Tension Members

structural elements subjected to axial tensile forces

used in various types of structures and include
truss members
bracing for buildings and bridges
cables in suspended roof systems
cables in suspension and cable-stayed bridges
cross-sectional area - the only determinant of its strength
Typical cross-sections

double-angle section - most common built-up configuration

The stress in axially loaded tension member is
defined as

P
f= (1)
A
where
P - magnitude of the load
A - cross-sectional area (normal to the load)

The stress in this equation is exact, provided that the cross section
under consideration is not adjacent to the point of application of
the load, where the distribution of stress is not uniform.
Sections with holes
Gusset plate - is used to transfer the load from the member to a
support or another member

The presence of holes influence the stress at a cross section

through the hole(s) where the cross-sectional area is reduced
by an amount equal to the area removed by the holes
Gross and Net Areas

The area of the bar at

Section a–a, A = 12 · 8 = 4 in2
Section b–b, A = 4 − 2 · 12 · 78 = 3.13 in2
where
The unreduced area (Aa−a ) is the gross
area.
The reduced area (Ab−b ) is the net area.
Limit states
A tension member can fail either
Excessive deformation - initiated by yielding, to prevent
excessive deformation the load on the gross section must be
small enough that the stress on the gross section is less than
the yield stress Fy .

Stress on gross section < yield stress Fy

Fracture - to prevent fracture, the stress on the net section

must be less than the tensile strength Fu .

Stress on net section < tensile strength Fu

Limit States
In each case, the stress P/A must be less than a limiting stress F or
P
<F or P < FA (2)
A
Thus the nominal strength in yielding is

Pn < Fy Ag (3)

and the nominal strength in fracture is

Pn < Fu Ae (4)
Design for Strength
NSCP 502.3.3/AISC B3(3) (LRFD) and 502.3.4/B3(4) (ASD)

By the general definition of strength,

LRFD ASD

Ru ≤ φRn Ra ≤ Rn /Ω

In terms of tensile strength (NSCP 504.2/AISC D2),

LRFD ASD

Pu ≤ φ t P n Pa ≤ Pn /Ωt
Note: φt is smaller for fracture (0.75) than for yielding (0.90),
reflecting the more serious nature of fracture.
NSCP 504.2 Tensile Strength
“The design tensile strength, φt Pn and the allowable tensile
strength, Pn /Ωt of tension members, shall be the lower value
obtained according to the limit states of tensile yielding in the gross
section and tensile rupture in the net section.”
Nominal strength
NSCP 504.2

Tensile yielding (gross section)

Pn = F y A g
φt = 0.90 (LRFD ) Ωt = 1.67 (ASD)

Tensile rupture (net section)

Pn = F u A e
φt = 0.75 (LRFD ) Ωt = 2.00 (ASD)
Nominal strength
NSCP 504.2

where
Ae = effective net area, mm2
Ag = gross area of member, mm2
Fy = specified minimum yield stress of the type of steel being
used, M P a
Fu = specified minimum tensile strength of the type of steel
being used, M P a
LRFD

Thus, for the two limit states

for tension members

Pu = φt Pn −→ Pu = φt Fy Ag or φt Fu Ae

The smaller value as design strength of the member

Pu = 0.90Fy Ag tensile yielding

Pu = 0.75Fu Ae tensile fracture
ASD: Allowable Load
For yielding of the gross section, the safety factor Ωt is 1.67 (or
5/3), and the allowable strength (or load) is
Required strength ≤ Allowable strength

Pn Fy A g
Pa ≤ = = 0.6Fy Ag (5)
Ωt 1.67
For fracture of the net section, the safety factor is 2.00 and the
allowable strength (or load) is
Required strength ≤ Allowable strength

Pn Fu Ae
Pa ≤ = = 0.5Fu Ae (6)
Ωt 2.00
Alternative

The service load stress can be compared to the allowable stress,

expressed as

f t ≤ Ft (7)

where
ft - applied stress
Ft - allowable stress
Allowable Stress
For yielding of the gross section,

Pa Pn /Ωt 0.6Fy Ag
ft = and Ft = = = 0.6Fy (8)
Ag Ag Ag
For fracture of the net section,

Pa Pn /Ωt 0.5Fu Ae
ft = and Ft = = = 0.5Fu (9)
Ae Ae Ae
The values of Fy and Fu for various structural steels are found in
Table 2-3 of the Manual (see next page).
Actual bolt hole(s) φ
depends on fabrication procedure, the usual practice is to drill
or punch standard holes with a diameter 1/16 inch larger (∼ 2
mm, actual equivalent is 1.6 mm) than the fastener diameter
to account for roughness around the hole edges, NSCP
504.3.2/AISC B4.3 requires the addition of 1/16 inch to the
actual hole diameter
thus, add 1/8 inch or 4 mm to the actual hole diameter (see
Table J3.3M next page)
NSCP 504.3.2/AISC B4.3 - Net area
In computing net area for tension and shear, the width of a bolt
hole shall be taken as 2 mm greater than the nominal dimension of
the hole.
NSCP 510.3.2/AISC J3.2
AISC Table J3.3M is the same as NSCP Table 510.3.3
Example 3.1 of Segui (2013)
Solution

For yielding of the gross section,

Ag = 5(1/2) = 2.5 in.2

and the nominal strength is

Pn = Fy Ag = 36(2.5) = 90.0 kips

Solution
For fracture of the net section,

An = Ag − Aholes
= 2.5 − (1/2)(3/4) × 2 holes
= 2.5 − 0.75 = 1.75 in.2
Ae = An = 1.75 in.2

True only for this example, but Ae does not always equal An and
the nominal strength is

Pn = Fu Ae = 58(1.75) = 101.5 kips

Solution: LRFD

a) The design strength based on yielding is

φt Pn = 0.90(90) = 81.0 kips

The design strength based on fracture is

φt Pn = 0.75(101.5) = 76.1 kips

Thus, the design strength for LRFD is the smaller value:

φt Pn = 76.1 kips.
Solution: ASD

b) The allowable strength based on yielding is

Pn 90
= = 53.9 kips
Ωt 1.67
The allowable strength based on fracture is
Pn 101.5
= = 50.8 kips
Ωt 2.00
Thus, the allowable service load for ASD is the smaller value =
50.8 kips.
Alternative solution
using allowable stress

For yielding,

Ft = 0.6Fy = 0.6(36) = 21.6 ksi

and the allowable load is

Ft Ag = 21.6(2.5) = 54.0 kips

The slight difference is due to rounding of FS from 5/3 to 1.67.

Alternative solution
using allowable stress

For fracture,

Ft = 0.5Fu = 0.5(58) = 29.0 ksi

and the allowable load is

Ft Ae = 29.0(1.75) = 50.8 kips

The allowable service load is the smaller value = 50.8 kips.

Example 3.2 of Segui (2013)
Solution
First, compute the nominal strengths.
Gross section:

Ag = 2.48 in.2 from Part 1 of the Manual

Pn = Fy Ag = 36(2.48) = 89.28 kips

Net section:
3 7 1
An = 2.48 − ( )( + ) = 2.105 in.2
8 8 8
Ae = 0.85An = 0.85(2.105) = 1.789 in.2
Pn = Fu Ae = 58(1.789) = 103.8 kips
Solution
a) The design strength based on yielding is

φt Pn = 0.90(89.28) = 80.35 kips

The design strength based on fracture is

φt Pn = 0.75(103.8) = 77.85 kips

The design strength is the smaller value:

φt Pn = 77.85 kips
Solution

Factored load:
Combination 1: 1.4D = 1.4(35) = 49 kips
Combination 2: 1.2D + 1.6L = 1.2(35) + 1.6(15) = 66 kips
Combination 2 controls; Pu = 66 kips.
Since Pu < φt Pn , (66 kips < 77.85 kips), the member is
satisfactory.
Solution

b) For the gross section, the allowable strength is

Pn 89.28
= = 53.46 kips
Ωt 1.67
For the net section, the allowable strength is
Pn 103.8
= = 51.9 kips
Ωt 2.00
The smaller value controls; the allowable strength is 51.9 kips.
Solution

When the only loads are dead load and live load, ASD load
combination 2 will always control:

Pa = D + L = 35 + 15 = 50 kips

Since 50 kips < 51.9 kips, the member is satisfactory.

Alternative Solution
using allowable stress

For the gross area, the applied stress is

Pa 50
ft = = = 20.16 ksi
Ag 2.48

and the allowable stress is

Ft = 0.6Fy = 0.6(36) = 21.6 ksi

For this limit state, ft < Ft (OK)

Alternative Solution
using allowable stress

For the net section,

Pa 50
ft = = = 27.95 ksi
Ae 1.789
and the allowable stress is

Ft = 0.5Fu = 0.5(58) = 29.0 ksi > 27.95 ksi

Since ft < Ft for both limit states, the member is satisfactory.

Example 3.3 of Segui (2013)
Solution

The notation LLBB means “long-legs back-to-back” and SLBB

indicates “short-legs back-to-back.”
When a double-shape section is used, two approaches are possible:
1 consider a single shape and double everything
2 consider two shapes from the outset
Solution

Using the 1st approach, i.e. for one angle, the nominal strength
based on the gross area

Pn = Fy Ag = 36(2.41) = 86.76 kips

There are two holes in each angle, so the net area of one angle is
  
5 1 1
An = 2.41 − + × 2 = 2.019 in.2
16 2 8
Solution

The effective net area is

Ae = 0.75(2.019) = 1.514 in.2

The nominal strength based on the net area

Pn = Fu Ae = 58(1.514) = 87.81 kips

Solution

a) The design strength based on yielding of the gross area is

φt Pn = 0.90(86.76) = 78.08 kips

The design strength based on fracture of the net area is

φt Pn = 0.75(87.81) = 65.86 kips

Since 65.86 kips < 78.08 kips, fracture of the net section controls,
and the design strength for the two angles is 2(65.86) = 132 kips.
Solution
b) The allowable stress approach will be used. For the gross section,

Ft = 0.6Fy = 0.6(36) = 21.6 ksi

The corresponding allowable load is

Ft Ag = 21.6(2.41) = 52.06 kips

For the net section,

Ft = 0.5Fu = 0.5(58) = 29 ksi

Solution

The corresponding allowable load is

Ft Ae = 29(1.514) = 43.91 kips

Because 43.91 kips < 52.06 kips, fracture of the net section
controls, and the allowable strength for the two angles is
2 × 43.91 = 87.8 kips.
Effective Area, Ae

connection is the most important factor in the performance of

tension member
connection almost always weakens the member and the
measure of its influence is called joint efficiency a function of
ductility of the material
fastener spacing
stress concentrations at holes
fabrication procedure
a phenomenon known as shear lag (most important)
Shear Lag
shear lag occurs when some elements of the cross section are
not connected (only one leg is connected, see figure below)
as a consequence of this partial connection, the connected
element becomes overloaded and the unconnected part is not
fully stressed
lengthening the connected region will reduce shear lag
Munse and Chesson (1963) suggest that shear lag be
accounted for by using a reduced, or effective, net area
NSCP 504.3.3/AISC D3 Effective net
area, An
Bolted connections, effective net area, Ae

Ae = An U (10)

Welded connections, effective area, Ae

Ae = Ag U (11)

where the reduction factor U (shear lag) is given in NSCP Table

504.3.1/AISC Table D3.1 (see next page).
NSCP Table 504.3.1/AISC Table D3.1
See next pages for a more detailed discussion of this table...
Rules in determining U

Five Categories
1 A general category for any type of tension member except
plates and round HSS with ` ≥ 1.3D
2 Plates
3 Round HSS with ` ≥ 1.3D
4 Alternative values for single and double angles
5 Alternative values for W, M, S, and HP shapes
For any type of tension member except
plates and round HSS with ` ≥ 1.3D

x̄
U =1−
`
where
x̄ = distance from centroid of connected area to the plane of
the connection (formulated by Munse and Chesson (1963))
` = length of the connection
x̄ for various types of connections

For member with two symmetry (plane of connection), x̄ is

measured from the centroid of the nearest one-half of the area.
` for bolted and welded connections
The length ` is the length of the connection in the direction of the
load.
Plates

In general, U = 1.0 for plates, since the cross section has only one
element and it is connected. There is one exception for welded
plates, i.e. for members connected with longitudinal welds on each
side with no transverse weld, the following values apply:
U = 1.0, for ` ≥ 2w
U = 0.87, for 1.5w ≤ ` < 2w
U = 0.75, for w ≤ ` < 1.5w
Round HSS with ` ≥ 1.3D

U = 1.0
Single and Double Angles

An alternative to the (in lieu) equation above, i.e. U = 1 − x̄/`,

the following values may be used
U = 0.80, for ≥ 4 fasteners in the direction of loading
U = 0.60, for three fasteners in the direction of loading
W, M, S, HP, or Tees Cut from these
Shapes
If the following conditions are satisfied, the corresponding values
may be used in lieu of the equation above, i.e. U = 1 − x̄/`
U = 0.90, connected through the flange with three or more
fasteners in the direction of loading, with a width at least 2/3
of the depth
U = 0.85, connected through the flange with three or more
fasteners in the direction of loading, with a width less than 2/3
of the depth
U = 0.70, connected through the web with four or more
fasteners in the direction of loading
Alternative values of U for various
connections
See preceeding slide...
Other considerations

U = 1.0, connected with only transverse welds, and An is the

area of the connected element
Limiting values for the effective area:
Ae = An ≤ 0.85Ag , for bolted splice plates
For open cross-sectional shapes (such as W, M, S, C, HP, WT, and
ST) and (angles), the value of U need not be less than the ratio of
the connected element gross area to the total gross area.
Example 3.4 of Segui (2013)
Determine the effective net area for the tension member shown.
Solution

An = Ag − Aholes
 
1 5 1
= 5.77 − + (2) = 5.02 in2
2 8 8
Only one element (one leg) of the cross section is connected, so the
net area must be reduced. From the properties tables in Part 1 of
the Manual, the distance from the centroid to the outside face of
the leg of an L6×6×1/2 is

x̄ = 1.67 in

The length of the connection is

` = 3 + 3 = 6 in
∴ U = 1 − (x̄/`) = 1 − (1.67/6) = 0.7217
Ae = An U = 5.02(0.7217) = 3.623 in2
The alternative value of U could also be used. Because this angle
has three bolts in the direction of the load, the reduction factor U
can be taken as 0.60, and

Ae = An U = 5.02(0.60) = 3.012 in2

Either U value is acceptable, and the Specification permits the

larger one to be used. However, the value obtained from the
Equation U = 1 − (x̄/`) is more accurate. The alternative values of
U can be useful during preliminary design, when actual section
properties and connection details are not known.
Example 3.5 of Segui (2013)
If the tension member of Example 3.4 is welded as shown,
determine the effective area.
Solution:
As in Example 3.4, only part of
the cross section is connected and
a reduced effective area must be
used.

U = 1 − (x̄/`)
= 1 − (1.67/5.5) = 0.6964
Ae = Ag U
= 5.77(0.6964) = 4.02 in2
Staggered Fasteners

for bolted connection, net area is

maximized if fasteners are in a single
line
due to space limitations, more than
one line is necessary
staggered pattern of fasteners is used
to minimize the reduction in
cross-sectional area
geometry of connection also dictates
staggered fasteners
 For staggered fasteners, the relationship f = P/A does not
apply, and stresses on the inclined portion b − c (see figure (c)
above) are a combination of tensile and shearing stresses.
Several approximate methods have been proposed to account
for the effects of staggered hole

Cochrane (1922) proposed a reduced diameter

0 s2
d =d−
4g
where d is the hole diameter, s is the stagger, or pitch, of the bolts
(spacing in the direction of the load), and g is the gage (transverse
spacing). Not for failure patterns with lines parallel to the applied
load.
NSCP 502.3.13(2)/AISC B3.4b Gross and
Net Area Determination
“For a chain of holes extending across a part in any diagonal or
zigzag line, the net width of the part shall be obtained by deducting
from the gross width the sum of the diameters or slot dimensions as
provided in this section, of all holes in the chain, and adding, for
each gage space in the chain, the quantity s2 /4g”
X 2 X s2

X s X
wn = wg − d0 = wg − d− = wg − d+
4g 4g

where wn is the net width and wg is the gross width. The second
term is the sum of all hole diameters, and the third term is the sum
of s2 /4g for all inclined lines in the failure pattern.
 Example 3.6 of Segui (2013)

Compute the smallest net area for the plate

shown. The holes are for 1-inch-diameter bolts.

Solution: The effective hole diameter is 1 + 1/8 = 1 81 in. For line

abde,
wn = 16 − 2(1.125) = 13.75 in.
2
For line abcde, wn = 16 − 3(1.125) + 2(3)4(5) = 13.52 in. The second
condition will give the smallest net area:
An = twn = 0.75(13.52) = 10.1 in.2
Gage, g, of angle bars

using net area is preferable than the

net-width approach of the NSCP/AISC
specification
X
An = Ag − t × (d or d0 )

For angle, visualized a plate formed by

“unfolding” the legs. NSCP 504.3.2/AISC
B4.3b - specifies that any gage line
crossing the heel of the angle be reduced
by an amount equal to angle thickness.
Workable Gages for Angles
Example 3.7 of Segui (2013)
An angle with staggered fasteners in each leg is shown below. A36
steel is used, and holes are for 7/8-inch-diameter bolts.
1 Determine the design strength for LRFD.
2 Determine the allowable strength for ASD.
Solution
From the dimensions and properties tables, the gross area is
Ag = 6.80 in.2 . The effective hole diameter is 7/8 + 1/8 = 1 in.
For line abdf, the net area is
X
An = Ag − tw × (d or d0 ) = 6.80 − 0.5(1.0) × 2 = 5.80 in.2

For line abceg,

(1.5)2
 
An = 6.80 − 0.5(1.0) − 0.5 1.0 − − 0.5(1.0) = 5.413 in.2
4(2.5)

Because 1/10 of the load has been transferred from the member by
the fastener at d, this potential failure line must resist only 9/10 of
the load. Therefore, the net area of 5.413 in.2 should be multiplied
by 10/9 to obtain a net area that can be compared with those lines
that resist the full load. Use An = 5.413(10/9) = 6.014 in.2 . For
line abcdeg,

gcd = 3 + 2.25 − 0.5 = 4.75 in.

(1.5)2 (1.5)2 (1.5)2
 
An = 6.80 − 4(0.5)(1.0) + 0.5 + + = 5.065 in.2
4(2.5) 4(4.75) 4(3)

The last case controls; use

An = 5.065 in.2
Both legs of the angle are connected, so

Ae = An = 5.065 in.2

The nominal strength based on fracture is

Pn = Fu Ae = 58(5.065) = 293.8 kips

The nominal strength based on yielding is

Pn = Fy Ag = 36(6.80) = 244.8 kips

a) The design strength based on fracture is

φt Pn = 0.75(293.8) = 220 kips

The design strength based on yielding is

φt Pn = 0.90(244.8) = 220 kips

∴ Design strength = 220 kips.

b) For the limit state of fracture, the allowable stress is

Ft = 0.5Fu = 0.5(58) = 29.0 ksi

and the allowable strength is

Ft Ae = 29.0(5.065) = 147 kips

For yielding,

Ft = 0.6Fy = 0.6(36) = 21.6 ksi

Ft Ag = 21.6(6.80) = 147 kips

∴ Allowable strength = 147 kips.

Example 3.8 of Segui (2013)
Determine the smallest net area for the American Standard Channel
shown. The holes are for 5/8-inch-diameter bolts.
Solution
X
An = Ag − tw × (d or d0 )
d = bolt diameter + 1/8 = 5/8 + 1/8 = 3/4 in.

Line abe:
An = Ag − tw d = 3.82 − 0.437(3/4) = 3.49 in.2

Line abcd:
An = Ag − tw (d for hole at b) − tw (d0 for hole at c)
= 3.82 − 0.437(3/4) − 0.437[3/4 − 22 /4(3)] = 3.31 in.2

∴ Smallest net area = 3.31 in.2

Staggered Holes in other Shapes
holes in different elements of the cross section, ex. for I-shape
visualized it as a plate
NSCP/AISC Specification has no guidance for gage lines
crossing a “fold” when the different elements have different
thicknesses (see figure below)
Block Shear
for certain connection configurations, a segment or “block” of
material at the end of the member can tear out, example, a
single-angle tension below is susceptible to a phenomenon
called block shear
the shaded block would tend to fail by shear along ab and by
tension along bc
Block Shear in Gusset Plate and Plate
Tension Member
for a plate tension member connected to a gusset plate, block
shear could occur in both the gusset plate and the tension
member (see figure below)
for gusset plate, tension failure in section df and shear failure
in surfaces de and f g
for tension member, tension on ik and shear on both hi and jk
AISC Specification
the code assumes that failure occurs by rupture(fracture) on
the shear area and rupture on the tension area
both surfaces contribute to the total strength
resistance to block shear is the sum of the strengths of the two
surfaces
the shear rupture stress is taken as 60% of the tensile ultimate
stress

Nominal Strength (angles and gusset plates)

Rn = 0.6Fu Anv + Fu Ant

where
0.6Fu Anv = nominal strength in shear
Fu Ant = nominal strength in tension
Anv = net area along the shear surface or surfaces
Ant = net area along the tension surface
For coped beam connections, the second term is reduced to
account for nonuniform tensile stress
Nominal Strength (for certain types of coped beam)

Rn = 0.6Fu Anv + 0.5Fu Ant

AISC Specification limits the 0.6Fu Anv term to 0.6Fy Agv where the
shear yield stress is 0.6Fy and gross area along the shear surface(s)
is Agv
NSCP Eqn 510.4-5/AISC Eqn J4-5 (one equation to
cover all cases)

Rn = 0.6Fu Anv + Ubs Fu Ant ≤ 0.6Fy Agv + Ubs Fu Ant

where Ubs = 1.0 when tension stress is uniform (angles, gusset

plates, and most coped beams) and Ubs = 0.5 when the tension
stress is nonuniform. For LRFD, φ = 0.75 and for ASD, Ω = 2.00
(block shear is a rupture limit state). Note that block shear can
also occur in welded connections, especially in gusset plates.
Example 3.10 of Segui (2013)
Compute the block shear strength of the tension member as shown.
The holes are for 7/8-inch-diameter bolts, and A36 steel is used.
(a) Use LRFD and (b) Use ASD.
Solution
The shear areas are

Agv = (3/8)(1.5 + 3 + 3) = (3/8)(7.5) = 2.813 in.2

and, since there are 2.5 hole diameters,

 
3 7 1
Anv = 7.5 − 2.5( + ) = 1.875 in.2
8 8 8

The tension area is

 
3 7 1
Ant = 1.5 − 0.5( + ) = 0.3750 in.2
8 8 8
Since the block shear will occur in an angle, Ubs = 1.0, and

Rn = 0.6Fu Anv + Ubs Fu Ant

= 0.6(58)(1.875) + 1.0(58)(0.3750) = 87.00 kips

with an upper limit of

0.6Fy Agv + Ubs Fu Ant = 0.6(36)(2.813) + 1.0(58)(0.3750) = 82.51 kips

The nominal block shear strength is therefore 82.51 kips.

a) The design strength for LRFD is φRn = 0.75(82.51) = 61.9 kips.
b) The allowable strength for ASD is Rn /Ω = 82.51/2.00 = 41.3
kips.