Exercise No.

3
CELLULAR REPRODUCTION

Introduction

Growth is an essential characteristic of an organism. In multicellular organisms, growth occurs

primarily as a result of the increase of the number of cells, also called as cell division. This biological
process is almost fundamentally the same in both eukaryotic and prokaryotic organisms. This vital
mechanism is focused on the nucleus, where the contained information, in the form of chromosomes,
is equally divided between the products of division. Important changes also occur in the cytoplasm,
however, structural patterns associated with nuclear division are easier to follow and understand. The
division of the nucleus, called as mitosis, is essentially the same in both animals and plants, although it
varies in certain aspects and conditions due to morphological differences in the cells between the two
groups. To facilitate learning, mitosis has been divided into several stages or phases, although the
process is a continuous one. These phases are: prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase,
telophase and cytokinesis. Prior to mitosis is the interphase stage.

Objectives

To illustrate and identify the different stages of cell division in order to determine the significant consequences of
mitosis.

To fully understand the mechanism in each stages of cell division and appreciate the underlying principles of the
process.

MITOSIS

Mitosis is the process in which the nucleus of eukaryotic cell splits into two, followed by the division of
the parent cell into two daughter cells. The word “mitosis” means “threads,” refers to the threadlike
appearance of chromosomes as the cell prepares to divide. Early scientists who have worked
microscopy were also the first people to observe these structures. Also, they have noted the appearance
of a specialized network of microtubules, collectively known as the spindle, extend from the structures
called centrosomes – with one centrosome located at each of the opposite end, or poles, of a cell. As
mitosis progresses, the microtubules attach to the chromosomes, which have already duplicated their
DNA and aligned across the center of the cell. The spindle tubules then shorten and move toward the
poles of the cell. As they move, they pull the one copy of each chromosome with them to opposite poles
of the cell. This process ensures that each daughter cell will contain one exact copy of the parent cell
DNA.

The Phases of Mitosis

Mitosis consists of five morphologically distinct phases: prophase prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase,
and telophase. Each phase involves characteristic steps in the process of chromosome alignment and
separation. Once mitosis is complete, the entire cell divides in two by way of the process called
cytokinesis.
Prophase

After the interphase, which is the growth of the cell according to its size and makes a copy of its DNA,
prophase is the first stage of mitosis. During this stage, the parent cell chromosomes – which were
duplicated during the S phase of interphase, condense and become thousand of times more compact.
Because each duplicated chromosome consists of two identical sister chromatids joined at a point
called the centromere, these structures now appear as X-shaped bodies when viewed under a
microscope.

The mitotic spindle also begins to develop during prophase. As the cell’s two centrosomes move toward
opposite poles, microtubules gradually assemble between them, forming the network that will later
pull the duplicated chromosome apart.

Prometaphase

When prophase is complete, the cell enters prometaphase – the second stage of mitosis. During
prometaphase, the nuclear membrane breaks down into numerous small vesicles. As a result, the
spindle microtubules now have direct access to the genetic material of the cell.

During this stage, each microtubule is highly dynamic, growing outward from the centrosome and
collapsing backward as it tries to locate a chromosome. Eventually, the microtubules find their targets
and connect to each chromosome at its kinetochore, a complex of proteins positioned at the
centromere. A tug-of-war then ensues as the chromosomes move back and forth towards the two poles.

Metaphase

As prometaphase ends and metaphase begins, the chromosomes align along the cell equator. Every
chromosome has at least two microtubules extending from its kinetochore – with at least one
microtubule connected to each pole. . At this point, the tension within the cell becomes balanced, and
the chromosomes no longer move back and forth.

In addition, the spindle is now complete, and three groups of spindle microtubules are apparent.
Kinetochore microtubules attach the chromosomes to the spindle pole; interpolar microtubules
extend from the spindle pole across the equator; and astral microtubules extend from the spindle pole
to the cell membrane.

Anaphase

Metaphase leads to anaphase, during which each chromosome’s sister chromatids separate and move
to opposite poles of the cell. Upon segregation, every chromatid becomes an independent chromosome.
Meanwhile, changes in microtubule length provide the mechanism for chromosome movement. More
specifically, in the first part of anaphase – anaphase A – the kinetochore microtubules shorten and
draw the chromosomes toward the spindle poles. Then, in the second part of anaphase – called
 anaphase B – the astral
microtubules that are anchored to the cell membrane pull the poles further apart and the interpolar
microtubules slide past each other, exerting additional pull on the chromosomes.

Telophase

During telophase, the chromosomes arrive at the cell poles, the mitotic spindle disassembles, and the
vesicles that contain fragments of the original nuclear membrane assemble around the two sets of
chromosomes, and the formation of a new nuclear membrane around each group of chromosomes
began.

Cytokinesis

Cytokinesis is the physical process that finally splits the parent cell into two identical daughter cells.
During cytokinesis, the cell membrane pinches in at the cell equator, forming a cleft called the cleavage
furrow. The position of the furrow depends on the position of the astral and interpolar microtubules
during anaphase.

As a summary, mitosis is the process of nuclear division, which occurs just prior to cell division, or
cytokinesis. During this multistep process, cell chromosomes condense and the spindle assembles. The
duplicated chromosomes then attach to the spindle, align at the cell equator, and move apart as the
spindle microtubules retreat toward opposite poles of the cell. Each set of chromosomes is then
surrounded by a nuclear membrane, and the parent cell splits into two complete daughter cells.

MATERIALS

Online Resources

REFERENCES

https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/mitosis-14046258

https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/534309943264713061/?autologin=true
Name: ALEXA JEAN D. HONREJAS Course and Year: BS BIO 1
Instructor: MRS. DAWN FAJARDO Date Performed:03-25-22` Date Submitted: 03-29-22

LABORATORY EXERCISE 3
Cellular Reproduction

A. Identify the following illustrations (A-E) as to which stage of cell division it portrays. Follow
the arrows for the continuity of the cycle. Label each of the parts (1-10) as indicated.

PROPHASE METAPHASE
SPINDLE FIBER
CENTROSOMES

NUCLEAR MEMBRANE ANAPHASE

CHROMATID
INTERPHASE

PLASMA MEMBRANE
NUCLEOLUS
CENTRIOLES

TELOPHASE
DAUGHTER CHROMOSOMES

CHROMATIN

CLEAVAGE FURROW
 https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/534309943264713061/?autologin=true

B. Using various images of prepared slides of mitosis found in the Internet, draw the cells as seen
from the field of view (FOV) of the microscope, showing each of the stages of cell division.
Describe the slide you sketched and put the name of the slide, as well as label the parts, if
possible.

Figure 1. Interphase
Description: During interphase, the cell grows and makes a copy of its DNA.
Total Magnification: 40X
Figure 2. Prophase
Description: The first stage of mitosis, during which the chromosomes condense and become
visible, the nuclear membrane breaks down, and the spindle apparatus forms at opposite poles
of the cell.
Total Magnification: 40X
Figure 3. Prometaphase
Description: The second phase of mitosis, the process that separates the duplicated genetic
material carried in the nucleus of a parent cell into two identical daughter cells
Total Magnification: 40X
Figure 4. Metaphase
Description: A stage in the cell cycle where all the genetic material is condensing into
chromosomes
Total Magnification: 40X
Figure 5. Anaphase
Description: The fourth phase of mitosis, the process that separates the duplicated genetic
material carried in the nucleus of a parent cell into two identical daughter cells.
Total Magnification: 40X
Figure 6. Telophase
Description: The fifth and final phase of mitosis, the process that separates the duplicated genetic
material carried in the nucleus of a parent cell into two identical daughter cells.
Total Magnification: 40X
Figure 7. Cytokinesis
Description: The physical process of cell division, which divides the cytoplasm of a
parental cell into two daughter cells.
Total Magnification: 40X