Vol. 46 Supp.

SCIENCE IN CHINA (Series D) March 2003

Metallogenesis of superlarge gold deposits in Jiaodong

region and deep processes of subcontinental lithosphere
beneath North China Craton in Mesozoic
ZHOU Xinhua (周新华), YANG Jinhui (杨进辉) & ZHANG Lianchang (张连昌)
Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100029, China

Received June 12, 2002

Abstract The study of ore-forming chronology indicates that the superlarge gold deposits in the
Jiaodong region were formed in 120±10 Ma. Sr-Nd-Pb isotopic compositions from typical gold
deposits suggest that ore-forming materials were derived from the multisources, mantle compo-
nent was partly involved in mineralization, the deep dynamic processes are the major geological
background of large-scale metallogenesis in the Jiaodong region in Mesozoic. The deep pro-
cesses mainly include the effect of post deep-subduction of continental crust of the central orogen
belt and the distant effect of subduction of the paleo-Pacific plate underneath the Eurasian conti-
nent. However, lithosphere thinning, crust-mantle interaction, crustal extension and formation of
large-type ore-controlling structures would be the comprehensive consequences of the above-
mentioned geodynamic processes in the region.
Keyworks: superlarge gold deposit, lithospheric thinning, deep-process in Mesozoic, Jiaodong region.

The large cluster of gold mineralization in the Jiaodong region has been noticed by a variety
—8]
of studies[1 . Some special aspects, such as ore-forming ages, ore-controlling conditions and
mineralization patterns were discussed by several authors in the past years, however, main sources
and mechanisms of forming large-scale gold deposits still remain unclear. Based on studies of
Sr-Nd-Pb isotopic geochemistry, the paper aims to discuss the deep processes of large-scale gold
mineralization relating to subcontinental lithosphere evolution beneath North China.

1 Geological setting and geological characteristics of Jiaodong superlarge gold deposit

1.1 Geological setting

The Jiaodong region is located on the eastern margin of the North China Craton and the
western Circum-Pacific tectonic belt. It is bounded by the Wulian-Rongcheng fault and the
Dabie-Sulu ultrahigh-pressure metamorphic belt in the southeast and the Tanlu fault in the west.
Some studies suggest that the northern region in the Wulian-Rongcheng fault is Jiaobei terrane[9,10],
and the southern region is Jiaonan terrane[11]. This paper suggests that the Jiaodong region is a part
of the North China Block, but not an exotic terrane.
The Tanlu fault system is well developed in the Jiaodong area, in which the gold mineraliza-
tion is controlled by NNE-NE faults and hosted in granites, such as Linglong, Guojialing and
—14]
Kunyushan granites[12 . The age of gold mineralization in this region has been a hot debate. The
 Supp. METALLOGENESIS AND DEEP PROCESSES OF JIAODONG GOLD DEPOSITS 15

Mesozoic volcanic rocks and dikes are well developed in the Jiaodong area, in which the volcanic
rocks erupted mainly within the sediment layers of the Jiaolai Basin. The intermedium-basic dikes,
acid dikes and pegmatitic veins are commonly seen in the gold ore area. The origin on interme-
dium-basic dikes, especially lamprophyre dike is quite debatable[4,15,16]. The deep origin of the
lamprophyre dike and its relation to gold mineralization is one of the major issues to be solved.
According to the distribution of gold deposits and prospects, three metallogenic belts can be
divided in the Jiaodong region, namely Zhaoyuan-Laizhou, Penglai-Xixia and Mouping-Rushan.
In recent years, a new type of gold deposits, hosted in brecciated fracture zones controlled by
low-angle faults and located on the northern margin of the Jiaolai Basin has been recognized. The
Pengjiakuang, Fayunkuang and Dazhuangzi gold deposits are some examples of this type of de-
posits. Based on the ore-forming age,
material source and origin of gold depos-
its, the superlarge and large-type gold
deposits can be divided into three styles:
(1) altered rock-style gold deposits (i.e.
Xincheng, Jiaojia, Sanshandao and
Cangshang); (2) quartz or sulfide-quartz
network vein-style gold deposits (i.e.
Linglong); and (3) quartz or sul-
fide-quartz single vein-style gold deposits
(Jinqingding and Denggezhuang). As
examples of several typical superlarge
Fig. 1. The map showing main gold deposits and geology of East
and large gold deposits, the Linglong, Shandong. 1, Cenozoic; 2, Mesozoic; 3, Proterozoic Jingshan Group;
Xincheng and Denggezhuang gold de- 4, Archaean Jiaodong Group; 5, Yanshannian granite; 6, fault; 7, gold
deposit.
posits are introduced as below (fig. 1).

1.2 Deposit geology

The Linglong gold deposit, a typical quartz network-style deposit, is composed of Xishan,
Dongshan, Jiuqu and Dakaitou ore area. The ore vein is hosted in Linglong granite and Guojialing
granodiorite. The intermedium-basic dikes are well developed. The faults are NNE-, NE-trending,
in which the Potouqing fault is a main ore-controlling structure. The gold deposit is composed of
more than hundred mineralization quartz-veins. The ore bodies are of veins, lens in different scale.
The ore type includes Au-bearing quartz vein, Au-bearing pyrite-quartz vein and Au-bearing py-
rite-phyllic rock.
The Xincheng gold deposit, a typical altered rock-style gold deposit, is controlled by the
Jiaojia-Xincheng fault zones. The orebodies are controlled by contact zones between the Linglong
and Guojialing granodiorite. The major orebodies trend NE (10—30°) with dipping (40—60°)
NW. The ores are composed of the Au-bearing pyrite-phyllic rocks and quartz-pyrite veinlets or
 16 SCIENCE IN CHINA (Series D) Vol. 46

polymetallic sulfide-quartz veinlets. Ores are texturally characterized by idiomorph, hypidiomorph,

cataclasis forms, and structurally by dissemination, veinlet and stockwork features.
The Denggezhuang gold deposit, a typical single quartz vein-style, occurs in the Mou-
ping-Rushan gold ore belt. The gold deposit is hosted in Mesozoic Kunyushan granite. Some lam-
prophyre, gabbro and diorite dikes were commonly seen in the ore area. The mineralization type
includes Au-bearing pyrite-quartz vein, polymetallic sulfide-quartz vein and siderite-quartz vein.
The above three-style gold deposits exhibit similar characteristics in altered minerals, mineral
assemblage and mineralization stages, except that the Xincheng gold deposit is characterized by
the intense wall-alteration. The alteration type includes silicification, pyritization, sericitization,
carbonatization and chloritization. The metallic minerals of the gold ores include pyrite, chalcopy-
rite, galena, sphalerite and pyrrhotite. The gangue minerals are mainly quartz, ferrodolomite, side-
rite, calcite, sericite and chlorite. According to the mineral assemblage and crosscutting relation-
ship of veins, four mineralization stages can be identified. The first stage is marked by pyrite dis-
seminated in the quartz vein or phyllic rocks, and weak mineralization. The second stage is
characterized by the previous pyritized quartz veins that have been brecciated and then cemented
by quartz and pyrite to form vein or breccia ores with fine-grained pyrite and high grades of gold.
The third stage is characterized by veining of the previous mineralized vein by py-
rite-galena-sphalerite-quartz vein. Finally, the fourth stage is features of quartz-calcite veining.

2 Isotopic chronology of gold deposits in Jiaodong region

The age and origin of gold mineralization in the Jiaodong region have been the major debate
in the last few years, which can be mainly generalized into three views as below. (1) Gold deposits
were formed during the Proterozoic Period[12]; (2) gold deposits were formed during the
—
Yanshannian Period[4,13,17 19]
; and (3) gold deposits were formed in multiple geological
[5,20]
periods . It is the key to understanding the genesis of gold deposits to determine the age of gold
mineralization with the high qualitative technique. In the past, some indirect methods were used to
determine ore-forming age. One approach has been to date the geological bodies which host and
cut the orebodies[3,7], or to date apparent resetting from hydrothermal fluids, involving K-Ar,
Ar-Ar and Rb-Sr dating of alteration minerals, such as muscovite and fluid inclusions of gangue
minerals[17,21]. However, most of these ages have been quite controversial. There are some reasons
for the uncertainties. They are: (1) the exchanging between the hydrothermal fluids and wall rocks;
and (2) reworking of the altered rocks and minerals by the activities of the later fluids which break
the balance of parent/daughter isotope system.
The pyrite-phyllic rocks, a main ore of the Xincheng gold deposit, are selected to determine
the age of ore-forming. The Rb-Sr isochron age of the pyrite-phyllic rocks is 116.6 ± 5.3 Ma with
87
an initial Sr/86Sr value of 0.7113 ± 0.0006 and MSWD of 1.3[18]. The Au-bearing pyrites in
Linglong gold deposit were also determined. The Rb-Sr isochron ages of the pyrites are
87
121.6 ± 8.1 Ma and 122.7 ± 3.3 Ma with initial Sr/86Sr values of 0.70940 ± 0.00190 and
 Supp. METALLOGENESIS AND DEEP PROCESSES OF JIAODONG GOLD DEPOSITS 17

0.71071 ± 000072. The authors discussed rationality and feasibility of the ages based on basic
geological and mineral characteristics[19,22].
The results of the Ar-Ar dating method of Au-bearing quartz indicate that the Pengjiakuang
and Dazhuangzi gold deposits were formed in 117.3 — 118.4 Ma and 117.4 Ma respectively 1) . The
Rb-Sr isochron age of pyrites indicate that the Fayunkuang gold deposit was formed in 128.5±7.2
Ma. The ages of both Ar-Ar and Rb-Sr isochrons are consistent within the error. It is assumed that
the gold deposits on the northern margin of the Jiaolai Basin were formed at 117—128 Ma. The
consistency in metallogenic age between the gold deposits located on the margin of the Jiaolai
Basin and gold deposits (115—126 Ma) of the northern uplift area in the Jiaodong region suggests
that both can be ascribed to the same metallogenic event. It is powerfully explained and testified
that in the Jiaodong region systematic transform of regional tectonics, lithospheric thinning took
place in late-Yanshannian (120 ± 10 Ma), which is an important period for the large-scale metal-
logenesis in the Jiaodong region.
In fact, the gold deposits in the northern margion of North China and the Liaodong area were
also formed in 120 ± 10 Ma[6, 8]. This period has been regarded as the major gold mineralization
time in eastern China in Mesozoic.

3 Sr-Nd-Pb isotopic characteristics of ore-forming material sources in Jiaodong gold de-

posits

Although most studies have paid attention to the applications of C, H, O, S and Pb isotopes,
there are different opinions on the source of ore-forming materials. Some authors suggested that
the ore-forming fluids were derived from magmatic water and meteoric water, the ore-froming
materials were derived from multi-source, that is to say, from the host rocks associated with gold
mineralization in time and space[4,7,20]. However, it is unclear whether the magmatic water is from
crustal source associated with the granite or deep source related to intermedium-basic dikes. This
paper will perform the Sr-Nd-Pb isotopic study of wall rocks, ores and Au-bearing pyrites, and
then discuss the source of ore-forming fluids and materials.

3.1 Sampling and analytical procedures

Samples for this study were collected from ores, granites and intermedium-basic dikes in the
Jiaodong area. They include pyrite-phyllic rocks from Xincheng gold deposit, Au-bearing pyrites
from Linglong and Mouping gold deposits, Linglong granite, Guojialing granodiorite, Kunyushan
granite and intermedium-basic dikes near the above ore area. Sr-Nd-Pb isotopic compositions
were analyzed at the Isotopic Laboratory in the Institute of Geology and Geophysics, the Chinese
Academy of Sciences.

1) Zhang Lianchang, Geochemistry and dynamics of metallogenic system of three-type gold deposits in Jiaodong,
Post-Dorctors’ Bulletin, Institute of Geology and Geophysics, CAS, 2002, 1—207.
 18 SCIENCE IN CHINA (Series D) Vol. 46

The analytical procedures are as the following:

The samples weighing 0.5—0.8 g were transferred to Teflon vessels, and after being washed
ultrasonically in Millipore water, they were dissolved using a mixture of HCl and HNO3 (with a
ratio of 1︰3). Rb, Sr, Sm and Nd were separated using conventional ion exchange procedures and
measured using the VG-354 multi-collector mass spectrometer[23]. Procedural blanks were
< n×10−10g for Rb and Sr and < 1 × 10−10 g for Sm and Nd. Sr isotopic data were normalized to
87
Sr/86Sr = 0.119, and Nd ratios normalized to 143
Nd/144Nd =0.7129. The measured values for the
La Jolla Nd standard and NBS-607 Sr standard were 143Nd/144Nd =0.511853 ± 0.000007 (2σ, n =
8) and 87Sr/86Sr = 1.200325±0.000011(2σ, n = 6), respectively, during the period of data acquisi-
tion.

3.2 Sr-Nd-Pb isotopes of ore-forming material sources

The Sr-Nd-Pb isotopic compositions from the Jiaodong gold ore area are listed in table 1, and
shown in figs. 2 and 3. It is seen that the Sr and Nd isotopic compositions of source materials of
three-type granitoids are relatively uniform, which reflect the influence of old-crustal basement;
whereas Pb isotopic compositions of the granites, specially Linglong granite, are highly heteroge-
neous, which place multi-dimensional constraints on the genesis of the granite. These results indi-
cate that the material source of Guojialing granodiorite is characterized by young and deep com-
ponents, and that of Linglong and Kunyushan granites by old crustal components. The Sr-Nd-Pb
isotopic compositions (table 1), Sr-Nd isotope correlation plot (fig. 2) and Pb isotopic composition
plot (fig. 3) for intermedium-basic dikes suggest that the source materials of the dikes were af-
fected by enriched continental lithospheric mantle.
The Sr-Nd-Pb isotope ratios from the Xincheng gold deposit are given in table 1. Initial
87
Sr/86Sr ratios are 0.71074—0.71189, 0.710498—0.712286, 0.709361—0.711419 and 0.708926—

Fig. 2. The Sr-Nd isotopic correlation diagram of ores and rocks from the Jiaodong gold deposits.
 Supp. METALLOGENESIS AND DEEP PROCESSES OF JIAODONG GOLD DEPOSITS 19

Fig. 3. The Pb-Pb isotopic correlation diagram of ores and rocks from the Jiaodong gold deposits.

0.710698 for samples from the pyrite-phyllic rocks, Linglong granite, Guojialing granite and in-
termedium-basic dikes near the ore area, respectively. It is shown that source of the ore-forming
material is related to wall-granite and intermedium-basic dikes. The ε Nd(t ) values of the py-
rite-phyllic rocks are not uniform (−16.06—−19.97, table 1), whereas ε Nd (t ) values of the Ling-
long granite and Guojialing granodiorite, as a protolith of the phyllic rock, have a small range of
−21.12 — −20.46 and −15.07—−17.50. In the Sr-Nd isotopic correlation diagram (fig. 2), the
samples of pyrite-phyllic rocks are plotted among the Linglong granite, Guojialing granodiorite
and intermedium-basic dikes field. The Pb isotopic compositions are listed in table 1 and fig. 3. It
is shown that the Pb isotopic ratios of pyrite-phyllic rocks are higher than those of Linglong gran-
ite and Guojialing granodiorite, but lower than those of intermedium-basic dikes. In the Pb-Pb
isotope correlation diagram (fig. 3), the samples of pyrite-phyllic rocks are also plotted among the
Linglong granite, Guojialing granodiorite and intermedium-basic dikes field. The results indicate
that the ore-forming materials are derived from wall granite and granodiorite, as well as interme-
dium-basic dikes around the ore area.
Initial 87Sr/86Sr ratios (t = 122 Ma) of the Au-bearing pyrite from Linglong gold deposit are
relatively uniform (0.71019 — 0.71089), whereas their Nd isotopes are wider in the composition
range (ε Nd = −20.3—−15.7, t = 122 Ma). The initial 87Sr/86Sr (t = 122 Ma) values are 0.710498—
0.712286, 0.709361—0.711419 and 0.708926—0.710698 for samples from the Linglong granite,
Guojialing granodiorite and intermedium-basic dikes, respectively. The ε Nd (t = 122 Ma) values
are −21.12 — −20.46, −15.07 — −17.50 and −17.00 — −14.14 for samples from the Linglong
granite, Guojialing granodiorite and intermedium-basic dikes, respectively. In the Sr-Nd isotopic
 20 SCIENCE IN CHINA (Series D) Vol. 46

Table 1 Sr-Nd-Pb isotopic compositions of ores and rocks from the Jiaodong area
206 207 208
Pb Pb Pb
Sample No. Sample Location 87
Sr/86Sr 143
Nd/144Nd ISr(t) εNd (t)
/204Pb /204Pb /204Pb
K01 Phyllic Xincheng 17.369 15.612 38.270 0.730678 0.511549 0.71189 −19.97
K02 rock 17.075 15.347 37.472 0.721934 0.511563 0.71158 −19.68
K03 17.117 15.417 37.629 0.730955 0.511844 0.71132 −16.06
K05 17.251 15.545 37.983 0.720189 0.511568 0.71131 −19.40
K06 17.277 15.527 38.029 0.726606 0.511633 0.71074 −18.27
98LL-K06 Pyrite Linglong 17.367 15.547 38.122 0.713437 0.511622 0.71019 −18.0
98DK-K07 17.461 15.539 38.069 0.745334 0.511972 0.71089 −15.7
98JQ-K03 17.477 15.542 38.077 0.718609 0.511511 0.71074 −20.3
98DK-K03 17.523 15.594 38.237 0.717951 0.511579 0.71048 −19.3
98MP-K01 Pyrite Mouping 17.088 15.402 37.397 0.713092 0.511704 0.71241 −17.0
98MP-K02 17.009 15.422 37.439 0.710755 0.511770 0.70982 −15.5
98MP-K03 17.070 15.433 37.459 0.710104 0.511729 0.70976 −15.6
98MP-K05 17.154 15.558 37.663 0.710307 0.511513 0.70908 −20.6
98MP-K06 17.045 15.440 37.455 0.710265 0.511597 0.70992 −18.9
98DK-r03 Granitoid Linglong 16.635 15.013 36.954 0.713594 0.511449 0.712238 −21.12
98LL-r02 16.991 15.401 37.649 0.712336 0.511443 0.711254 −21.06
98XC-r03 17.018 15.515 38.036 0.71137 0.511519 0.710498 −20.46
98XC-r11 16.963 15.350 38.467 0.712992 0.511447 0.712286 −21.08
98SS-r06 Guojialing 17.557 15.731 38.425 0.709857 0.511792 0.709361 −15.07
98XC-r19 17.000 15.365 37.348 0.711939 0.511669 0.711419 −16.87
98XC-r23 17.091 15.437 37.837 0.711454 0.511653 0.711208 −17.50
98MP-r04 Kunyushan 16.760 15.380 37.178 0.710184 0.511508 0.709854 −20.09
98MP-r06 16.548 15.281 36.497 0.710247 0.511511 0.709891 −20.09
98MP-r09 16.809 15.391 37.247 0.710212 0.511536 0.709892 −19.68
98LL-M02a) Medium- Linglong 17.063 15.287 37.297 0.711076 0.511684 0.710698 −17.00
98LL-M06 a)
Basic dikes 17.439 15.496 37.953 0.709572 0.511788 0.709301 −15.15
98LL-M08a) 17.117 15.414 37.485 0.709357 0.511838 0.709095 −14.14
98MP-M01a) Mouping 17.208 15.415 37.445 0.709421 0.511926 0.709257 −12.49
98MP-M04a) 17.093 15.376 37.352 0.709502 0.511731 0.709319 −16.24
98MP-M05a) 16.987 15.437 37.349 0.709495 0.511690 0.708926 −16.87
98MP-M06 a)
16.811 15.298 36.920 0.709727 0.511711 0.709320 −16.48
98XC-M01a) Xincheng 18.026 15.531 38.402 0.710825 0.512006 0.710205 −10.92
98XC-M02 a)
17.735 15.300 37.734 0.710885 0.512006 0.710107 −10.94
98XC-M04a) 17.483 15.444 37.989 0.710419 0.512041 0.710122 −10.14
98XC-M09a) 18.001 15.372 37.845 0.710288 0.511984 0.709915 −11.30
Analysed by Isotopic Laboratory of Institute of Geology and Geophysics, the Chinese Academy of Sciences; the Rb, Sr,
Sm and Nd elements concentrations are not listed in this table. ISr and ε Nd (t) values of Xincheng, Linglong and Mouping gold
deposits were respectively calculated according to t = 117 Ma, 122 Ma and 121 Ma; ISr and εNd (t) values of Linglong, Guojialing
143
and Kunyushan granites were respectively calculated according to t = 156 Ma, 126 Ma and 130 Ma. Nd/144NdCHUR,t=0 =
0.512638, Sm/ NdCHUR,t=0 = 0.1967, λ Rb = 1.42×10
147 144 87 −11 −1
a ; λ Sm = 6.54×10
147 −12 -1
a . a) Yang Jinhui, Chuong Sunlin, Zhai
Minggou et al., Geochemical and Sr-Nd-Pb isotopic compositions of mafic dikes from the Jiaodong Peninsula, China: petrogene-
sis and mantle sources, Journal of Geology, 2002, (in press).
 Supp. METALLOGENESIS AND DEEP PROCESSES OF JIAODONG GOLD DEPOSITS 21

correlation diagram (fig. 2), the Au-bearing pyrites from the Linglong gold deposit exhibit higher
initial 87Sr/86Sr ratios and wider 143Nd/144Nd compositions plotted among the samples from the
Linglong granite, Guojialing granodiorite and intermedium-basic dikes. The Au-bearing pyrites
show a small range in Pb isotope ratios plotted between the wall-granite and intermedium-basic
dikes field (fig. 3).
Initial 87Sr/86Sr ratios (t = 120 Ma) of polymetallic sulfides from the Mouping gold deposit
are 0.70992 — 0.71241, similar to that of Kunyushan granite（0.709854—0.709892）and
intermedium-basic dikes (0.708926 — 0.710698). The ε Nd values (t = 120 Ma) are −15.5—
−20.6, −19.68 — −20.1 and −16.87 — −12.49 for samples from the pyrites, Kunyushan granite
and intermedium-basic dikes, respectively. It is seen that the ε Nd values of pyrites are between the
Kunyushan granite and the dikes. In the Pb-Pb isotope correlation diagram (fig. 3), the samples of
pyrites are plotted among the Kunyushan granite and intermedium-basic dikes field. The results
indicate that the ore-forming materials of Mouping gold deposit are characterized by
multi-sources.
The results of the Sr-Nd-Pb isotopic geochemistry summarized above indicate that
ore-forming materials were derived from the multi-sources, i.e. granites, granodiorite and inter-
mediate-mafic dikes. The multi-sources of ore-forming materials would imply that the hydrother-
mal mineralizition processes are complexity and mantle components were involved in ore-forming
processes. On the basis of other studies of H, O, C and S stable isotopes from ores and fluid inclu-
sions, as well as the studies of this paper on Sr-Nd-Pb isotopic ratios for ores and rocks, it is indi-
cated that ore-forming fluids were derived from a mixture solution between magmatic water ac-
companied with intermediate-mafic magmas and meteoric water that had widely leached the wall
rocks.

4 Cretaceous large-scale metallogenesis in Jiaodong region and Mesozoic deep processes

beneath North China Craton

4.1 Mesozoic tectonic evolution in Jiaodong region

Based on new progress of the National Climbing Project and the Project supported by the
National Natural Science Foundation of China, the authors suggest that the deep geodynamic
processes would induce large-scale metallogenesis in the Jiaodong region in Mesozoic. The deep
processes mainly include the effect of deep-subduction of continental crust of the central orogen
belt and distant effect of subduction of the paleo-Pacific plate underneath the North China Block
in Mesozoic. The former would cause the lithospheric thinning and the crust extension of eastern
China continent, and the latter would induce left-lateral strike slipping of the Tanlu fault and partly
large-scale tectonic-magma activities.

4.2 Lithospheric thinning of eastern China

According to the results of mantle xenoliths, geochemistry of volcanic rocks and regional
 22 SCIENCE IN CHINA (Series D) Vol. 46

geophysical sounding, it is indicated that intensive lithosphere thinning could happen in eastern
China in Mesozoic. However, it is not clear what are the mechanism and consequence of litho-
sphere thinning, petrogenesis and mineralizition in Mesozoic.

4.2.1 Evidence and centre of lithosphere thinning. The lithosphere characteristics in Paleo-
zoic: The studies on xenoliths and diamonds entrained in Ordovician kimberlite have implied that
there was a typical thicker subcontinental lithosphere in eastern China. It is demonstrated that the
peridotite in Liaoning and Shandong diamond is P-type mantle xenolith. Meyer et al.[24] specu-
lated that the thichness of lithosphere “keel”is more than 180 km based on the temperature and
pressure conditions of peridotite-captured diamond. According to the studies of trace elements (Cr,
Ni, Zn, etc.) of garnet, Griffin’s calculations[25] show that the paleo-heat flow value is <40 mW/m2
in the Liaoning and Shandong regions in Ordovician. Zhang and Hou’s study[26] on dia-
mond-bearing kimberlite suggested that the lithosphere thickness of eastern China is gradually
increased, with thickness ranging from 150 to 200 km from west to east in Paleozoic. Based on
studies on inclusions in diamond, heavy mineral and mantle xenoliths, it is demonstrated that the
lithosphere in eastern China is characterized by great thickness (180 — 200 km) and lower heat
flow (40 mW/m2) till the kimberlite was erupted in Paleozoic.
The lithosphere features in Cenozoic: It is reported that dominant lithology of the mantle
xenoliths entrained by Cenozoic alkaline basalt in eastern China is spinel-lherzolite, the stable
depth of this xenolith is <75 km. Studies of garnet-mantle xenoliths in Tertiary suggested that the
mantle-derived rocks, in the form of residual shards or xenoliths, are very hot at depths of 75 km.
Geochemical and geophysical data demonstrate that the lithosphere in eastern China in Cenozoic
is characterized by thin (<75 km), hot (>80 mW/m2) and depleted in isotopic chemistry[27].
The studies of the continent lithosphere in eastern China indicate that the lithosphere was in-
tensely thinned from Paleozoic to Cenozoic, with removal of more than 100 km lithosphere. Ac-
cording to studies of petrology and geochemistry of Mesozoic volcanic rocks, specially mafic
dikes, mantle-derived rocks and mantle xenoliths, exposed in North China, including Liaoning,
Shandong, Hebei, Mongolia and Shanxi, it is indicated that the centre location of lithosphere thin-
ning in eastern North China is around Bohai Bay and north Yingkou Bay-south Jiyang Basin[28,29].

4.2.2 Timing and mechanism of lithospheric thinning. It is reported that the volcanic rocks
of East China continent are mainly tholeiite in late Cretaceous-early Cenozoic, and alk-alkali vol-
canic rocks in late Neogene-Quaternary. The volcanic magma is derived from the transform zone
between asthenosphere and lithosphere, or asthenosphere or mantle-plume[30,31].
Wu et al.[32] suggested that the peak period of the lithospheric thinning is about in 145 Ma
age based on the geochemistry and chronology of volcanic rocks in the Da Hinggan Mountains.
According to systemic studies of zircon chronology (SHRIMP) and geochemistry on the xenoliths
of mafic granulite, felsic granulite and pyroxenite, the authors of this paper propose that time of
120±10 Ma (mostly ranging from 80 to 160 Ma) is a peak period of crust-mantle interaction of the
 Supp. METALLOGENESIS AND DEEP PROCESSES OF JIAODONG GOLD DEPOSITS 23

subcontinental lithosphere beneath the North China Craton in Mesozoic. The coupling between
the peak stages of felsic xenoliths (80—120 Ma) and mafic xenoliths (120 Ma and 140—160 Ma)
and large-scale pyrogenic events provides new quantitative constraints on the deep geodynamics
beneath the North China Craton. The results of zircon chronology for deep-source xenoliths sug-
gested that the crust-mantle interaction shows an episodic and multiple feature. It is further indi-
cated that there is a couping relation between the tectonic event of upper crust and crust-mantle
interaction of deep lithosphere.
There have been several working hypotheses on the driving geodynamics for the lithospheric
thinning in the North China Craton: that is the collision between the Indian plate and the Eurasian
plate[33,34], the distant consequence of Sulu-Dabie tectonic zone and subduction of the Pacific plate
underneath the Eurasian continent [27]. The authors of this paper would emphasize that the major
process of lithospheric thinning was probably caused by a thermal and mechanical disturbance
induced by the deep-subduction of continental crust in the central orogen belt. Studies of mantle
xenoliths entrained by Ordovician kimberlites and Cenozoic alkaline basalts suggested that a large
part of the ancient, refractory lithospheric mantle (>120 km) has been removed and replaced by
the young and more fertile mantle materials beneath the North China Block. The lithospheric
thinning may be a process of infiltration metasomatism of deep melt and fluids to lithosphere,
coupling with chemical and physical erosion, as well as thermal erosion. The authors postulate
that the erosion is a gradient process. In Cenozoic, the lithosphere of eastern China is in the period
of further dissipation and laxity of heat, although the continent rift and basaltic volcanic rocks
were formed[28,29].

4.3 Deep process and large-scale metallogenesis of North China continent in Mesozoic
The authors suggest that the deep geological process is one of the major processes which in-
duced large-scale metallogenesis in the Jiaodong region in Mesozoic. The deep process mainly
includes the effect of deep-subduction of continental crust of the central orogen belt, lithospheric
thinning and crust-mantle interaction. The large-scale magmatic activity origined by the
large-scale crust-mantle interaction plays a role of “engine”in the formation of the superlarge gold
deposits.
In late Jurassic-early Cretaceous, the subduction of paleo-Pacific plate could induce the Tanlu
fault sinistral striking movement. The roles of adjacent blocks, inner continental stress adjusting
after deep-subduction of continental crust in the centre orogen belt and strong striking movement
may cause the plume tectonics and magmatic activity by part melting of enriched lithospheric
mantle wedge in centre of Tanlu fault. The granodiorite was intruded when binary mixing between
mantle-derived magma and crust-derived re-milt magma. The Mesozoic volcanic rocks were
formed when the above magma was erupted on the surface. In early Cretaceous, large-scale up-
welling of the mantle induced the crust extension, the granite body uplifting, and hence formed
granitic dome-detachment fault. With the development and evolution of the crust, the extension
 24 SCIENCE IN CHINA (Series D) Vol. 46

structures (i.e. fault basin and brittle faults) of upper crust were formed, and hence they provided
flow channels and precipitation sites for ore-forming hydrothermal solutions. The mantle-derived
magma was derived largely by mantle-upwelling along the Tanlu fault to shallow crust, and the
magma was degased to form mantle-source fluids. The fluids mixed with mineralization meteoric
water to form ore-forming fluids that induced large-scale mineralization in some favorable
structure locations.
Acknowledgements This work was supported by the Climbing Program (Grant No. 95-Yu-25) and the National Natural
Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 49733110).

References
1. Yiao, F. L., Liu, L. D., Kong. Q. C., The Vein Gold Deposits in Northwest Jiaodong (in Chinese), Changchun: Jilin Sci-
ence and Technology Press, 1990, 1—50.
2. Li, Z. L., Yang, M. Z., The Geology-Geochemistry of Gold Deposits in Jiaodong Region (in Chinese), Tianjin: Tianjin
Science and Technology Press, 1993, 1—300.
3. Lü, G. X., Kong, Q. C., The Geology of Linglong-Jiaojia Typle Gold Deposits in Jiaodong Region (in Chinese), Beijing:
Geological Publishing House, 1993, 1—253.
4. Sun, F. Y., Shi, Z. L., Feng, B. Z., Gold Ore Geology, Lithogenesis and Metallogenesis Related to the Differentiation of
Mantle-derived C-H-O Fluids in Jiaodong Peninsula, Eastern China, Changchun (in Chinese), Changchun: Jilin People’s
Press, 1995, 1—170.
5. Yang, M. Z., Lü, G. X., The Geology-Geochemistry of Gold Deposits in Green Belt in Jiaodong Region (in Chinese), Bei-
jing: Geological Publishing House, 1996, 1—60.
6. Lu, S. N., Li, H. K., Li, H. M. et al., The Basic Characteristics and Mineralization of Gold ore Cluster Area——Some
Examples From Xiao Qinling, Jibei and Jiaobei Gold Deposits (in Chinese), Beijing: Geological Publishing House, 1997,
1—110.
7. Wang, L., Qin, Y., McNaughton, N. J. et al., Constraints on crustal evolution and gold metallogeny in the Northeastern
Jiaodong Peninsula, China, from SHRIMP U-Pb zircon studies of granitoids, Ore Geology Reviews, 1998, 13: 275—291.
8. Mao, J. W., Hua, R. M., Li, X. B., A preliminary study of large-scale merallogenesis and large clusters of mineral deposits,
Mineral Deposits (in Chinese), 1999, 291—298.
9. Jia, D., He, Y. M., Shi, Y. S., The formation and tectonic evolution of Loudong terrane, Journal of Nanjing University
(Earth Sciences) (in Chinese), 1990, 1: 34—42.
10. Hu, S. X., Zhao, Y., Xu, B. et al., The tectonic setting of gold ore clusters in Jiaobei terrane, Advances in Earth Sciences
(in Chinese), 1992, 6: 91—95.
11. Cao, G. Q., Study on “Jiaonan terrane”, Shandong Geology (in Chinese), 1990, 2: 1—10.
12. Yu, H. M., The isotopic chronology of rocks in northwestern Jiaodong, Shandong Geology (in Chinese), 1987, 3(1): 75—
88.
13. Miao, L. C., Luo, Z. K., Huan, J. Z., SHRIMP study and significance of zircon in granites in Zhaoye gold ore belt in
Shandong Province, Journal of Earth (in Chinese), 1987, 18(sup.): 138—141.
14. Wang, H. N., Geological and geochemical evidence of Proterozoic granite and its rebuilding in Jiaodong region, Journal of
Nanjing University (Earth Sciences) (in Chinese), 1988, 1: 105—118.
15. Zhai, C., Genetic mode on lamprophyres, Geological Review (in Chinese), 1981, 27(6): 528—532.
16. Rock, N. M. S., Groves, D. I., Can lamprophyres resolve the genetic controversy over mesothermal gold deposit? Geology,
1988, 16: 538—541.
17. Zhang, Z. H., Zhang, J. X., Ye, S. Z., Isotopic dating of Jiaodong gold deposits (in Chinese), Beijing: Geological Pub-
lishing House, 1994, 1—56.
18. Yang, J. H., Zhou, X. H., Chen, L. H., Dating and its geological significances of altered rock-type gold deposits in
 Supp. METALLOGENESIS AND DEEP PROCESSES OF JIAODONG GOLD DEPOSITS 25

Jiaodong region, Acta Petrological Sinica (in Chinese), 2000, 16(3): 454—458.
19. Yang, J. H., Zhou, X. H., Rb-Sr isochrone and ore-forming age of ores and bearing-gold minerals in Jiaodong gold depos-
its, Chinese Science Bulletin, 2000, 45(24): 2272—2279.
20. Wang, H. N., Wang, Y., Chen, Y. A., Migmatite, granite and its relation to gold mineralization, Journal of Nanjing Univer-
sity (in Chinese), 1984(sup.): 29—40.
21. Li, H. Q., Liu, J. Q., Wei, L., Study on Fluid Inclusions Chronology in Hydrothermal Deposits and Geological Application
(in Chinese), Beijing: Geological Publishing House, 1993.
22. Yang, J. H., Zhou, X. H., Rb-Sr, Sm-Nd, and Pb isotope systematics of pyrite: implications for the age and genesis of lode
gold deposits, Geology, 2001, 29: 711—714.
23. Qiao, G. S., Normalization of isotopic dilution analysis, Scientia Sinica, Series A, 1988, 31: 1263—1268.
24. Meyer, H. O. A., Zhang, A., Milledge, H. J. et al., Diamonds and inclusions in diamonds from Chinese Kimberlite, CPRM
Special Publication 1/A, 1994, 1: 98—115.
25. Griffin, W. L., Zhang, A., O’reilly, S. Y. et al., Phanerozoic evolution of the lithosphere beneath the Sino-Korean Craton
(eds. Flower, M. F. J., Chung, S. L., Lo, C. H. et al.), Mantle dynamics and plate interaction in East Asia, Geodynamics,
Series, 1998, 27: 107—126.
26. Zhang, P., Hou, S., Metallogenic model of kimberlite in North China Craton, China, Proceedings of the Fifth Kimberlite
Conference, CPRM Special Publication, 1991, 92: 466—469.
27. Zhou, X. H., Chen, Y. X., Zhang, G. H. et al., Isotopic constraints on source characteristics of the Mesozoic volcanic rocks
——A case study from northern margin of North China Craton, Chinese Science Bulletin (in Chinese), 1998, 43(23): 2491
—2498.
28. Zhou, X. H., Rb-Sr-Pb isotopic mapping and its significance of late-Mesozoic volcanics on northern margin of North
China Craton, Geochemistry (in Chinese), 2001, 30: 10—23.
29. Cao, R. L., Zhu, S. H., Mantle xenoliths and alkali-rich host rocks in eastern China (ed. Nixon, P. H.), Mantle Xenolith,
Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, 1987, 167—180.
30. Basu, A. R., Wang, J., Huang, W. et al., Major element, REE and Pb, Nd and Sr isotopic geochemistry of Cenozoic vol-
canic rocks of eastern China: implications for their origin from suboceanic-type mantle reservoirs, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett.,
1991, 105: 149—169.
31. Tasumoto, M., Basu, A. R., Wang, J. W. et al., Sr, Nd and Pb isotopes of ultramafic xenoliths in volcanic rocks of eastern
China: enriched components EM I and EM II in subcontinental lithosphere, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 1992, 113: 107—128.
32. Wu, F. Y., Sun, D. Y., Mesozoic magmatism and lithospheric thinning in eastern China, Journal of Changchun Science and
Technology University (in Chinese), 1999, 29(4): 313—318.
33. Deng, J. F., Zhao, H. L., Muo, X. X. et al., Root-Plume of the Chinese Contient——A Key of Continental Dynamics (in
Chinese), Beijing: Geological Publishing House, 1996, 1—110.
34. Menzies, M. A., Fan, W. M., Zhang, M., Paleozoic and Cenozoic lithoprobes and the loss of >120 km of Archean litho-
sphere, Sino-Korean Craton, China, Geol. Soci. London Spec. Publ., 1993, 76: 71—81.