Q1.

What is the difference between Rectangular and T beam from a structural

design point of view? Write one paragraph with sketches.

Rectangular and T-shaped reinforced concrete beams are both used for construction.
Their cross-sectional shapes are what distinguish them from one another.

A T-beam has a cross-section that resembles a capital "T," whereas a rectangular beam
has a cross-section that is rectangular. The T-vertical beam's stem and horizontal top
portion are known as the flange and web, respectively.

T-beams are more effective than rectangular beams from a structural perspective under
some loading circumstances. The T-flange beam offers extra resistance to bending
moments, which makes it perfect for circumstances in which the beam is subjected to
significant loads and moments. T-beams may cover greater lengths without the need for
additional support columns or beams because of their increased strength.

T-beams are more complex and difficult to build than rectangular beams. Rectangular
beams are frequently utilized when the span is not too great and the weight is dispersed
uniformly over the length of the beam. Moreover, rectangular beams are better suited to
instances where the beam's height must be kept to a minimum, as in low-rise structures
or when there are height limits.

In conclusion, the major distinction between T-beams and rectangular beams is the
form of their cross-section and their adaptability for certain loading conditions.
Rectangular beams are more appropriate for uniformly distributed weights and shorter
spans, whereas T-beams are more effective for heavier loads and longer spans.

Q2. Explain why the trend of variation of k1 with respect to wind speed is not the
same for all structures?

The factor k1 is based on statistical ideas that include the level of dependability needed
and the number of years that these will be exposed to wind, or the lifespan of the
structure. Regardless of the wind speed chosen for design purposes, there is always a
chance (however remote) that it could be exceeded in a storm with extreme ferocity;
more so the longer the time span. More likely is it the more exposed it is to the wind.

For highly critical structures, such as nuclear power reactors and satellite
communication towers, it may be necessary to choose longer return periods of between
100 and 1000 years (implying a lower risk rating) in conjunction with longer periods of
exposure.
Q3. Study IS 875 part 3 and write a note in your own language on the process of
calculating wind loads on any building and how it will be designed.

Answer 3. The process of calculating wind loads on any building as per IS 875 part 3
(2015) is as follows:

Step 1: Determination of basic wind speed (Vb)

● The Basic wind speed in m/s (based on a 50 year return period) is dependent on
the site location and is given in Figure 1 of the code represented on the map of
India.
● It is applicable to 10 m height above mean ground level for different zones of the
country.
● We need the value of Vb to calculate design wind speed in the following steps.
Note- It corresponds to mean heights above ground level in an open terrain (category
2). Basic wind speed is mentioned for some important cities/towns in Annex A of the
code.

Step 2: Determination of Design Wind Speed (Vz)

Basic wind speed Vb determined from Fig 1 is modified to include the following effects to
get design wind velocity at any height for the chosen structure:

a) Risk level;
b) Terrain roughness, height and size of structure;
c) Local topography
d) Importance factor for the cyclonic region

The following formula is used to calculate VZ:

Vz= Vb k1 k2 k3 k4

Where,

Vz = design wind speed at any height z in m/s

k1 = probability factor (risk coefficient)

[Given in Table 1 for different classes of structure in different wind speed zones.
Referred in clause 6.3.1]
k2 = terrain, height and structure size
[Given in Table 2 for different terrains (category 1-4) and corresponding heights (z).
Referred in clause 6.3.2]

k3 = topography factor
[Given in clause 6.3.3.1
The effect of topography depends on the upwind slope (θ). If θ < 3° then k3 may be
taken as 1. For θ > 3 , the value of k3 is confined in the range of 1 to 1.36. The method
of evaluating value of k3 for values greater than 1 is given in Annex C]

k4 = Importance factor

Structures of post-cyclone importance for emergency services (such as cyclone

shelters, hospitals, schools, communication towers, etc) = 1.30
Industrial structures = 1.15
All other structures = 1.00

[Given in clause 6.3.4, according to the importance of the structure.]

Step 3: Calculating Design Wind Pressure (pd)

As per clause 7.2, wind pressure at any height of the building (z) above mean ground
level is to be obtained by the following formula:

pz = 0.6 Vz2

where,
pz = wind pressure in N/m2 at height z,
Vz = design wind velocity in m/s at height z

The design wind pressure pd can be obtained as:

pd= pz Kd Ka Kc
where,

Kd = wind directionality factor

[As per clause 7.2.1, it can be taken as 0.90 for buildings, solid signs, open signs, lattice
frameworks and trusses towers (triangular, square and rectangular) and as 1.0 for
circular or near circular forms and cyclone affected regions]

Ka = area averaging factor

[Given in table 4 of the code and referred in clause 7.2.2. Tributary area is to be
calculated for the given structure/element as per clause 7.2.2.1]

Kc = combination factor

Note- the value of pd shall not be taken as lesser than 0.7 p z

Step 4: Wind Load Calculation (F)

Wind load is to be calculated by the formula:

F = (Cpe- Cpi) × Ae × Pd……………………………………………………..[Refer clause 7.4]

where,

F= Total wind load on the building/structure

Cp = (Cpe-Cpi) = Value of force coefficients

[The average values of these pressure coefficients are given in clauses 7.3.2 and 7.3.3.]

Ae = Effective frontal area of the building

[The effective area is the area of the building or structure that is exposed to the wind
and contributes to the wind load.]

Pd = design wind pressure

After calculation of wind loads the following building shall be designed accordingly:
● The design process will depend on the specific structural system and materials
being used in the building.
● It will involve selecting appropriate structural members and connections that can
resist the wind loads. This may involve increasing the size or strength of the
 members and using appropriate connection details to transfer the wind forces
through the building to the foundation.
● We might need to consider factors such as building height, shape, aspect ratio,
and dynamic response to wind loads. Wind tunnel testing may be required for
buildings with complex shapes or unusual wind loading conditions.
● In some tall buildings, tuned mass dampers may be used to to dissipate dynamic
energy as heat, to reduce the vibrations caused by the wind.
● We can install additional bracing or cross-bracingwhich can provide additional
lateral support to the building and help distribute wind loads more evenly.
● Incorporating aerodynamic design features such as tapered structures or shapes
that can help reduce wind loads and improve the building's resistance to wind.

Q4. How will you consider fully sealed openable windows in a building for
calculation of permeability?

Openable windows that are entirely sealed and shut cannot be taken into account when
determining permeability for wind loads. Air leakage from gaps, cracks, and other holes
in the building envelope is referred to as permeability, whereas an openable window
that is completely sealed and closed does not cause air leakage.

The permeability factor is used in wind load calculations to calculate the actual wind
pressure exerted on a structure. The ratio between the area of openings in the building
envelope (such doors, windows, and ventilation systems) and the overall area of the
building envelope is how the permeability factor is commonly stated. The effective wind
pressure on the building is then determined using this proportion.

When a window is completely closed and sealed, it is not regarded as an opening and is
not taken into account when determining the permeability factor. The permeability factor
should only take into account openings that may let air through, such as cracks
surrounding windows and doors or ventilation systems.

Q5. How does the wind pressure vary along the height of the building? Draw
distribution curve?

The wind pressure on a building varies along the height of the building. This is because
the velocity of the wind increases as we move higher up from the ground, and this
increase in velocity leads to an increase in wind pressure.
A common way to represent the distribution of wind pressure along the height of a
building is by using a pressure coefficient (Cp) curve. This curve shows the variation in
wind pressure relative to the reference wind pressure at the same height, which is
typically measured at the free stream.

The pressure coefficient curve typically shows a gradual increase in pressure coefficient
as we move up the building, with a peak value at the roof or uppermost floors. The
curve may also exhibit some fluctuations or oscillations due to the effects of turbulence
and vortices.

The exact shape of the pressure coefficient curve depends on various factors such as
the shape and orientation of the building, the surrounding terrain, and the wind direction
and speed. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations and wind tunnel tests can
be used to obtain more accurate and detailed pressure coefficient curves for specific
buildings.

Wind Tunnel and Flow Characteristics

The experimental study is conducted in the closed circuit wind tunnel having a test
section of 1.30m (width) x 0.85m (height) and 8.25m length.

Details of the Model

The prototype of the square plan tall building is assumed to have plan dimensions of 30
m x30 m and height of 180 m. The model is fabricated using 5 mm thick Perspex sheet
at a length scale of 1:600 resulting in model dimensions of 50 mm x 50 mm in plan and
300 mm in heigh.
1. Face of a tall building under direct impact of wind experiences positive pressure.
2. When there is positive pressure on the face, it is roughly parabolic distribution
with higher value of pressure in the middle and decreasing towards the edges.
3. The pressure increases with height for most of the region of the face
experiencing positive pressure .
4. Face average Cp (mean) and pressure distribution on a face is significantly
influenced by wind incidence angles. Whereas there is pressure on a face at
some wind incidence angles, it becomes suction on the same face at some other
wind incidence angles.
5. There is suction on side faces and on leeward face of tall building at 0° angle.
6. Suction increases from windward edge to leeward edge at 0° angle on side
faces.
7. There is maximum suction on the side face at 15° and not at 0° wind incidence
angle.
8. Experimental value of face average of Cp (mean) on leeward face differs
significantly from those specified in most of the building codes including Indian
code IS 875(Part- 3):2015