Ashikur Rahaman

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Biotechnology milk and dairy product

Chapter-3

What is yogurt? Discuss yogurt production. Mention the health benefits of yogurt
Yogurt
Yogurt is a fermented milk product that contains the characteristic bacterial cultures Lactobacillus
bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus. All yogurt must contain at least 8.25% solids not fat.
Full fat yogurt must contain not less than 3.25% milk fat, lowfat yogurt not more than 2% milk
fat, and nonfat yogurt less than 0.5% milk.
Raw Materials of yogurt
In general, yogurt is made with a variety of ingredients including milk, sugars, stabilizers, fruits
and flavors, and a bacterial culture
Ingredients
The main ingredient in yogurt is milk. The type of milk used depends on the type of yogurt-whole
milk for full fat yogurt, lowfat milk for lowfat yogurt, and skim milk for nonfat yogurt. Other dairy
ingredients are allowed in yogurt to adjust the composition, such as cream to adjust the fat content,
and nonfat dry milk to adjust the solids content. The solids content of yogurt is often adjusted
above the 8.25% minimum to provide a better body and texture to the finished yogurt. The CFR
contains a list of the permissible dairy ingredients for yogurt.
Stabilizers may also be used in yogurt to improve the body and texture by increasing firmness,
preventing separation of the whey (syneresis), and helping to keep the fruit uniformly mixed in the
yogurt. Stabilizers used in yogurt are alginates (carageenan), gelatins, gums (locust bean, guar),
pectins, and starch.
Sweeteners, flavors and fruit preparations are used in to provide variety the consumer. A list of
permissible sweeteners for yogurt is found in the CFR.
Bacterial Cultures
The main (starter) cultures in yogurt are Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus.
The function of the starter cultures is to ferment lactose (milk sugar) to produce lactic acid. The
characteristic of yogurt. The fermentation of lactose also produces the flavor compounds that are
characteristic of yogurt. Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus are the only 2
cultures required by law (CFR) to be present in yogurt.
Other bacterial cultures, such as Lactobacillus acidophilus, Lactobacillus subsp. casei, and Bifido
bacteria may be added to yogurt as probiotic cultures. Probiotic cultures benefit human health by
improving lactose digestion, gastrointestinal function, and stimulating the immune system
General Yogurt Processing Steps
 Adjust Milk Composition & Blend Ingredients
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 Pasteurize Milk
 Homogenize
 Cool Milk Inoculate with Starter Cultures
 Hold Cool
 Add Flavors & Fruit
 Package
1. Adjust Milk Composition & Blend Ingredients
Milk composition may be adjusted to achieve the desired fat and solids content. Often dry milk is
added to increase the amount of whey protein to provide a desirable texture. Ingredients such as
stabilizers are added at this time.
2. Pasteurize Milk
The milk mixture is pasteurized at 185°F (85°C) for 30 minutes or at 203°F (95°C) for 10 minutes.
A high heat treatment is used to denature the whey (serum) proteins. This allows the proteins to
form a more stable gel, which prevents separation of the water during storage. The high heat
treatment also further reduces the number of spoilage organisms in the milk to provide a better
environment for the starter cultures to grow. Yogurt is pasteurized before the starter cultures are
added to ensure that the cultures remain active in the yogurt after fermentation to act as probiotics;
if the yogurt is pasteurized after fermentation the cultures will be inactivated.
3. Homogenize
The blend is (2000 to 2500 psi) to mix all ingredients thoroughly and improve yogurt consistency.
4. Cool Milk
The milk is cooled to 108°F (42°C) to bring the yogurt to the ideal growth temperature for the
starter culture.
5. Inoculate with Starter Cultures
The starter cultures are mixed into the cooled milk.
6. Hold
The milk is held at 108°F (42°C) until a pH 4.5 is reached. This allows the fermentation to progress
to form a soft gel and the characteristic flavor of yogurt. This process can take several hours.
7. Cool
The yogurt is cooled to 7°C to stop the fermentation process.
8. Add Fruit & Flavors
Fruit and flavors are added at different steps depending on the type of yogurt. For set-style yogurt
the fruit is added to the bottom of the cup and then the inoculated yogurt is poured on top and the
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yogurt is fermented in the cup. For swiss style yogurt, the fruit is blended with the fermented,
cooled yogurt prior to packaging.
How yogurt is made?
The bacteria are added to heated, pasteurized, homogenized milk, and the milk is then incubated
at a specific temperature to maximize the activity of the bacteria. The bacteria convert the lactose
(milk sugar) to lactic acid, which thickens the milk and gives it the tangy taste characteristic of
yogurt.
How yogurt is made for children?
Milk is the main ingredient in yogurt. People who make yogurt take the milk and heat it to about
200 degrees Fahrenheit (93 degrees Celsius)… As the bacteria eat milk sugars, the bacteria
produce something called lactic acid. Lactic acid makes milk proteins curdle.
How much lactic acid is in yogurt?
Streptococcus thermophilus brings the pH of the milk down to 5.5. Lactobacillus bulgaricus
converts lactose to lactic acid. The total acid in yogurt is 59% lactic acid, 28% citric acid, 5.3%
acetic acid, 2,4% formic acid, 2.3% succinic acid, and small amounts of other acids.
How yogurt is fermented?
The function of the starter cultures is to ferment the lactose (milk sugar) to produce lactic acid.
The increase in lactic acid decreases pH and causes the milk to clot, or form the soft gel that is
characteristic of yogurt. The fermentation of lactose also produces the flavor compounds that are
characteristic of yogurt.
Health Benefits of Yogurt
Yogurt has been consumed by humans for hundreds of years. It's very nutritious, and eating it
regularly may boost several aspects of your health. For example, yogurt has been found to reduce
the risk of heart disease and osteoporosis, as well as aid in weight management.
1. Its Rich in Important Nutrients
Yogurt contains some of nearly every nutrient that your body needs.
It's known for containing a lot of calcium, a mineral necessary for healthy teeth and bones. Just
one cup provides 49% of your daily calcium needs.
It is also high in B vitamins, particularly vitamin B12 and riboflavin, both of which may protect
against heart disease and certain neural tube birth defects.
One cup also provides 38% of your daily need for phosphorus, 12% for magnesium and 18% for
potassium. These minerals are essential for several biological processes, such as regulating blood
pressure, metabolism and bone health
2. Its High in Protein
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Yogurt provides an impressive amount of protein, with about 12 grams per 7 ounces (200 grams).
Protein has been shown to support metabolism by increasing your energy expenditure, or the
number of calories that you burn throughout the day.
Getting enough protein is also important for appetite regulation, as it increases the production of
hormones that signal fullness. It may automatically reduce the number of calories you consume
overall, which is beneficial for weight control.
In one study, subjects who snacked on yogurt were less hungry and consumed 100 fewer calories
at dinner, compared to those who ate lower-protein snacks with the same amount of calories.
3. Some Varieties May Benefit Digestive Health
Some types of yogurt contain live bacteria, or probiotics, that were either a part of the starter
culture or added after pasteurization. These may benefit digestive health when consumed.
Unfortunately, many yogurts have been pasteurized, which is a heat treatment that kills the
beneficial bacteria they contain.
Some types of probiotics found in yogurt, such as Bifidobacteria and Lactobacillus, have been
shown to lessen the uncomfortable symptoms of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), which is a
common disorder that affects the colon.
Furthermore, several studies have found that probiotics may protect against antibiotic-associated
diarrhea, as well as constipation.
4. It May Strengthen Your Immune System
Consuming yogurt-especially if it contains probiotics on a regular basis may strengthen your
immune system and reduce your likelihood of contracting an illness. Probiotics have been shown
to reduce inflammation, which is linked to several health conditions ranging from viral infections
to gut disorders.
Moreover, the immune-enhancing properties of yogurt are partly due to its magnesium, selenium
and zinc, which trace minerals are known for the role they play in immune system health.
Vitamin D-fortified yogurts may boost immune health even further. Vitamin D has been studied
for its potential to prevent illnesses such as the common cold and flu. Summary: Yogurt provides
probiotics, vitamins and minerals, all of which may boost immune health and prevent certain
illnesses.
5. It May Protect Against Osteoporosis
Yogurt contains some key nutrients for maintaining bone health, including calcium, protein,
potassium, phosphorus and, sometimes, vitamin D. All of these vitamins and minerals are
especially helpful for preventing osteoporosis, a condition characterized by weakening of the
bones. It is common in the elderly.
6. It May Benefit Heart Health
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Yogurt's fat content is one of the reasons why its healthiness is often controversial. It contains
mostly saturated fat, with a small amount of monounsaturated fatty acids. Saturated fat was
previously believed to cause heart disease, but current research shows that this isn't the case.
Nevertheless, fat-free and low-fat varieties of yogurt are still popular in the US.
Furthermore, dairy products like yogurt have been shown to help reduce high blood pressure,
which is a major risk factor for heart disease. The effects seem to be most prominent in those
already diagnosed with high blood pressure.
7. It May Promote Weight Management
Yogurt has several properties that may help with weight management. For starters, it is high in
protein, which works along with calcium to increase levels of appetite reducing hormones like
peptide YY and GLP-1.
Furthermore, several studies have found that yogurt consumption is associated with lower body
weight, body fat percentage and waist circumference.
Other studies have found that those who eat yogurt tend to eat better overall, compared to those
who do not eat it. This is partly due to its higher nutrient content, compared to its fairly low calorie
content.
8. A daily serving of yogurt keeps colds away.
Dig into four ounces each day and you may find yourself sniffle-free in the months ahead,
according to a study at the University of Vienna. Women eating this amount had much stronger
and more active T cells, which battle illness and infection, than they did before theystarted
consuming it. "The healthy bacteria in yogurt help send signals to the immune boosting cells in
your body to power up and fight off harmful bugs,"
9.Yogurt can help your smile.
Despite its sugar content, yogurt doesn't cause cavities. When scientists at Marmara University in
Turkey tested low-fat, light, and fruit flavors, they found that none of them eroded tooth enamel,
the main cause of decay. The lactic acid in yogurt appears to give your gums protection as well.
People who eat at least two ounces a day have a 60 percent lower risk of acquiring severe
periodontal disease than those who skip it.
Why milk is called an ideal food? Breast milk is best why? Illustrate the advantages of
breastfeeding
Why milk is called an ideal food?
Milk is a good source of proteins, fats, sugars, vitamins, and minerals.
•Proteins of milk contain all the essential amino acids.
• Milk fat is present in the form of fine particles and hence easily digestible.
•Milk fats are rich in vitamins A and D.
• Minerals—calcium, phosphorus, sodium, potassium, magnesium, cobalt, copper, iodine, etc.
• Vitamins—milk is a source of all vitamins except vitamin C.
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After all this reason we called that milk is an ideal food

Breast milk is best why?
Breast milk is the perfect food for your baby. It contains just the right amount of nutrients. It is
also gentle on your baby's developing stomach, intestines, and other body systems. It is
recommended that you breastfeed until your baby is 6 months old, then breastfeed with solid foods
until at least 1 to 2 years old.
Benefits of breast milk:
You may know some of the reasons that breastfeeding is best for your baby. Here are some of
those reasons
Healthy nutrients
 Compared with formula, the nutrients in breast milk are better absorbed and used by your
baby. These include sugar (carbohydrate) and protein.
 Breast milk has the nutrients that are best for your baby’s brain growth and nervous system
development. Studies of breastfed babies have found that they do better on intelligence
tests when they grow older.
 A breastfed baby's eyes also work better. This is mostly because of certain types of fat in
breast milk.
Preventing infections
 Breast milk has many disease-fighting factors. They help prevent mild to severe infections
and hospitalization.
 Breastfed babies have far fewer digestive, lung, and ear infections.
 Babies born early (premature) who are breastfed are also less likely to get a serious
infection of the intestines called NEC (necrotizing enterocolitis).
 If your baby gets an infection when breastfeeding, the infection is likely to be less severe.
Preventing other conditions
 Breastfeeding helps protects babies from many serious health problems. And it keeps on
offering protection as they get older. Breastfed babies have:
 A lower risk for SIDS (sudden infant death syndrome) than babies who are not breastfed.
 A lower risk of getting asthma and skin problems related to allergies. Formula-fed babies
are more likely to have milk allergies.
 Less diarrhea and a lowered chance of getting some digestive conditions. Formula can
actually change healthy bacteria in a baby's intestines. The bacteria help with digestion and
fighting disease.
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 A lower risk of developing leukemia.

 Fewer long-term health problems as they grow up. These include diabetes and obesity.
Advantages of breastfeeding
 Perfect nutrition
 Protection
 Brain power
 Ready and portable
 Size does not matter
 Good for mothers too
 Builds a special bond
 Advantages continue as baby grows
 Good for the planet
 Easy on the budget
Write the health benefits of milk. Write the nutritive value of cow's milk. What are the type's
proteins present in milk?
Milk Definition: A white fluid secreted by the mammary glands of female mammals for the
nourishmentof their young, consisting of minute globules of fat suspended in a solution of casein,
albumin, milksugar, and inorganic salts.
Health Benefits of Milk: Milk is one of the most nutritious foods you can find. It has been widely
studied and seems to have severalimportant health benefits. In particularly, cow’s milk may
positively affect your bones and blood pressure.
1.Bone health and osteoporosis:
 Osteoporosis- a condition characterized by a decrease in bone density- is the main risk
factor for bonefractures among older adults.
 One of the functions of cow’s milk is to promote bone growth and development in the
young calf.
2.Blood pressure:
 Abnormally high blood pressure is a major risk factor for heart disease. Dairy products
have been linkedto a reduced risk of high blood pressure.
 It’s thought that the unique combination of calcium, potassium, and magnesium in milk
are responsiblefor this effect. Other factors may also play a part, such as peptides formed
during the digestion ofcasein.
3.Protein for Overall Health:
 Protein is the basic building block of the human body and is needed by the body to create
and repaircells, as well as being important for overall growth and development. If you’re
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looking for a quick, wellbalanced snack, milk’s high protein content makes it a great
choice.
 In fact, studies have shown that a glass of chocolate milk works as good as, if not better
than, expensivepost-workout recovery drinks.
4.Strong Bones and Teeth:
 Calcium is essential for strong bones and teeth, making it an important part of our daily
diet. It'sespecially vital in our early years. Extra calcium is needed during childhood and
adolescence becausethat’s when bones do most of their growing.
 Calcium becomes extra important again for older adults as bone density decreases. Milk is
frequentlyrecommended as a great way to help prevent osteoporosis, or the thinning of
bones in the body.Drinking milk daily has also been shown to reduce the progression of
osteoarthritis, or inflammation ofthe joints, in the knees of women.
5.Amazing Complexion:
 Cleopatra knew what she was doing when she took baths in milk. Milk helps to keep your
skin supple, soft,and glowing. This is thanks to the many vitamins and nutrients that are
essential to skin health. We’re notsaying you need to fill a tub with milk and relax, but
drinking at least two glasses per day will provide youwith this benefit
6. Muscle Growth: Milk is also great at improving muscle growth. This is due to the protein found
in milk. Many athletes drinkmilk following a workout, as it provides the body essential nutrients
needed to recover. In addition, milkhelps to prevent muscles soreness and replenishes the fluids
that were lost during physical activity.
7. Weight Loss: Studies have proven that women who drink milk daily are more likely to lose
weight than women who do notdrink milk. If you’re in search of a healthy snack, or fulfilling
appetizer, drink a glass of milk. It’s alsorecommended that you have a glass during dinner or when
eating fruit.
8. Reduce Stress: Thanks to the many vitamins and minerals that are in milk, it can work as a
stress reliever. After a long, hardday at the office, sit down and drink a warm glass of milk. This
helps to relieve muscle tension and sootheyour nerves.
9. Energy Booster: Milk is great for many things, but did you know it’s also great for boosting
your energy? When you’restruggling to get through the day and you need a little pick-me-up, reach
for an ice cold glass of milk. Youwill feel revitalized in no time.
10. Heartburn Eliminator: There are many foods that contain acids that cause people to
experience heartburn. One of the simplestand yummiest- ways to alleviate this pain is drinking a
glass of milk. The cooling sensation and the thickconsistency of milk helps to coat the esophagus
and stomach lining to prevent heartburn.
11. Disease Fighter: Over the last few decades, researchers have found that milk helps prevent
many different diseases. Thisincludes its ability to help lower high blood pressure and reduce the
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risk of strokes. In addition, milk has theability to reduce the production of cholesterol by your
liver, and helps improve eyesight. There are someresearchers who believe that milk can also reduce
the risk of developing certain forms of cancer.
Write the Nutritive Value of Cow’s Milk
It is a well known fact that cow milk is a good source of vitamin D and calcium. Fresh and pure
cow milk isalso perfect to balance your meal or your snack. The nutritional facts in the cow milk
entirely depend on thecow milk you are choosing.
This is one of the reasons as to why medical experts always stress on the need to choose cow milk
from thesuppliers who feed and take good care of the cows. This ensures that the milk given by
such cows is full of essential nutrients, calories, minerals and vitamins. Thecow milk from Pride
of Cows is exactly what kids and adults need as the milk is not only fresh and pure but isfilled with
nutrients.
Let us now have a look at the nutritional value of cow milk varients, starting with whole milk.
1. Whole Milk: One full cup of whole milk has 3.25 % of milk fat and is also good source of
vitamin D. It has 149 calories andabout 7.9 g fat and 4.6 g of saturated fat. Whole milk
contains 7.7 g protein and 11.7 g of carbohydrates.Whole milk as 0 fiber content and 28%
of DV calcium. It contains 8% DV vitamin A and about 31% daily value(DV) of vitamin
D
2. Fat-Free Milk Nutrition Facts:
o 23 percent of the daily value (DV) for calcium
o 8 percent of the DV for potassium
o 6 percent of the DV for magnesium
o 20 percent of the DV for phosphorus
o 9 percent of the DV for zinc and vitamin B1 (thiamin)
o 17 percent of the DV for vitamin A and vitamin B5
o 34 percent of the DV for vitamin B2 (riboflavin)
o 5 percent of the DV for vitamin B6
o 51 percent of the DV for vitamin B12
o 15 percent of the DV for vitamin D
o Each cup of fat-free cow's milk also features 8.3 grams of protein and 12.2 grams
of carbohydrates as wellas 86 calories
3. Low fat Milk:
 The Low fat regular milk has 2% of milk fat and this provides approx 122 calories. The
low fat milk has 4.8 gof fat and 3.1 g of saturated fat and about 8.1 g of protein. The milk
also has 11.7 g of carbohydrates and 0fiber. The calcium content in the milk is 29 % DV
calcium, 9% DV vitamin A and 30% DV of Vitamin D.
 Low fat cow milk has 102 calories with 2.4g fat and about 1.5 g saturated fat. Low fat cow
milk also has 8.2 gof protein and about 12.2 g of carbohydrates and 0 fiber. The milk also
has 31% DV calcium and 10% DVvitamin A and 29% DV of Vitamin D.
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4. Cow’s Milk and Other Dairy:

 The Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommends consuming about 3 cups of dairy
each day. Dairy refersto many milk-based products, including butter, yogurt and milk.
Dairy products are considered to be healthybecause they supply a wide variety of
essential nutrients.
 Since the Dietary Guidelines for Americans advocates the consumption of healthier,
fat-free and low-fatproducts, this works out to be roughly 240 calories per day of dairy.
5. Skimmed Milk: One full cup serving of skim milk has 83 calories and it has 0.2 g fat and
about 0.1 g of saturated fat. Skimmedmilk also contains about 8.3 g of protein with 12.2
carbohydrates and 0 g of fiber. The milk also contains 30%DV calcium, 10% DV vitamin
A and 29% DV of vitamin D.
6. Skim Versus Other Cow’s Milks:
 Fat-free milk isn't too different compared to other commonly consumed types of
milk beverages. Otherpopularly consumed types of cow's milk are called 1 percent,
2 percent and full-fat (which is often alsocalled full-cream milk or whole milk).
 As their names imply, fat is the main difference between these milks. There are just
0.2 grams of fat in fatfree milk, 2.4 grams of fat in 1 percent milk, 4.8 grams of fat
in 2 percent milk and 7.9 grams of fat in fullcream milk.
 Cow's milk nutrition for protein, carbohydrates, vitamins and minerals is otherwise
fairly similar. However,the only plant-based equivalent to cow's milk has notably
different nutrition compared to these animalproducts
What are the Type’s Proteins Present in Milk?
Milk is an important component of a balanced diet and contains numerous valuable constituents.
Scientificevidence suggests that anticarcinogenic activities, antihypertensive properties, immune
system modulation,and other metabolic features of milk, are affiliated with its proteins (intact
proteins or its derivatives)
Types of Milk Proteins:
1. Casein and whey protein are the major proteins of milk. Casein constitutes approximately
80%(29.5 g/L) ofthe total protein in bovine milk, and whey protein accounts for about 20% (6.3
g/L). Casein is chieflyphosphate-conjugated and mainly consists of calcium phosphate- micelle
complexes. It is a heterogeneousfamily of 4 major components including alpha- (αs1- and αs2-
casein), beta-, gamma-, and kappa-casein.
2. Whey protein is a collection of globular proteins with a high level of α-helix structure and the
acidic-basicand hydrophobic-hydrophilic amino acids are distributed in a fairly balanced form.
Alpha-Lactalbumin (α-LA)and beta-lactoglobulin (β-LG) are the predominant whey proteins.
Among the other types of whey proteins,immunoglobulins (Igs), serum albumin, lactoferrin (LF),
lactoperoxidase (LP), and protease-peptones must bementioned.
3. Other protein like- Bioactive peptides.
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What do you understand about food and dairy products? Write the composition of the food
value of milk
FOOD
• A food is something that provides nutrients. Nutrients are substances that provide: energy
for activity, growth, and all functions of the body such as breathing, digesting food, and
keeping warm; materials for the growth and repair of the body, and for keeping the immune
system healthy.
• Food is any substance consumed to provide nutritional support for an organism. Food is
usually of plant, animal, or fungal origin, and contains essential nutrients, such as
carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, or minerals.
• Food, substance consisting essentially of protein, carbohydrate, fat, and other nutrients
used in the body of an organism to sustain growth and vital processes and to furnish energy.
Dairy Products
• A facility that produces dairy products is known as a dairy. Dairy products or milk
products, are food products made from (or containing) milk. The most common dairy
animals are cow, water buffalo, nanny goat, and ewe.
• Dairy product, milk and any of the foods made from milk, including butter, cheese, ice
cream, yogurt, and condensed and dried milk.
• Dairy products include common grocery store food items in the Western world such as
yogurt, cheese and butter.
• Milk has been used by humans since the beginning of recorded time to provide both fresh
and storable nutritious foods.
Dairy products are consumed worldwide to varying degrees.
 Cheese
• Cheese is made of coagulating milk. The solid so formed is cut into small pieces to allow
the whey or lime juice to drain off. The solid curd is dried, salt is added and the cheese
pressed or moulded and allowed to ripen.
 Curd
• Curd is a fermented milk product. The milk is boiled, and allowed to cool to room
temperature. Little amount of previously prepared curd of pure culture of any appropriate
fermenting organism is then inoculated and incubated until the desired fermentation is
complete.
 Butter
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• Butter is made from cream by churning. The cream used contains 35-42 percent milk fat
and may be used fresh or allowed to go sour, a process known as ripening.
 Ghee
• Ghee is clarified butterfat that may contain about 99.7 percent milk fat. It is made from
both cow and buffalo milk.
 Yogurt
• Yogurt is a food produced by bacterial fermentation of milk. The bacteria used to make
yogurt are known as yogurt cultures. Fermentation of sugars in the milk by these bacteria
produces lactic acid, which acts on milk protein to give yogurt its texture and characteristic
tart flavor.
 Milkshake
• A milkshake is a sweet beverage made by blending milk, ice cream, and flavorings or
sweeteners such as butterscotch, caramel sauce, chocolate syrup, fruit syrup, or whole fruit
into a thick, sweet, cold mixture.
 Cream
• Cream is a dairy product composed of the higher-fat layer skimmed from the top of milk
before homogenization. In un-homogenized milk, the fat, which is less dense, eventually
rises to the top.
 Condensed Milk
• Condensed milk is cow's milk from which water has been removed. It is most often
found with sugar added, in the form of sweetened condensed milk, to the extent that
the terms "condensed milk
THE COMPOSITION OF FOOD VALUE OF MILK
• Milk is the product of the total, full and uninterrupted milking of a dairy female in good
health, also nourished and not overworked.
• Milk is a type of balanced food, containing al type of nutritional ingredients, like –
carbohydrate, protein, fat, vitamin, minerals and water.
• The nutritional value of milk is particularly high due to the balance of the nutrients that
compose it.
• The composition varies among animal species and breeds within the same species, and also
from one dairy to the other, depending on the period of lactation and diet
• In general, the gross composition of cow's milk- is 87.7% water, 4.9% lactose
(carbohydrate), 3.4% fat, 3.3% protein, and 0.7% minerals (referred to as ash).
• Milk contains approximately 4.9% carbohydrate that is predominately lactose.
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• Milk contains 3.3% total protein. Milk proteins contain all 9 essential amino acids required
by humans. with trace amounts of monosaccharides and oligosaccharides.
• Milk contains both water soluble (vitamin B, C) and fat soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K).
• Milk is a good source of calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, selenium, and zinc.
Many minerals in milk are associated together in the form of salts, such as calcium
phosphate.
The Composition of milk from different mammals (in g/100g milk)

Briefly describe the role of biotechnology in wine production. Write the name of 10 food
items that are prepared by the application of biotechnology
Introduction to wine
• Wine is an alcoholic drink typically made from fermented grapes.
• There are also fruit wines, or country wines, that is made from fermented fruits. However,
wine in the traditional sense is made from wine grapes.
Generally, wine falls under 5 basic types:
1. Red wine
2. White wine
3. Rose wine
4. Sparkling wine and
5. Fortified (or Dessert wine)
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Wine Production
• Wine is basically the transformation of sugars of grapes of yeast under anaerobic condition
into ethanol, CO2 and small amounts of byproducts such as D-glucose.
The basic steps of wine production-
1. Grapes are collected and crushed. They are put in a de-stemmer, which is machinery that
removes the stems from grapes.
2. When making white wine, white grapes are put into a press so that their juice is drawn out
and their skins are left behind. This juice is then put into tanks where sediment settles at
the bottom.
3. After a while, this juice is racked, or filtered, and put into a new tank.
4. When making red wine, the grapes are lightly crushed but their skins aren’t removed. The
skins and juice all go into a vat where fermentation can begin
Role of Biotechnology in Wine Production
1.Fermentation :
Wine is the perfect example of biotechnology. One of the reasons for this is fermentation!
• Fermentation is considered to be the oldest type of biotechnology in which molecules like
glucose disintegrate anaerobically. It can be defined as the foaming that occurs when beer
or wine is produced.
• But, fermentation is just one of many ways in which biotechnology has developed and
continues to develop wine in exciting new ways. So, with that as our starting point, let’s
look at the important roles biotechnology plays in wine production.
2.Genetic Modification of wine:
Biotechnology is focused on finding solutions to problems, and one of the problems faced by
winemakers is bacteria that can enter the winemaking process and cause wine to spoil, thus
reducing its value.
• Some types of bacteria, such as Pediococcus sp and lactobacillus sp can create volatile
compounds that have a variety of unpleasant consequences, such as giving wine a bitter
taste or causing it to have an oily or slimy texture.
• Biotechnologists have been finding ways to combat these problems in winemaking. An
example is the development of genetically-modified wine.
• By transforming yeast with the use of a bacteriocin gene, which is an antimicrobial peptide
produced by bacteria, this can kill off bacteria, as the Yeast journal has reported.
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3. Boosting the health properties of wine:

A genetic engineering technique called RNA-guided Cas9 nuclease has been found to increase
resveratrol levels in wine.
• Resveratrol is usually mentioned in health articles because it’s a compound found in red
wine that protects the body against disease, but it can also eliminate hangovers.
• Researchers from the University of Illinois (via Eureka Alert) have found that using this
nuclease to cut copies of a gene in yeast can help them achieve these benefits.
4.Healthier grape yields:
Grapes have three genes that allow mildew spores to attach themselves to the grapes, but
researchers from Rutgers University in New Jersey (via USDA) have found that by isolating them
and using CRISPR/Cas gene editing techniques to edit the areas where the gene might be present
or adding new genes, this could prevent genes that allow mildew from flourishing.
5.USE OF METHOXYPYRAZINES IN WINE PRODUCTION :
Methoxypyrazines are chemicals that can have a massive effect on the quality of wine. Research
has found that using the right amount of this chemical can result in a fruity and leafy wine that is
clean and crisp, as 1849 Wine reports.
6.USE OF COLD FERMENTATION:
It is a technique involved in making wine that dates back to the 1980s! Scientists discovered that
when wine fermentation occurred in ambient temperatures, this resulted in unwanted bacteria that
would kill off the yeast.
• The wine produced would be too sweet. To prevent this, winemakers would try to control
the bacteria with the use of sulphur dioxide, but then the use of stainless steel came along
as a way to give winemakers the chance to better control the temperature of the
fermentation process.
• The result was wine that was more aromatic, fresh, and clean because bacteria was naturally
reduced. That’s biotechnology in action!
10 Food Items Which Is Prepared By The Application of Biotechnology
1. Apple (non-browning)
2. Melon (delayed ripening)
3. Papaya (disease resistance)
4. Pineapple (delayed ripening, modified food color)
5. Plum (Disease resistance)
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6. Potato (Disease resistance, herbicide tolerance, insect resistance, modified product quality
(modified starch, reduced acrylamide potential, non-bruising), fungal disease resistance)
7. Rice (Herbicide tolerance, insect resistance, anti-allergy, modified product quality )
8. Sugar cane (insect resistance, drought resistance)
9. Tomato (Disease resistance, insect resistance, delayed ripening, delayed fruit softening)
10. Yogurt, cheese (with fermentation)
What do you understand by fermented food? Illustrate the beneficial site of fermented food.
How fermentation does affect nutritional quality?
Fermented food: Fermented foods are defined as “foods or beverages produced through
controlled microbial growth, and the conversion of food componentsthrough enzymatic action.
Many foods have historically undergone fermentation, including meat and fish, dairy, vegetables,
soybeans, other legumes, cereals and fruits
The common fermented food include:
 cultured milk and yoghurt.  tempeh.
 wine.  miso.
 beer.  kimchi.
 cider.  sauerkraut.

Beneficial site of fermented food:

Fermented foods are rich in beneficial probiotics and have been associated with a range of health
benefits from better digestion to stronger immunity. Some major beneficial site of fermented food
are given below:
1.Source of beneficial lactic acid bacteria
Most fermented foods contribute bacteria that have a potential probiotic effect. This means that
these bacteria may help restore the balance of bacteria in your gut, support digestive health and
alleviate any digestive issues. Probiotic amounts will vary, however, and the number of bacteria
that arrive in the gut, where they can be of benefit, will depend on a number of factors, including
the food in which they are delivered, with those supplying fibres referred to as prebiotic being the
most beneficial.
2. Easier to digest
As some of the natural sugars and starches have already been broken down, fermented foods are
easier to digest. For example, fermentation breaks down the lactose in milk to simpler sugars –
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glucose and galactose – that, if you are lactose intolerant, may make products like yogurt, kefir and
cheese easier to digest.
Improves the availability of nutrients
When we ferment certain types of food, we help increase their health potential. This includes
making the vitamins and minerals they provide more available for our bodies to absorb. This is
because some natural compounds, like phytic acid found in legumes such as soy beans, may inhibit
our absorption of nutrients like iron and zinc
4. May improve mood and behavior
Our understanding of the gut and how it impacts our mood and behaviour is fast evolving, and it
would appear that fermented foods may play an important part. Certain strains of probiotic
bacteria, including Lactobacillis helveticus and Bifidobacteria longum, commonly found in
fermented foods, may improve symptoms of anxiety and depression.
Another strain, Lactobacillis casei Shirota, may also influence the production of cortisol and
minimise physical symptoms of stress.
5. May support heart health
Consuming fermented foods as part of a healthy, balanced diet appears to be associated with a
lower risk of heart disease. The mechanisms at play may include modest reductions in blood
pressure and improvements in cholesterol balance.
As a result, fermented foods provide many health benefits such as anti-oxidant, anti-microbial,
anti-fungal, anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic and anti-atherosclerotic activity.
How fermentation does affect nutritional quality?
Affect of fermentation in nutritional quality: Fermentation leads to improve food preservation,
food quality,and increase range of edible food products. An enhancement of the nutritive value by
an increase level of essential nutrients or reduced levels of toxicants in food remains a benefit of
fermentation process
FERMENTATION INCREASES MICRO- AND MACRO-NUTRIENTS.
Lactic acid fermentation can be used to ferment grains, legumes, vegetables, and other foods. All
of these foods, when fermented traditionally, come out more nutritious than their regular state. For
example, fermented dairy has been shown to have a higher level of folate, pyridoxine, B vitamins,
riboflavin, and biotin than milk alone.
Fermentation also increases the bioavailability of amino acids (think protein) as well as vitamins
C and A in legumes, grains, fruits, and vegetables.
Additionally, fermentation increases the number of B vitamins present in the food. B vitamins are
incredibly important but many vegetarians and vegans struggle to get enough of them in their diets.
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FERMENTATION BREAKS DOWN ANTI-NUTRIENTS.

Legumes and grains contain compounds called anti-nutrients. Anti-nutrients are compounds that
bind to nutrients, making it difficult or impossible for our bodies to absorb them. One anti-nutrient,
called phytic acid or phytate, binds to minerals such as calcium, zinc, and iron, making them
unavailable to the body. Fermentation deactivates the phytic acid in these foods allowing for better
nutritional absorption.
What is traditional biotechnology? Briefly describe the role of biotechnology in beer
production.
TRADITIOAL BIOTECHNOLOGY
Traditional biotechnology refers to the traditional techniques of using living organisms to yield
new products or modify foods or other useful products for human use. Without the traditional
biotech, there won’t be modern biotechnology.

Traditional biotechnology is based on active techniques which have great efficiency and accuracy
. It involves use of natural organisms to create or modify food or other useful products for human
. Traditional biotechnology remains the technology of choice for the most important agronomic
traits.
EXAMPLES OF TRADItiONAL BIOTECHNOLOGY
 Classical Plant Breeding
 Rennet Enzyme( Cheese making)
 Yogurt “starter bacteria” culture
 Enology (wine making)
 Brewing science (malted barley)
 Bread making
 Fermentation
 Breeding animals and crops
 Domestic crop plants and firm animals through selective breeding
Using microorganisms to make beer , wine etc.
Beer:
Beer is an alcoholic beverage made from barley, water, hops, and yeast.
What are the main ingredients of beer?
"Beer is basically liquid bread," Brynildson says. "The same ingredients that go into good bread
go into good beer."
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 Malt: Beer is made from fermented grains, primarily malted barley, or barley that has
been partially germinated to aid the brewing process. The malted barley provides the
sugars that the yeast later converts into alcohol. Other grains, known as adjuncts, can also
be used in addition to the barley.
 Hops: Hops is a flower from the Humulus Lupulus plant. It's added to beer because of its
natural antimicrobial and stabilizing properties. "Hops help beer ferment cleanly,"
Brynildson says. The addition of hops also contributes a balancing bitter flavor along
with floral and fruity notes.
 Water: Not only is water the main ingredient in beer, but it also helps to convert the
starches in the grain into sugars.
 Yeast: Yeast is a living organism that feeds on sugar and converts it to alcohol and
carbon dioxide. Different strains of yeast can also affect the flavor of the beer in different
ways.
Steps involved in beer production are:
1. Malting:
 Beer is produced from barley grains.
 Barley grains are first cleaned and then soaked in water for about 2 days. Then excess
water is drained away and the barley are incubated for 4-5 days to allow germination
 The germination steps allow the formation of highly active α-amylase, β-amylase and
proteases enzymes as well as various flavor and color components
 Malt adjuncts:
 Barley contains considerable amount of protein. So, if only barley are used
for beer production, the final beer will be dark and unstable. Therefore,
protein present in malt should be diluted by adding additional starch or
sugary materials.
 Such sugary or starchy materials are called malt adjuncts and includes
dextrose sugar syrup.
2. Kilning:
 The germinated seed are then killed by slow heating at 80° This process is called kilning.
 The kilning temperature must not harm amylase enzyme. Furthermore, if kilning
temperature is higher, darker will be the beer produced.
3. Mailing:
 The dried barley grains are then crushed between rollers to produced coarse powder
called grist
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4. Mashing:
 Grist is mixed with warm water and the resulting materials is maintained at 65°C for
about 1 hour.
 In doing so, starch is hydrolyzed by amylase enzyme to produce single sugar, maltose,
dextrose etc. similarly, protein is hydrolyzed by proteolytic enzymes into small fragments
and amino acids.
 The degree of enzymatic hydrolysis is strongly depends on pH and temperature. β-
amylase has optimum activity at temperature 57-65°C whereas α-amylase has optimum
activity at temperature 70-75°
 The liquid obtained by mashing is called wort. The husks and other grains residue as well
as precipitated proteins are removed filtration.
5. Boiling of wort:
 The filtrate is then bolied with stirring for 2-3 hours and hop flowers are added at various
interval during boiling.
 Reasons for boiling of wort:
 For extraction of hop flavor from hop flower
 Boiling coagulate remaining protein and partially hydrolyze protein and help in
removal of protein
 Boiling inactivates enzymes that were active during mashing, otherwise causes
caramelization of sugar
 Boiling also sterilize and concentrate the wort
6. Hops:
 Hops are dried female flower of hop plant Humulus lupulus. Approximately one quarter
pound of hop flower is added per barrel of beer and up to 2 pound per barrel of ale.
 Advantages of hop addition in beer are;
 Provide beer with its pungent and aromatic character
 Provide tannin which helps in coagulation of remaining protein
 Contains α-resin and β-resin which gives bitter flavor as well as preservative
action against gram Positive bacteria
 Contains pectin which is responsible for foam characteristic of beer
7. Fermentation:
 Beer production utilize strain of Saccharomyces carlsbergens and S. varum which are
bottom yeast and S. cerevisiae which is a top yeast.
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 Yeast cells for inoculation are usually recover from previous fermentation tank by
treatment with phosphoric acid, tartaric acid or ammonium persulphate to reduce the pH
and removed considerable bacterial contamination.
 Fermentation is usually carried out at 3-4 °C but it may range from 3- 14° Fermentation
usually completes in 14 days.
 During fermentation yeast converts sugar mainly into ethanol and CO2 plus some amount
of glycerol and acetic acid.
 For fermentation open tank fermenter can be used however closed fermenter tank is
preferred, so that CO2 liberated during fermentation can be collected for later
carbonation step.
 CO2 evolution is maximum by fifth day of fermentation, there is no evolution of CO2 by
7-9 days because yeast cells become inactive and flocculate.
 Most beer contains 3.5-5% alcohol.
8. Finishing, Ageing, Maturation and Carbonation:
 The young and green beer is stored in vat at 0°C for several weeks to several months.
During this period, precipitation of protein, yeast, resin and other undesirable substances
take place and beer become clear.
 Ester and other compounds are also produced during ageing which gives taste and aroma.
 After ageing, the beer is carbonated by carbondioxide of 0.45-0.52%.
 The beer is then cooled, clarified, filtered and packed in bottles, barrels and cans.
What is pasteurization? Describe the general method of pasteurization.
Answer: Pasteurization: A method of treating food by heating it to a certain point to kill
pathogenic organisms but not harm the flavor or quality of the food. Named for the French
chemist and biologist Louis Pasteur who invented pasteurization.
For example: Milk is pasteurized by heating it to about 145°F (63°C) for 30 minutes.
Or, Pasteurization is a process, named after scientist Louis Pasteur, which applies heat to destroy
pathogens in foods.
General method of pasteurization: Pasteurization is a mild heat treatment of liquid foods (both
packaged and unpackaged) where products are typically heated to below 100 °C. The heat
treatment and cooling process are designed to inhibit a phase change of the product.
The acidity of the food determines the parameters (time and temperature) of the heat treatment as
well as the duration of shelf life. Parameters also take into account nutritional and sensory
qualities that are sensitive to heat.
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i. In acidic foods (pH <4.6), such as fruit juice and beer, the heat treatments are
designed to inactivate enzymes (pectin methylesterase and polygalacturonase
in fruit juices) and destroy spoilage microbes (yeast and lactobacillus). Due to
the low pH of acidic foods, pathogens are unable to grow.
ii. In less acidic foods (pH >4.6), such as milk and liquid eggs, the heat
treatments are designed to destroy pathogens and spoilage organisms (yeast
and molds).

Not all spoilage organisms are destroyed under pasteurization parameters, thus subsequent
refrigeration is necessary
Describe the pasteurization method of milk.
Answer: The original method of pasteurization was vat pasteurization, which heats milk or other
liquid ingredients to about 145°F (63°C) for 30 minutes in a large tank.
Or, Pasteurization is the process of heating something up quickly then cooling it back down.
Pasteurizing milk destroys 99.9% of disease-causing microorganisms and extends the shelf life
to 16-21 days from the time it was packaged.
Top 4 methods of milk pasteurization are given below:
1. High Temperature Short Time: In the United States, the most common method of
pasteurization is High Temperature Short Time (HTST). This method involves using metal plates
and hot water to raise the temperature of the milk to at least 161 °F (71 °C) for no less than 15
seconds, or 145 °F (62 °C) for 30 minutes, followed by rapid cooling.
2. Higher Heat Shorter Time: Similar to HTST pasteurization, Higher Heat Shorter Time
(HHST) uses slightly different equipment and higher temperatures for a shorter time. Using
HHST, milk can be heated anywhere from 191 °F (89 °C) to 212 °F (100 °C) for its specified
time.
3. Ultra-High Temperature: Another popular method of pasteurization is Ultra High
Temperature (UHT). This process involves heating the milk using commercially sterile
equipment and filling it under aseptic conditions into hermetically sealed packaging. The milk
must be heated to 280 °F (138 °C) for at least two seconds, then rapidly cooling it down. UHT
kills more bacteria and gives it a much longer shelf life. UHT milk does not need refrigeration,
until opened, and is shelf stable for at least six months.
4. Ultra-Pasteurized: Not to be confused with UHT, Ultra Pasteurized (UP) milk is heated using
commercially sterile equipment, but it is not considered sterile because it is not hermetically
sealed. Milk is heated to 280 °F (138 °C) for at least two seconds, then rapidly cooling it down.
Since the milk is not hermetically sealed, it must be refrigerated with an average shelf life of 30
– 90 days.
What do you mean by starter culture? Describe the method of it. -6
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Answer: A Starter culture can be defined as a culture of microorganisms, usually bacterial or

fungal strains that are either pure or mixed, which is used to initiate a fermentation process.
It can be obtained either as pure culture from a commercial laboratory or from a portion of
previously cultured product. The microorganisms are selected for their ability to produce lactic
acid for curd production and a low pH to prevent spoilage, produce metabolites that give
desirable flavors, or produce enzymes that mature the dairy product (ORC International).

Table: Some Uses of Starter Culture in Food Production.

Product Raw material Starter culture
Beer Cereal Yeast, lactic acid
bacteria
Wine Grape juice Yeast, lactic acid
bacteria
Bread Grain Mould (Aspergillus)
Soya sauce Soya beans Lactic acid bacteria
Cheese Milk Lactic acid bacteria,
yeast

Steps in the preparation of starter: It is possible to prepare good quality starter day by day. It
is necessary to use fine-quality milk and to observe certain fundamental rules for the preparation.
i. The milk should be placed in a sanitary container, preferably glass or stainless steel, and all
parts of the milk as well as the container should be subjected to pasteurization.
ii. Then the milk is allowed to cool to the correct temperature for inoculation of the milk, and
avoiding contamination of the milk with undesirable types of micro-organisms.
iii. The inoculated milk should be kept at a suitable temperature for the growth of bacteria in the
milk.
iv. The final stage consists of examining the coagulated milk and cooling it to a low temperature
to retard further growth of the bacteria.
How do you increase the nutritional value of yoghurt? -5
Answer: Yogurt is one of the most popular fermented dairy products in the world, made by
adding live bacteria to milk.
In general, yogurt is made with a variety of ingredients including milk, sugars, stabilizers, fruits
and flavors, and a bacterial culture (Lactobacillus bulgaricus).
The nutritional value of yoghurt can be increased by:
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Modifying milk composition: When the milk arrives at the plant, its composition is modified
before it is used to make yogurt.
 This standardization process typically involves reducing the fat content and increasing
the total solids

 The fat content is reduced by using a standardizing clarifier and a separator.

 From the clarifier, the milk is placed in a storage tank and tested for fat and solids
content.
 For yogurt manufacture, the solids content of the milk is increased to 16% with 1-5%
being fat and 11-14% being solids-not-fat (SNF).
 This is accomplished either by evaporating off some of the water, or adding concentrated
milk or milk powder.
 Increasing the solids content improves the nutritional value of the yogurt, makes it easier
to produce a firmer yogurt.
Pasteurization: After the solids composition is adjusted, stabilizers are added and the milk is
pasteurized. This step has many benefits.
 First, it will destroy all the microorganisms in the milk that may interfere with the
controlled fermentation process.
 Second, it will denature the whey proteins in the milk which will give the final yogurt
product better body and texture.
 Third, it will not greatly alter the flavor of the milk.
 Finally, it helps release the compounds in milk that will stimulate the growth of the
starter culture.

Homogenization: While the milk is being heat treated, it is also homogenized. Homogenization
is a process in which the fat globules in milk are broken up into smaller, more consistently
dispersed particles. This produces a much smoother and creamier end product.
Fermentation: Milk should be fermented with right choice of fermenting bacteria such as
Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus salivarius, S. thermophilus etc. Fermentation should
occur at warm temperatures.
Adding other ingredients: Fruits, flavors, and other additives can be added to the yogurt at
various points in manufacturing process.
Quality Control: Finally, milk products such as yogurt are subjected to a variety of safety
testing. Some of these include tests for microbial quality, degree of pasteurization, and various
forms of contaminants.
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Make a list of fermented food as biotechnological product and briefly describe them. -3
Answer: Common Fermented Foods: There are many different types of fermented foods
consumed around the world, including:
 Kefir
 Sauerkraut
 Tempeh
 Cheese
 Kombucha
 Miso
 Kimchi
 Yogurt
 Beer
 Wine

Some of these are described below:

i. Kefir: Kefir is a fermented dairy product that may improve lactose digestion, decrease
inflammation and boost bone health.
ii. Tempeh: Tempeh is made from fermented soybeans. It is high in probiotics and contains
compounds that may act as antioxidants and improve heart health.
iii. Natto: Natto is a fermented soybean product. Its high fiber content may promote regularity
and help prevent bone loss. It also produces an enzyme that can reduce blood pressure and help
dissolve blood clots.
iv. Kombucha: Kombucha is a fermented tea that is fizzy, tart and flavorful. It is made from
either black or green tea and contains their potent health-promoting properties.
v. Miso: Miso is a common seasoning in Japanese cuisine. It’s made by fermenting soybeans
with salt and koji, a type of fungus. It has been associated with a reduced risk of cancer and
improved heart health.
vi. Kimchi: Kimchi is a popular Korean side dish that is usually made from fermented
vegetables such as cabbage or radishes. Studies have found that it may help reduce insulin
resistance and blood cholesterol.
vii. Sauerkraut: Sauerkraut is made from shredded cabbage that has been fermented. It is high
in antioxidants that are important for eye health, and it’s easy to add to many dishes.
viii. Probiotic Yogurt: Yogurt is produced from milk that has been fermented, most commonly
with lactic acid bacteria. It is high in nutrients and could help reduce body weight, lower blood
pressure and improve bone health.
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Cheese:
Cheese can be made using pasteurized or raw milk. Cheese made from raw milk imparts
different flavors and texture characteristics to the finished cheese. For some cheese varieties, raw
milk is given a mild heat treatment (below pasteurization) prior to cheese making to destroy
some of the spoilage organisms and provide better conditions for the cheese cultures

Ingredients
The main ingredient in cheese is milk. Cheese is made using cow, goat, sheep, water buffalo or a
blend of these milks.
The type of coagulant used depends on the type of cheese desired. For acid cheeses, an acid
source such as acetic acid (the acid in vinegar) or gluconodelta-lactone (a mild food acid) is
used. For rennet cheeses, calf rennet or, more commonly, a rennet produced through microbial
bioprocessing is used. Calcium chloride is sometimes added to the cheese to improve the
coagulation properties of the milk.
Flavorings may be added depending on the cheese. Some common ingredients include herbs,
spices, hot and sweet peppers, horseradish, and port wine.
Bacterial Cultures
Cultures for cheese making are called lactic acid bacteria (LAB) because their primary source of
energy is the lactose in milk and their primary metabolic product is lactic acid. There is a wide
variety of bacterial cultures available that provide distinct flavor and textural characteristics to
cheeses.
Starter cultures are used early in the cheese making process to assist with coagulation by
lowering the pH prior to rennet addition. The metabolism of the starter cultures contribute
desirable flavor compounds, and help prevent the growth of spoilage organisms and pathogens.
Typical starter bacteria include Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis or cremoris, Streptococcus
salivarius subsp. thermophilus, Lactobacillus delbruckii subsp. bulgaricus, and Lactobacillus
helveticus.
Adjunct cultures are used to provide or enhance the characteristic flavors and textures of cheese.
General Manufacturing Procedure
The temperatures, times, and target pH for different steps, the sequence of processing steps, the
use of salting or brining, block formation, and aging vary considerably between cheese types.
The following flow chart provides a very general outline of cheese making steps
General Cheese Processing Steps
 Standardize Milk
 Pasteurize/Heat Treat Milk
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 Cool Milk
 Inoculate with Starter & Non-Starter Bacteria and Ripen
 Add Rennet and Form Curd
 Cut Curd and Heat
 Drain Whey
 Texture Curd
 Dry Salt or Brine
 Form Cheese into Blocks
 Store and Age
 Package

1. Standardize Milk

Milk is often standardized before cheese making to optimize the protein to fat ratio to make a
good quality cheese with a high yield

2. Pasteurize/Heat Treat Milk

Depending on the desired cheese, the milk may be pasteurized or mildly heat-treated to reduce
the number of spoilage organisms and improve the environment for the starter cultures to grow.
Some varieties of milk are made from raw milk so they are not pasteurized or heat-treated. Raw
milk cheeses must be aged for at least 60 days to reduce the possibility of exposure to disease
causing microorganisms (pathogens) that may be present in the milk.

3. Cool Milk

Milk is cooled after pasteurization or heat treatment to 90°F (32°C) to bring it to the temperature
needed for the starter bacteria to grow. If raw milk is used the milk must be heated to 90°F
(32°C).

4. Inoculate with Starter & Non-Starter Bacteria and Ripen

The starter cultures and any non-starter adjunct bacteria are added to the milk and held at 90°F
(32°C) for 30 minutes to ripen. The ripening step allows the bacteria to grow and begin
fermentation, which lowers the pH and develops the flavor of the cheese.

5. Add Rennet and Form Curd

The rennet is the enzyme that acts on the milk proteins to form the curd. After the rennet is
added, the curd is not disturbed for approximately 30 minutes so a firm coagulum forms.
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6. Cut Curd and Heat

The curd is allowed to ferment until it reaches pH 6.4. The curd is then cut with cheese knives
into small pieces and heated to 100°F (38°C). The heating step helps to separate the whey from
the curd.

7. Drain whey

The whey is drained from the vat and the curd forms a mat.

8. Texture curd

The curd mats are cut into sections and piled on top of each other and flipped periodically. This
step is called cheddaring. Cheddaring helps to expel more whey, allows the fermentation to
continue until a pH of 5.1 to 5.5 is reached, and allows the mats to "knit" together and form a
tighter matted structure. The curd mats are then milled (cut) into smaller pieces.

9. Dry Salt or Brine

For cheddar cheese, the smaller, milled curd pieces are put back in the vat and salted by
sprinkling dry salt on the curd and mixing in the salt. In some cheese varieties, such as
mozzarella, the curd is formed into loaves and then the loaves are placed in a brine (salt water
solution).

10. Form Cheese into Blocks

The salted curd pieces are placed in cheese hoops and pressed into blocks to form the cheese.

11. Store and Age

The cheese is stored in coolers until the desired age is reached. Depending on the variety, cheese
can be aged from several months to several years.

12. Package

Cheese may be cut and packaged into blocks or it may be waxed.

Health benefits of cheese

There are many healthy options to choose from when it comes to cheese, and many potential
ways it can benefit your health.

It’s a good source of nutrients

 Cheese is a great source of calcium, fat, and protein. It also contains high amounts of
vitamins A and B12, along with zinc, phosphorus, and riboflavin.
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 According to U.S. Dairy, the overall nutritional profile of conventional, organic,

and grass-fed dairy products is similar.
 Grass-fed cheese is made from the milk of 100 percent grass-fed animals. A diet high in
grass-fed dairy may provide a healthier balanceTrusted Source of omega-6 and omega-3
fatty acids than diets that rely on conventional dairy. Omega-3 fats are important for heart
and metabolic health.
 While grass-fed dairy products cost more than standard versions, some people may
choose to purchase them for their higher omega-3 content. More research is needed to
understand if this difference in nutrients is large enoughTrusted Source to have
significant benefits in an average U.S. diet.

It could protect your teeth from cavities

 According to some studies, cheese — and dairy products in general — could work to
protect your teeth from cavities.

It’s a source of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA)

 High-fat cheeses like blue cheese, Brie, and cheddar contain small amounts of conjugated
linoleic acid (CLA). CLA is a healthy fat that may help preventTrusted Source obesity
and heart disease, and may reduce inflammation.
 Cheddar cheese sourced from 100 percent grass-fed animals was found to contain twice
as much CLA as conventional cheddar. But it’s not clear whether switching to grass-fed
cheese would have overall nutritional benefits in an average U.S. diet.

It could be good for your heart

 Dairy products, such as yogurt and cheese, have a positive effect on cardiovascular
health. In the same study, full-fat dairy products appeared to provide greater nutrition and
have anti-inflammatory properties

Different types of Cheese:

Blue Cheese

Reduced-fat or fat-free blue cheese is a good dietary choice to help with the management of gout
and osteoporosis, and it also helps you to maintain strong, healthy teeth. Regular blue cheese is
high in saturated fat, so limit your intake if you're trying to lose weight or if you have high
cholesterol, heart disease, type 2 diabetes, arthritis, or memory problems. If you've identified
aged cheese as a trigger food for your migraines, or cheese in general as a trigger for IBS, you
should steer clear of blue cheese altogether.

Cheddar Cheese

Cheddar cheese is a sharp-tasting cheese that, like other cheeses, is a good source of protein and
calcium, but it is also calorie-dense and high in saturated fat, which can increase your risk of
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cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, arthritis, and memory loss, not to mention impede your
weight loss efforts. Choosing reduced-fat or fat-free cheddar cheese is a great way to take
advantage of its nutritional benefits while minimizing unhealthy extras. The calcium in cheddar
cheese helps maintain strong bones and teeth, may relieve PMS symptoms, and can help
maintain healthy blood pressure. (Note: Since most cheeses are high in sodium, people with high
blood pressure should eat only moderate amounts, choose low-sodium brands, and factor the
sodium content into their daily totals.) If you get migraine headaches, it's important to know that
aged cheeses like cheddar are a common trigger. IBS sufferers take note: Some people with IBS
are sensitive to dairy and experience discomfort after eating it.

Cottage Cheese

Cottage cheese is a good source of protein and can be part of a healthy diet if you choose fat-free
or reduced-fat varieties. (Full-fat cottage cheese contains extra calories and saturated fat, which
can increase cholesterol levels and contribute to weight gain if eaten in excess.) Cottage cheese is
also a good source of selenium, an antioxidant that can help prevent arthritis, and vitamin B12,
which may reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease and memory loss. (Note: Since most cheeses
are high in sodium, people with high blood pressure should eat only moderate amounts, choose
low-sodium brands, and factor the sodium content into their daily totals.) IBS sufferers take note:
Some people with IBS are sensitive to dairy and experience discomfort after eating it.

Cream Cheese

Cream cheese is a soft cheese spread that doesn't contain as much protein or calcium as other
cheeses. Regular cream cheese is very high in fat, especially saturated fat, which can increase
your risk of cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, arthritis, and memory loss, not to mention
impede your weight loss efforts. Look for fat-free or reduced-fat cream cheese, and use it in
moderation. IBS sufferers take note: Some people with IBS are sensitive to dairy and experience
discomfort after eating it.

Parmesan Cheese

Parmesan cheese is a popular hard cheese used in salads and pasta dishes. Because of its intense
flavor, a little bit of Parmesan can go a long way, making it easier to eat in moderation. If you
get migraine headaches, it's important to know that aged cheeses like Parmesan are a common
trigger.

Ricotta Cheese

Ricotta cheese is a soft cheese and a good source of calcium and protein. Ricotta cheese can be
part of a healthy diet if you choose reduced-fat ("part-skim") or fat-free varieties. (Full-fat ricotta
contains extra calories and saturated fat, which can increase cholesterol levels and contribute to
weight gain if eaten in excess.) Ricotta is also a good source of selenium, an antioxidant that can
help prevent arthritis.
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Romano Cheese

Romano cheese is a hard cheese with a sharp, salty flavor, similar to Parmesan cheese. Because
of its intense flavor, a little bit of Romano can go a long way, making it easier to cat in
moderation. If you get migraine headaches, it's important to know that aged cheeses like Romano
are a common trigger

Swiss cheese

Swiss cheese is a good source of protein and calcium, but it is also calorie-dense and high in
saturated fat, which can increase your risk of cardiovascular disease, arthritis, and memory loss,
not to mention impede your weight-loss efforts. Choosing reduced-fat or fat-free Swiss cheese is
a great way to take

Feta Cheese

Feta cheese is a crumbly, salty cheese, commonly used in Greek food. Regular feta is relatively
high in fat, especially saturated fat, which can increase your risk of cardiovascular disease, type 2
diabetes, arthritis, and memory loss, not to mention impede your weight-loss efforts. To keep
calories in check, enjoy feta cheese in moderation - limit yourself to a one to two ounce portion
per meal, and consider choosing reduced-fat varieties.

Goat Cheese

Like other cheeses, goat cheese is a good source of protein and calcium, but it is also high in fat,
especially saturated fat, which can increase your risk of cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes,
arthritis, and memory loss, not to mention impede your weight-loss efforts if eaten in excess. To
keep calories in check, enjoy goat cheese in moderation- limit yourself to a one to two ounce
portion per meal.

Mozzarella Cheese

Mozzarella cheese is a good source of protein and calcium, but it is also calorie-dense and high
in saturated fat, which can increase your risk of cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, arthritis,
and memory loss, not to mention impede your weight-loss efforts. Choosing reduced-fat ("part-
skim") or fat-free mozzarella cheese is a great way to take advantage of its nutritional benefits
while minimizing unhealthy extras. The calcium in mozzarella cheese helps maintain healthy
blood pressure.

Ashikur Rahaman