Structural Geology and

Rock Mechanics
DEFINITION
Structural geology is the study of factors such as
origin, occurrence, classification, type and effects of
various secondary structures like folds, faults, joints,
rock cleavage and are different from those primary
structures such as bedding and vesicular structure,
which develop in rocks at the time of their formation.
ATTITUDE OF BEDS
Example for dip: 80°N
80° is the amount, N is the direction.
Example of planar structure: bedding, fault, fold axial
plane, layering in lava, cleavage & schistosity.
Strike is the direction of a line formed by the
intersection of the bedding plane with the horizontal
plane. Strike is the bearing of a horizontal line on the
inclined plane (a scalar). If a plane is immersed in a
water, the strike line will be the water-line.

Attitude Generally expressed as an angle relative to north. i.e.

A general term for the N37°E, N12°W
orientation of a line or
plane. Attitude refers to
the three dimensional
orientation of planar
and linear features such
as a bed, a joint, a
hornblende needle or a
fold.

The attitude of planar The dip of a bed is the angle between the bedding and
features, such as beds horizontal plane, i.e., the amount of inclination with
or joints, is defined by respect to horizontal. It is measured in a vertical plane
their strike and dip. at right angle to the strike of the bedding. It is
expressed in degrees (45°), or in gradient (1 in 1), or in
percentage (50%).
ATTITUDE OF LINEAR STRUCTURES
The attitude of linear structures is defined by the trend
& plunge (together they define a vector) Trend is the
bearing of the line & Plunge is the inclination of the
line. Linear structure are also defined by their pitch /
rake on a given plane:
Pitch / Rake: The acute angle between the line and the
strike of the plane on which the line lies.

Example of linear structures: Fold axis, hinge line,

intersection of two planes, stretched pebbles,
slickenside, and other lineation.

ATTITUDE OF PLANAR STRUCTURES

The attitude of planar structures is defined by the strike
and dip. Compass-clinometer for measuring strike & dip
Strike and dip describe the orientation of a plane in
space.
Strike is the bearing of a
horizontal line on the
plane (a scalar), i.e.,
N40°E
Dip is the inclination of
the plane measured down.
Dip is a vector; it gives Taking a bearing of a rock feature - e.g. strike
the direction and amount Measuring the inclination (e.g. dip)
of dip of the plane.
 OUTCROP
Any Geological formation exposed on the surface is
called an outcrop.

TYPES OUTCROP
A. Inliers

FOLDS
Folds are one of the most common geological
structures found in rocks. When a set of horizontal
B. Outliers layers are subjected to compressive forces, they bend
either upward or downward. The bend noticed in rocks
are called folds.
• In terms of their nature too, folds may occur as single
local bends or may occur repeatedly and intricately
folded to the tectonic history of the region.

PARTS OF FOLDS
• Hinge(s): It is the area of maximum curvature. It is
closure of fold sometimes.
• Limb(s): these are the areas between the hinges or in
GEOLOGICAL MAPS other words these are sides of the fold.
A geological map is an Ordinance Survey map, • Hinge line: it is possible to define a hinge line as line
showing locations of maximum curvature. The hinge line may be
and topography, horizontal, inclined
on which is or vertical.
superimposed • Axial plane: The
geological imaginary plane
information. This which is equidistant
includes from each limb of a
exposures, fold and which also
inferred outcrops bisects the angle
and the nature of between the two.
the boundaries between them, any deformation of the
rocks such as fracturing or other observations, and a The axial plane actually cuts the hinge zone of the fold
geological legend at the side of the map, explaining along a line, which is termed as fold axis or axis.
the symbols and colours used.

Some symbols for geotechnical maps and plans:

• Plunge: The attitude of the fold axis is measured as

the angle between the axis and horizontal.

CLASSIFICATION AND TYPES OF FOLDS
Usually, folds are classified on the basis of
1. Anticline and Syncline fold
2. Based on symmetrical fold
3. Occurrence of Plunge
4. Uniformity of Bed Thickness
5. Behavior of the Fold Pattern with Depth.
1. Anticline & Syncline folds
• Anticline Folds:
When the beds are bent upwards, the resulting fold is
called anticline. This fold is convex upwards.
Naturally, in such a fold, the older beds occur towards
the concave side. In a simple case, the limbs of
anticline slope in opposite directions with reference to
its axial plane. But when the anticline is refolded, the
inclined character of limbs will be complicated.
• Syncline Folds:
Syncline is just opposite to anticline in its nature, i.e.
when the beds are bent downwards the resulting fold is
called syncline. This fold is convex downwards. Tin
this the younger beds occur towards the concave side
and, in a simple type of syncline, it limbs dip towards
each other with reference to axial plane.
2. Symmetrical fold
Symmetrical Folds
When the axial plane divides a fold into two equal
halves in such a way that one half is the mirror image,
then the fold is called as symmetrical fold.
Asymmetrical Folds
If the compressive forces responsible for folding are
not of the same magnitude, asymmetrical folds are
formed.
3. Open and Closed Folds
Depending on the intensity of deformation, the beds of
the fold may or may not have uniform thickness. If the
thickness of beds is uniform throughout the folds, it is
called an open fold. On the other hand, in a fold, if the
beds are thinner in the limb portions and thicker at
crest and trough, such a fold is called closed fold.
4. Isoclinal Folds
Usually the folds have inclined limbs, i.e. the limbs
will be mutually diverging or converging with
reference to axial planes. But in some folds, the limbs
will be mutually parallel to a great extent. Such folds
are called isoclinals folds. These folds may be vertical
inclined or horizontal.
5. Plunging and Non-Plunging Folds
In geological maps, when strike lines are drawn for
both the limbs, for a non-plunging fold, they will be
mutually parallel and for a plunging fold they will be
either converging or diverging but not parallel.
DOMES AND BASINS
• Usually, a fold will have two distinct limbs. But some
folds do not have any such specific limbs and appear
as beds locally pushed up or down, i.e. their shapes
appear as dome or basin. In a dome, which resembles
an upper hemisphere, the dips are found in all sides
from the common central top point. Thus, this is a type
of anticline. In the basin, which is like a bowl, the
slopes are just opposite.
FAULTS
• Fissure or Crack developed in beds when they
subjected to tensile force.
• The fracture along which relative movement has
taken place is called as Fault.
• Further, as long as the faults are active, the site is
unstable and susceptible to upward, downward or
sideward movement along the fault plane, thereby
making the places highly hazardous for foundation
purposes.

PARTS OF FAULTS
1. Fault Plane
This is the plane along which the adjacent blocks were
relatively displaced. In other words, this is the fracture
surface on either side of which the rocks had moved
past one another. Its intersection with the horizontal
plane gives the strike direction of the fault. TYPES OF FAULTS
1. Normal and Reverse faults 2. Horst and Graben
faults
3. Strike slip faults 4. Dip slip faults
5. Oblique slip faults

2. Foot Wall and Hanging Wall

When the fault plane is inclined, the faulted block
which lies below the fault plane is called the “foot
wall” and the other block which rests above the fault
plane is called “hanging wall”. In this case of vertical
faults, naturally the faulted blocks cannot be described
as foot wall or hanging wall.

3. Slip The displacement that occurs during faulting is

called the slip. The total displacement is known as the
next slip. This may be along the strike direction or the
dip direction or along both.

4. Heave and Throw JOINTS

• The horizontal component of displacement is called
“heave” and the vertical component of displacement is
called “throw”
• In vertical faults, there is only throw, but no heave. In
horizontal faults, there is only heave, but no throw.
• Joints are fractures found in all types of rocks. They
are cracks or openings formed due to various reasons.
Naturally, the presence of joints divides the rock into
number of parts or blocks.
• In simple terms, through the joints may be described
as mere cracks in rocks, they differ mutually. Joints,
like cleavages of minerals, occur oriented in a definite
direction and as a set.

TYPES OF JOINTS
Types of Joints
1. Strike Joint 2. Dip Joint
3. Oblique Joint 4. Tension Joint
5. Shear Join

CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTS
• Classification based on the relative attitude of joints
• When the joints are parallel to the strike and dip of
adjacent beds, they are called Strike Joints or Dip
Joints, respectively.
• If the strike direction of joints is parallel neither to
the strike nor dip direction of adjacent beds, then
such joints are called Oblique Joints.
• If the strike direction, dip direction and dip amount)
coincides completely with the attitude of adjacent
beds, they are called bedding joints.
• Classification based on the Origin of Joints Most of
the joints are formed due to either tensional forces or
shearing forces. Accordingly they are described as
Tension or Shear Joint