1.

Describe the functions of bone and the skeletal system

2. What comprises the structure of long bone? List and describe
3. Briefly discuss the histology of the bone
4. How does blood get supplied to bones? Mention the nerves that play important roles in this
process as you describe the pathway
5. Describe briefly
- The bone formation
- Fracture and repair of bone
- Bone’s role in calcium homeostasis
- Exercise and aging in bone tissue
6. What are some common bone disorders and their nature?

Answers

1. Bone is an organ made up of several different tissues working together. The entire framework of
bones and their cartilages constitute the skeletal system. The functions of bone and the skeletal
system are the following

Support The skeleton serves as the structural framework for the body by
supporting soft tissues and providing attachment points for the
tendons of most skeletal muscles
Protection The skeleton protects most of the part of Internal organs from
injury.
Assistance in movement Most skeletal muscles attach to bones when they contract, they
pull on bones to produce movement
Mineral homeostasis Bone tissue makes up about 18 percent of the weight of the
(storage and release) human body. It stores several minerals, especially calcium and
phosphorus which contribute to the strength of bone. Bone
stores about 99 percent body calcium. On demand bone
releases minerals into the blood to maintain critical mineral
balances (homeostasis) and to distribute the minerals to other
parts of the body
Blood cell production Within a certain bone, a connective tissue called red bone
narrow produces red blood cells, white blood cells and
platelets, it is a process called hemopoiesis.
Triglyceride storage Yellow bone narrow consists mainly of adipocytes cells which
stores triglycerides. The stored triglycerides are a potential
chemical energy reserve

2. Long bone is one that has greater length than width. It consists of

Diaphysis = growing between
Epiphyses = growing over
Metaphyses (meta=between)
Articular cartilage
It is a bone shaft or body. The long, Cylindrical, and main
portion of the bone
The proximal and distal ends of the bones
Regions between diaphysis and epiphyses
Thin layer of hyaline cartilage covering the part of the

Periosteum = around
Medullary cavity = marrow, pith
Endosteum = within
epiphysis where the bone forms an articulation or joint
with another bone
Is a tough connective tissue sheath and its associated
blood supply that surrounds the bone surface wherever it
is not covered by articular cartilage.
Is a hallow, cylindrical space within the diaphysis that
contains fatty yellow bone marrow and numerous blood
vessels in adults.
It is a thin membrane that lines the medullar cavity. It
contains the a single layer of bone forming cells and a small
amount of connective tissue.

3. Bone or osseous tissue contains an abundant extracellular matrix that surrounds widely
separated cells. The extracellular matrix is about 15% water, 30% collagen fibers and 55%
crystallized mineral salts. The most abundant mineral salt is calcium phosphate, it combines
with still other mineral salts such as calcium carbonate and ions such as magnesium, fluoride,
potassium and sulfate. As these mineral salts are deposited in the framework formed by the
collagen fibers of the extracellular matrix, they crystalize and the tissue hardens and this process
called calcification. Calcification simply occurred when enough mineral salts were present to
form crystals. The process required the presence of collagen fibers. Mineral salts first begins to
crystallize in the microscopic spaces between collagen fibers. After the space are filled, mineral
crystals accumulate around the collagen fibers. The combination of crystallized salts and
collagen fibers is responsible for the characteristics of bone. Bones hardens depend on the
crystallized inorganic mineral salts, a bones flexibility depends on its collagen fibers.
4. Nerves accompany the blood vessels that supply bones.
Periosteal Arteries is a small arteries accompanied by nerves, enter the diaphysis through many
interosteonic canals and supply the periosteum and outer part of the compact bone. Near the
center of the diaphysis, a large nutrient artery passes through a hope in compact bone called
nutrient foramen. On entering the medullary cavity, the nutrient artery divides into proximal
and distal branches that course toward each end of the bone. The metaphyseal arteries enter
the metaphyses of a long bone and together with the nutrient artery, supply the red bone
marrow and bone tissue of the metaphyses. The epiphyseal arteries enter the epiphyses of a
long bone and supply the red bone marrow and bone tissue of the epiphyses.
Veins that carry blood away from long bones are evident in three places: 1. One or Two
nutrient veins accompany the nutrients artery and exit through diaphysis. 2. Numerous
epiphyseal veins and metaphyseal veins accompany their respective arteries and exit through
the epiphyses and metaphyses receptively. 3. Many small Periosteal veins accompany their
respective arteries and exit through the periosteum
5. BONE FORMATION
The process by which bone forms is called ossification. Ossi means bone and fication means
making. Bone formation occurs in four principal situations. 1. The initial formation of bones in an
embryo and fetus 2. The growth of bones during infancy, childhood and adolescence until their
adult sizes are reached 3. The remodeling of bone (the replacement of old bone by new bone
tissue throughout life) 4. The repair of fractures (breaks in bones) throughout life.
FRACTURE AND REPAIR BONE
 Fracture is any break in a bone. Fractures are named according to their severity, the shape or
position of the fracture line or even the physician who first describe them. the repair of bone
fracture involves the following phases.
- Reactive phase
- Reparative phase: Fibrocartilaginous callus formation
- Reparative phase: bony callus formation
- Bone remodeling phase

BONE’S ROLE IN CALCIUM HOMEOSTASIS

Bone serves as an important storage point for calcium, as it contains 99% of the total body
calcium. One way to maintain the level of calcium in the blood is to control the rates of calcium
resorption from bone into blood and of calcium deposition from blood into bone. Calcium
release from bone is regulated by parathyroid hormone. Calcitonin stimulates incorporation of
calcium in bone.

EXERCISE AND AGING BONE TISSUE

Bone tissue has the ability to alter its strength in response to changes in mechanical stress.
When places under stress, bone tissue becomes stronger through increased deposition of
mineral salts and production of collagen fibers by osteoblasts. Without mechanical stress, bone
does not remodel normally because bone resorption occurs more quickly than more formation.
Research has shows that high impact intermittent strains more strongly influence bone
deposition as compared with lower impact constant strains. Therefore running, and jumping
stimulate bone remodeling more dramatically than walking. Any type of exercise will stimulate
the deposition of more bone tissue, but resistance training has a greater effect than
cardiovascular activities.

From birth through adolescence, more bone tissue is produced than is lost during bone
remodeling. In young adults, the rates of bone deposition and resorption are about the same. In
women after menopause, a decrease in bone mass occurs because bone resorption by
osteoclasts outpaces bone deposition by osteoblasts. In old age, loss of bone through resorption
occurs more rapidly than bone gain. Women’s bones generally are smaller and less massive than
men’s bones to begin with. Loss of bone mass in old age typically has a greater adverse effect in
female. These factors also contributed to the higher incidence of osteoporosis in females. There
are 2 principles effects of aging on bone tissue: loss of bone mass and brittleness. Loss of bone
mass results from demineralization , the loss of calcium and other minerals from bone
extracellular matrix. The second brittleness, results from a decreased rate of protein synthesis.
The loss of textile strength causes the bones to become very brittle and susceptible to fracture.

6. Common Bone Disorders

 Osteoporosis
This common disease occurs when bones become weak due to changes in bone mineral density
and mass, causing a higher risk for fractures. Osteoporosis is known as a “silent” disease as
there are no obvious symptoms until a bone actually breaks. These fractures can occur
anywhere, but typically in the hip, spine, and wrist.
 
 Although anyone can develop this disease, osteoporosis is more prevalent in older women.
Aside from aging, additional risk factors include being of small stature, family history, certain
medications, and having low bone density.
 Fracture
A fracture is a break in a bone which occurs when it is put under sudden or very strong pressure
or force. This covers falls, a direct impact on the body, and sports-related injuries.
People at high risk of getting fractures are the elderly, individuals with osteoporosis and
endocrine or intestinal disorders, and those taking corticosteroids. There are several types of
fractures but are usually classified as closed or open, and incomplete or complete.
 Closed/Open fractures
A closed or simple fracture is when the broken bone does not break the skin. Conversely, an
open or compound fracture happens when the ends of a fractured bone tear through the skin.
Open fractures that expose the bone and other tissues put the injured at greater risk of
infection.
 Incomplete/Complete fractures
Incomplete fractures are when the bone cracks without breaking completely, keeping it in one
piece. Complete fractures, meanwhile, happen when the bone is snapped or crushed into two or
more pieces.
Both types have a slew of variations, depending on how the bone breaks and its condition after
breakage.
 Scoliosis
Scoliosis is an abnormal curvature of the spine resulting in an S or C shape. The disorder often
occurs in a child’s growth spurt before puberty, with cases usually diagnosed in the first seven
years. In around 80% of scoliosis cases, no identifiable causes are found, though it may happen
due to birth defects, neurological abnormalities, and genetic conditions.
Symptoms of scoliosis depend on the severity of the condition, including having one shoulder
blade higher or more protrusive than the other, uneven hips, a rotating spine, breathing
problems, and back pain.
 Paget’s disease
Paget’s disease is a chronic disorder that affects the way that bones break down and regrow.
This results in excessive breakdown and regrowth, leading to bones that are bigger and softer
than usual. Paget’s disease may also cause bones to grow misshapen and more prone to
fracturing.
Symptoms of Paget’s disease rarely manifest, and when they do, they can be similar to that of
arthritis. These include pain in the affected area, headaches and hearing loss (if the disorder
affects the skull), pressure on the nerves (if the skull or spine is affected), damage to the
cartilage in the joints, increased head size, limb bowing, and spine curvature.
 Osteoarthritis
One of the most common joint disorders, osteoarthritis arises when the cartilage between two
joints is worn down. This causes the bones in the joint to rub together, causing swelling and
stiffness in the area.
Symptoms typically occur way into adulthood, with the average person over 60 displaying some
of the symptoms. Risk factors for this disorder include age, weight, frequency and intensity of
joint activity, sports that directly affect the joint, and family history.
 Rheumatoid arthritis
Rheumatoid arthritis is an autoimmune and inflammatory disease that causes the body’s
immune system to attack healthy cells mistakenly, leading to inflammation or painful swelling in
the affected area. It can attack multiple joints at once, usually the hands, wrists, and knees, and
damage the joint tissue, leading to chronic pain, lack of balance or instability, and deformities.
Signs of rheumatoid arthritis include pain and stiffness in multiple joints, as well as tenderness
and swelling. These will occur symmetrically on both sides of the body, like in both wrists or
both knees. Other symptoms are weight loss, fever, fatigue, and weakness.
While the primary cause of the disorder is unknown, factors like age, gender, genetics, exposure
to smoking at a young age, and obesity have been linked to an increased risk of contracting it.
 Gout
Gout is a common form of inflammatory arthritis marked by intense pain and caused by too
much uric acid in the body. Uric acid crystals build up in the joints and surrounding tissues in the
body. This disorder typically affects one joint at a time, usually the one connecting the big toe.
Other commonly afflicted joints are the lesser toe joints, ankles, and knees.
Symptoms like intense pain, swelling, redness, and heat are known to get worse (“flares”) or
disappear (“remission”) entirely. Repeated instances of gout may lead to gouty arthritis, a
severe form of arthritis.
Increased risk factors include gender, obesity, certain health conditions, use of certain
medications like diuretics, an increased intake of alcohol and high-fructose food and drink, and a
purine-rich diet.
 Bursitis
This disorder is characterized by the inflammation of the bursa, the small fluid-filled sac that
serves as a cushion between the bone and other moving parts like muscles, tendons, joints, or
skin. The bursa may turn red and increase in fluid content, leading to painful swelling.
Bursitis is caused by overuse or an increased activity level involving the joint. Trauma or a
complication from rheumatoid arthritis, gout, or infection may also be a culprit, although there
are cases of bursitis where no cause can be determined.
Symptoms include pain and tenderness when pressing around the joint, stiffness and aches
when moving the afflicted joint, and swelling, warmth, or redness over the joint itself.