1.

2. Cartilage: a strong and flexible tissue found in various places around the body. One
place is in rings along the trachea, called Tracheal rings. These rings help to support
the trachea and ensure it stays open, while allowing it to move and flex while we
breathe

Ciliated epithelium: a specialised tissue

found along the trachea down to the
bronchi. Each cell has small projections
of cilia which sweep mucus, dust and
bacteria upwards and away from the
lungs and the epithelium itself.

Goblet cells: found scattered throughout

the ciliated epithelium in the trachea.
They are mucus-producing cells that
secrete viscous mucus which traps dust,
bacteria and other microorganisms and
prevents them from reaching the lungs.
The mucus is then swept along by the cilia of the ciliated epithelium upwards and is
swallowed

The alveoli: have a lining of thin and squamous epithelium, that allows for gas
exchange. The squamous epithelium forms the structure of the alveolar wall and so
is very thin and permeable for the easy diffusion of gases.

Smooth muscle: found throughout the walls of the bronchi and bronchioles. It helps
to regulate the flow of air into the lungs by dilating when more air is needed and
constricting when less air is needed

3. Each alveolus is surrounded by an extensive network of capillaries

○ Carbon dioxide diffuses out of the capillaries and into the alveoli to be
exhaled, while oxygen diffuses the other way from alveoli and into the
capillaries to be carried around the body

These capillaries have a diameter of around 3-4µm, which is only wide enough for
one red blood cell to travel through at any one time

This ensures that there is sufficient time and opportunity for gas exchange to occur.

4. Cilia beat to move mucus away from the lungs and up towards the mouth. Mucus is
produced by goblet cells and acts as a barrier to pathogens from entering the ciliated
epithelium. The mucus also traps bacteria and microorganisms, while blood vessels
bring macrophages to engulf any pathogens in phagocytosis.
5.
 Ciliated epithelium

● Ciliated epithelial cells are distinctive due to their narrow cell bodies and hair-like cilia
located along the apical layerThe cilia are tiny projections which greatly increase the
surface area of the cell
Goblet Cells

Goblet cells can be found

scattered among the
ciliated epithelium of the
trachea and bronchi. They
are distinctive in the
epithelium due to their
lack of cilia (although they
still have some microvilli
projecting outwards)The
nucleus is found towards
the basal (bottom) layer of
the cell, with a large Golgi
apparatus and mucus
granules found towards
the apical layer
 Squamous epithelium

● Squamous epithelium is made of thin, flat squamous cells

Smooth Muscle

● The cells of smooth muscle are tightly packed and are found beneath the ciliated
epithelium. Unlike skeletal muscles, they are not striated and so don’t show any
cross stripes under a microscope
 Capillaris

● Capillaries are distinctive from other blood cells due to their tiny diameter (~4 μm)
● Their walls consist of a single layer of epithelial cells
6. Cystic fibrosis is caused by a recessive allele of the CFTR gene. Cystic fibrosis
affects the lungs by goblet cells producing thick, sticky and dehydrated mucus. This
mucus is much harder for cilia to sweep up the trachea and to the mouth and so
mucus accumulates in the airways. As the mucus traps bacteria but the mucus can’t
be removed, this leads to frequent infections and eventually scar tissue in the lungs.
The fact that mucus obstructs the airways means that gas exchange is less efficient
as it is harder for oxygen to reach the lungs and harder for carbon dioxide to be
exhaled, causing breathing problems.*
7. The exchange of oxygen and dioxide occurs between the alveoli and the capillaries
in the lungs

Oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged in a process of simple diffusion; (passive
movement from high to low concentration)

The air in the alveoli contains a high concentration of oxygen. The oxygen diffuses
from the alveoli and into the blood capillaries, before being carried away to the rest
of the body for aerobic respiration

The blood in the capillaries has a relatively low concentration of oxygen and a high
concentration of carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood and into
the alveoli and is then exhale

8. Tar is a chemical in cigarettes and is a carcinogen, which means it causes cancer

➔ Cancer occurs if mutations affect the regulation of mitosis in cells. Tar forms a
sticky layer inside the lungs and increases the rate of mutations in the DNA of
bronchial epithelial cells, potentially leading to a tumour
➔ Tumours develop if mutations occur in oncogenes or tumour-suppressor genes of
the bronchial epithelial cells. This causes uncontrolled mitosis which develops into a
mass of cells in the lumen of the airways
➔ The tumour becomes larger because it has no method of programmed cell death and
survives because it develops its own blood supply (vascularisation)
➔ The tumour then starts to interfere with the normal working of the lungs, such as by
squeezing against blood vessels or cancer cells entering into the lymphatic system,
where they may develop another tumour
● COPD includes a range of lung-based diseases, such as asthma, chronic
bronchitis and emphysema
● Tar stimulates goblet cells in the ciliated epithelium and causes them to become
enlarged. In turn, the goblet cells produce more mucus
● This destroys the cilia in the trachea and prevents them from sweeping mucus away
from the lungs
● The mucus contains bacteria, dust and other microorganisms and can then block
narrow bronchioles, causing coughing, scar tissue and infection
● The infection attracts phagocytes to the lungs and the phagocytes release elastase,
an enzyme which damages the elasticity of the alveolar walls
● Without enough elastin, the alveoli break down and may burst. This creates large air
spaces in the alveoli and patients become wheezy and breathless. Once the disease
progresses, people often need a constant supply of oxygen to stay alive
9. Symptoms of lung cancer include coughing up blood, a persistent cough, coughing
an increased amount of mucus, back or shoulder pain, wheezing and breathing
difficulties and sudden weight loss
10. Nicotine is the addictive component of cigarettes. It causes vasoconstriction, which
is the narrowing of blood vessels
➔ Vasoconstriction limits the flow of blood around the body, increases blood
pressure and makes it harder for oxygen to reach all body cells
➔ This lack of oxygen can force cells to respire anaerobically, creating lactic
acid
 ➔ Nicotine can also make platelets ‘sticky’ and they clump together, potentially
forming a thrombosis (blood clot)
➔ Once inhaled, carbon monoxide in cigarettes binds to haemoglobin instead
of oxygen
➔ This is because chemically carbon monoxide has a much higher affinity for
haemoglobin than oxygen
➔ When this happens, oxygen cannot bind to haemoglobin and
carboxyhaemoglobin (COHb) is formed instead of oxyhaemoglobin
➔ This decreases the amount of oxygen delivered to cells for aerobic respiration
and cells may have to respire anaerobically instead
➔ This forces the heart to work harder to pump and deliver adequate oxygen,
increasing heart rate and causing breathlessness
➔ Carbon monoxide also promotes the release of free radicals, such as
peroxides and superoxides
➔ Carbon monoxide can also cause platelets and neutrophils to stick together,
affecting the ability of white blood cells to fight infection
➔

11. Symptoms include shortness of breath, a chronic or persistent cough, chest

tightness, wheezing and difficulty breathing when exercising or during any physical
activity.

12.