective Reading
* Success for All
* Reading Recovery

Reading Instructional Methods

* Remedial methods for students with moderate to severe reading problems (e.g.,
nonreaders or students who are more than 1 year behind in reading achievement):
* multisensory reading method
* oral reading fluency methods
* peer-assisted reading method
* keyword method
* reciprocal teaching
* mapping strategies
* high interest–low vocabulary method
* life skills reading

Designing a Reading Program

* Guidelines for designing a reading program that is responsive to a diversity of
learners:
* Use effective teaching principles
* Provide prereading experiences
* Consider the nature of reading development
* Provide explicit and implicit reading instruction - explicit position is aligned
with a code-emphasis reading approach whereas the implicit position is
aligned with a meaning-emphasis reading approach

Reading Activities
*Pre Reading Activities:
* Concepts About Print - initial pre reading activities acquaint the learner with
children’s literature and environmental print.
* Phonological Awareness - involve experiences with spoken language and help
promote awareness of words, syllables, onsets, rimes, and phonemes as units of
language.
* Word-Attack Activities - accurate word recognition is attained through careful
decoding and practice over time. Exposures to letter-sound associations in word-
attack activities allow the student to gain the critical mass of letter-sound
correspondences that is needed to decode letter clusters fluently (pocket charts,
spinners, word cards, etc)
* Fluency Activities - once the student has had numerous exposures to highly
request letter-sound correspondences and sounds of letter clusters, activities
should focus on developing fluency. Word recognition fluency allows the reader to
focus on comprehension (phrase cards, read high-frequency words, read in 1
minute segments, repeated readings)
* Vocabulary Activities - students learn a great deal of vocabulary indirectly
through everyday experiences with oral and written language. Some vocab should
be taught directly through explicit teaching of individual words and word-learning
strategies. (focus on specific word instruction, emphasize word meaning, vocab
picture cards)
* Comprehension Activities - the purpose of reading is to obtain meaning from
words; thus, comprehension is the culminating event of the reading process.
Fluency and comp are highly correlated. (encourage development of a visual
image by reviewing story setting, model proper inflection, model comprehension
strategies)

Instructional Games in Reading

* Vowel spinner
* Blend game
* Phonics rummy
* Fish
* Word bingo
* Word war
* Dominoes
* Word game board
* Word baseball
* Chance dice reading game
* Mystery detective game
* Comprehension game

Self-Correcting Reading Materials

* Flip-siders
* Punch-through cards
* Clothespin wheel
* Poke box
* Synonym lotto
* Tape recorder reading
* Comic strips/sentence strips
* Packaged comprehension
 Commercial Reading Programs
* Edmark Reading Program
* Great Leaps Reading Program
* Learning Strategies Curriculum
* Phonic Reading Lessons
* Phonological Awareness Training for Reading
* Specific Skill Series for Reading & Multiple Skills Series for Reading
* SRA Early Interventions in Reading

Reading & Study Skills for Adolescents

* Dixon, Carnine, and Kame’enui (1992) suggest the following guidelines for
teaching adolescents to read:
* Use instructional time efficiently.
* Remediate early, strategically, and often.
* Teach less but do so more thoroughly.
* Teach reading strategies explicitly.
* Use a balance of teacher-directed and student-centered activities.
* Evaluate progress frequently to determine effectiveness of instruction.

Reading & Study Skills for Adolescents

* Reading rate
* Study skills
* Learning strategies