ASSIMILATION

ASSIMILATION A PHONLOGICA STUDY IN ENGLISH AND ARABIC

Author: Haider K. Awad
A PHONLOGICA
Instructor STUDY
in Ibn Al-Hytham Secondary School/ IN
Iraq ENGLISH
/ Thi-qar AND ARABIC
An Employee in the Ministry of Education
EMAIL. Haiderkhan88a@gmail.com

1. Introduction

The articulation rules of different languages are clearly different. No two lan-
guages have exactly the same inventory of phonemes which are realized with the
same set of allophones, no two languages have exactly the same phonological rules
regulating the development of their sounds. However, while all that is true, it
would be wrong to ignore the similarities and differences between languages be-
cause they are no less impressive than the differences. Only a finite number of
processes operate in language, though their end and result is a great deal of lin-
guistic variability (Katamba, 1989: 79).

We saw that often in language a phoneme has several allophones, with allo-
phone selected in particular position being dependent on the other sounds that are
adjacent to it. The commonest phonological process responsible for this is assimi-
lation. Assimilation is the modification of a sound in its neighborhood. Assimila-
tion can be described in terms of categorizations, based on the distance between
the two sounds involved; the direction of the influence exerted, the particular dis-
tinctive features affected, and the degree to which one sound assimilates to another
(Ibid).

The realization of any speech sound differs according to the context in which it
is found and attention should be focused on the influence contiguous speech sound
exert upon each other. Assimilation is one of the commonest types of sound
change in which two sounds occur close together in speech become more alike.
This process needs the effort of all movements of the speech organs to make the
sound more similar, and reduce the amount of movement and effort required
(Trask, 1996: 53; Crystal, 2003:138).

1
1.1 what is assimilation?

Before we proceed to the description of individual types of assimilation, it is

necessary to determine what assimilation is and how can be defined. The term as-
similation usually refers contextual variability of speech sound, which is said to be
caused by the influence of one sound upon another. It is often defined as a process
of replacing one sound (or changing some properties of a sound) under the influ-
ence of neighbouring sound which occurs near to it. It has been also characterized
as an adjustment of speech sound to their environment (cf. Malmberg 1963: 60 ;
Abercrombie 1967: 133-134 ; Jones 1972:217-218 ; Krăl and Sabol 1989: 150 ;
Farnetani 1999: 376 ; Roca and Johnson 1999:34 ; Odden 2005: 57 : inter alia).

In the fact that, in stress-timed language like English, several syllables may
have to be fitted into relatively short time span requires various means of making
the pronunciation easier ( and thus faster ). Among them are not only the processes
reduction and elision, but also a process whereby one sound, usually consonant,
becomes more alike, or identical with, a neighbouring sound regarding one or more
distinctive features. More specifically, the articulation of one sound is influenced
by the articulation of a neighbouring sound in that a speech organ either prolongs
( a distinctive feature of a proceeding sound), or anticipates ( a distinctive feature
of a following sound). This process is called assimilation [ from Latin assimila-
tion, ʻ making one thing like another ʼ].

Much recent phonetic research in this area refers to co-articulation ( Hard-

castle & Hewlett 1999:7), though the letter term strictly refers to the fact that,
when pronounced certain sounds are uttered together and thus actually describes
the case of assimilation. In rapid and casual speech, the assimilated form is more
typicl of connected speech. Moreover, Roach (1983: 110) , is defined assimilation
as it is something varies in extent according to speaking rate and style. It is more
likly to be found in rapid casual speech but it is less found in slow, careful speech.

Furthermore, Bloomer et (2005: 247), refers to assimilation as a common phon-

ological process by which sound of ending of one word blends into the sound of

2
the beginning of the following word. This occurs when the parts of the mouth and
vocal folds start to form the beginning sounds of the next word before the last
sound has been completed. An example of this would be ̎ hot potato ̎, the /t/ in ̎
hot ̎ is dropped as the lips prepare for the /p/ sound for ̎potato ̎.

The notion of the assimilation presupposes the existence of at least two seg-
ments(phonemes/ allophones), which, by influencing each other, change their
properties. We may distinguish between the segment which is been assimilated –
the assimilee, the segment which assimilates another segment( transfers some fea-
tures to it )- the assimilator, and the segment resulting from the assimilation, i.e.
the assimilee after assimilation, which we will name, for want of a better term, the
assimilant. For example, in the phrase ̎ ten cups ̎ [ ͅt hεɳ ʻkhæps ], the segment [k] is
the assimilator, the segment [n] is the assimilee, whereas the segment [ɳ] is the as-
similant.

However, it should be pointed out that this necessarily a simplification of real-

ity, because numerous studies (Ӧhman 1966 ; Mac Neilage and Declerk 1968 ;
Gay 1977; inter alia), have shown that, in general, most neighbouring segments in-
fluence each other reciprocally. In other words, segments usually contain informa-
tion about the preceding and the following segments, and the themselves influence
the neighbouring segment – the is temporal overlap of segments and gestures ( Ali
et al. 1971:540 ; Remington 1977:1279 ; Repp 1981:1463 ; Browman and Gold-
stein 1990,1992 ; Recasens et al. 1993 ; Byrd and Tan 1996 ; inter alia).

1.2 Directionality of assimilation

Assimilation can be classified both of directionality and in terms of degree of
similarity between assimilant and the assimilator. Taking the direction of assimila-
tion into account, assimilations are generally classified into the following types;
Pavlík (2009).

1.2.1 Regressive assimilation

3
 Regressive assimilation called(anticipatory, backward, or right-to-left) assimila-
tion is probably the most frequently occurring type of assimilation. Roach (1987)
says that ̎regressive assimilation occurs when Cf (final consonant) changes to be-
come like the Ci ( initial consonant) of the second word. In addition, anticipatory
assimilation moves from the right to the left or backward, i.e, the sound affects the
preceding sound like the bilabial /m/ is realized as labiodentals nasal /ɱ/ in the
word like ̎comfort̎ under the influence of the following labiodentals’ fricative /f/
(Gimson 1970: 290 ; Crystal 2003:247).

Also, Pavlík(2009: 8), says that regressive assimilation takes place in all lan-
guages. Here a sound undergoes change under the influence of a following sound.
That is the sequence of segments AB, segment B affects segment A and makes it
acquire some or all of its features. This is to say that segment B is the assimilator
whereas segment A is the assimilee: schematically A ⟸ B

For example, a vowel occurring before a nasal with most likely become nasalised,
as in chin [ʈʃĩn].

Segment A Segment B

Regressive

Examples:

- Have to = /hæv tu/⇒it is pronounced [hæftu]

- Used to = /ju:zd tu/⇒it is pronounced [ju:stu]
- Ten minutes = /ten minits/⇒it is pronounced [temʼminits]
- This shirt = /ðis ʃ3:t/⇒it is pronounced [ðiʃ ʃ3:t]
- Horse shoe = /ho:s ʃu:/⇒it is pronounced [ ho:ʃ ʃu:]

4
 - Five pence =/faiv pens/⇒it is pronounced [ faif pens]
- Inn keeper= /in ki:pə/⇒it is pronounced [iɳ ki:pə]
(MC. Gregor 2009: 280).

1.2.2 Progressive Assimilation

Progressive which is also called ( carry- over, perservatory, forward, or left-to-
right) assimilation. Roach (1987), says that progressive assimilation happens when
Cf becomes like the preceding consonant in some way. Perseverative assimilation
moves from the left to right or forward. For example, sound affect the following
sound as in dog , here the voiceless /s/ is changed to voiced /z/ due to the influence
of the preceding sound /g/ which is a voiced one (Gimson 1970:290; Crystal 2003:
247).

Progressive assimilation has the opposite directionality of regressive assimila-

tion. Here, in a sequence of segments AB segment A affects segment B. Segment
A and B swap the roles they have in regressive assimilation with segment A func-
tioning as the assimilator and segment B the assimilee: schematically A ⟹ B
(Pavík 2009: 8).

Segment A Segment B

Progressive

Examples:

- In the = /ınðə/⇒it is pronounced [ıṋṋə]

- Get them = /get ðəm/⇒it is pronounced [geṱṱəm]
- Read these = /ri:d ði:z/⇒it is pronounced [ri:ḓḓi:z]
- Liked = /laikt/⇒it is pronounced [laikt]

(Roach 2009: 112)

It should be pointed out here that regressive assimilation is cross- linguistically

more common than progressive assimilation (Kreidler 1997: 1162; Jun 2004: 58).
5
This is because in the former type ˮ the vocal tract anticipates the following sound
(Abumdas 1985: 116).

1.2.3 Coalescence Assimilation

Is a process whereby two sounds merge to form a single sound. The new sound
(assimilant) is often affricate. If coalescent assimilation across word boundaries,
the two words involved are usually transcribed without space between them. In
other words, from two sounds a new sound will form. And this can be schematic-
ally as A ⟺ B ⟶ X (Skanderav Paul ; Barleigh Peter 2005: 91). This process
can be illustrate as follows;

Segment A Segment B

Segment X

Examples:
- /t/ + /j/ ⟶ /tʃ / as in ‘what you want?’ [ wotʃu: wont ].
- /d/ +/j/ ⟶ /dʒ / as in ‘would you?’ [ wudʒu: ].
- /s/ + /j/ ⟶ / ʃ / as in ‘in case you need it’ [ iŋ keɪʃu: ni:d ɪt ].
- /z/ +/j/ ⟶ / ʒ / as in ‘has your letter come?’ [ hæʒo: letə kʌm ].

(Cruttenden 2001: 280).

Moreover, Jones (2972: 280), states that the coalescence reciprocal assimilation
as it is show in above examples is a kind which belong to the historical assimila-
tion.

6
1.3 The degree of the similarity of the assimilant to the assimilator

In terms of the degree to which the assimilant resembles the assimilator we

may distinguish between complete assimilation and partial assimilation (cf. Aber-
crombie 1967: 137; Webb 1982: 310; Kráľ and Sabol 1989: 151).

1.3.1 Total Assimilation

Total assimilation occurs when the assimilation takes on all the phonetic fea-
tures of the assimilator. That is to say, the assimilator and the assimilee become
identical, resulting in a sequence of geminate sounds. This can be illustrate as AB
⟶ AA, or AB ⟶ BB (Pavlík 2009). For example, the phrase ‘that place’ /ðæt
pleɪs/ is pronounced as [ðæp pleɪs]. Here the alveolar /t/ becomes identical with
bilabial /p/ under the influence of the following sound (Ladefoged 2006: 109).

Examples:
- That case = /ðæt keɪs / ⇒ is pronounced as [ðæk ͜keɪs ].
- Good boy = /gud boɪ / ⇒ is pronounced as [gub ͜boɪ].
- On Monday = /on mændeɪ/ ⇒ is pronounced as [om ͜mædeɪ].

1.3.2 Partial Assimilation

Partial assimilation occurs when the assimilee adjusts partially to the assimil-
ator, and share with it some features (gestures). In other words, the resulting assim-
ilant and the assimilator are not identical. This can be illustrate as AB ⟶ ABB, or
AB ⟶ ABA (Pavlík 2009). For example, the phrase ‘Ten pikes’ is pronounced
as /tem baɪks/ instead of /ten baɪks/ in colloquial speech. Here the alveolar sound /
n/ is changed to /m/, which is a bilabial sound under the influence of /b/, which is
also bilabial sound. For example, on board /on bo:d/ is pronounced as [ om ʹbo:d]
(Deshpande et al. 2007: 43; Trask 1996: 55).
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1.4 Assimilation process
Another way in which assimilation can be seen in terms of whether a vowel or
consonant acquires vowel or consonant features of a neighbouring segment. vari-
ous patterns are examined in turn below to show some of the commonest assimila-
tion processes found in the languages of the world.

1.4.1 Palatalization
A process whereby a sound, usually a consonant, is produced with the body of
the tongue coming near or touching the hard palate. When a velar consonant is fol-
lowed by a front vowel there occurs some slight anticipatory fronting of the part of
the tongue that makes contact with the roof of the mouth. The effect of fronting is
that the velar consonant is made in the palatal region. This process is called Palat-
alization. Velar consonants often have slightly palatalised allophones which occur
after front vowels because the tongue is raised towards the hard palate in the pro-
duction of front vowels and speakers anticipate that gesture and start making it be-
fore they have completed the articulation of [k] or [g] (Katamba, 1989: 86). The
following examples illustrate this process;

Keep calm [ki:p ka:m],

Get garlic [get ga:lıK],

Give guns [gıv gʌns]. (Ibid)

1.4.2 Labialization (rounding)

A process whereby a sound, usually a consonant, is produced with an unusual
degree of lip-rounding. It is usually influenced by the rounded lips of a neighbour-
ing sound. Labialisation is indicated in a phonetic transcription proper by a small
[w]-like symbol, which is either placed under the symbol for the labialised sound,
or raised and placed after it. For example, /u/ is expressed by the diacritic [ w ]. For
8
instance, pool [pwʊl], two [twu:], and got [gwɒt], we can notice rounding of the
sounds that precede the round vowel (Ibid: 87).

1.4.3 Nasalisation
A process whereby an oral segment acquires nasality from a neighbouring seg-
ment. Nasalisation occurs usually when there is lowering of the velum(soft palate)
and allowing air to escape through the nose. To produce an oral sound, it is neces-
sary to completely block of access to the nasal cavity by raising the velum as high
as it can go. Any leakage of air past the velum will cause some nasalisation (Ibid:
93).

1.4.4 Place of articulation

One of the three distinctive features for the description of consonants. The
place of articulation names the speech organs that are primarily involved in the
production of a particular sound. It is the most commonest phonetic change at word
boundaries concern change of place of articulation, particularly involving alveolar-
ization. A well-known is that of English word-final alveolar consonants such as / t ,
d , m/, if a word ending in one of these consonants is followed by a word whose
initial consonant begins with a bilabial, alveolar, or dental. The word-final alveolar
consonant is likely to change its place of articulation to match that at the beginning
of the second word. For example, the word ‘that’ /ðæt/ may be followed by ‘
boy’ /boı/ and becomes /ðæp/, or it followed by ‘girl’/g Ȝ:l/and becomes /ðæk/
namely (Cruttenden,2001: 285).

Examples:

Good pen =/gʊd pen/ [gʊb pen],

Ten players =/ten pleıǝz/ [tem pleıǝz],

Ten cups=/ten kʌps/ [teŋ kʌps]. (Ibid)

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 Such changes are based on roughly homorganic mouth articulations. They al-
ways occur in the least obvious part of the syllable coda position. “ The reason
why initial consonants are so rarely obviously change by assimilatory process in
that syllable initial consonants play a much more important part in identifying a
word that do syllable final consonants”(Brown, 1990: 65). Another change of place
of articulation involves the change of alveolar fricatives /s , z / into postalveolar
fricatives. Any sequence of any words where the first ends with /s , z/ and the
second begins with /ʃ/ or /j/, so that /s/ becomes /ʃ/, and /z/ becomes /ʒ/. Thus, this
shoe /ðıs ʃu:/ become [ðıʃ ʃu:]; those years /ðǝuz jıǝz/ become [ðǝuɜ jıǝz] (Roach,
2000: 140).

1.4.5 Manner of articulation

One of the three distinctive features used for the description of consonants. It
refers to the type or degree of closure of the speech organs at the place of articula-
tion. Assimilation of manner is typical of the most rapid and casual speech, in
which case one sound changes the manner of its articulation to become similar in
manner to a neighbouring sound. An example can be a rapid pronunciation of ‘Get
some of that soup’ /get sʌm ǝv ðæt su:p/ an English speaker says [ges sʌm v ðæs
su:p], with /s/ replacing /t/ in two words. It is possible to find cases where a final
plosive becomes a fricative or nasal, for example, ‘Good night’ /gʊd naıt/. But
most unlikely that final fricative or nasal would become a plosive (Ibid).

1.4.6 Voicing
In a certain environment we find consequently observe the voicing and
devoicing of a segment. If we examine the pronunciation of the voiced labiodentals
fricative in the sequence ‘Give books’ /gıv buks/, and we compare it with the se-
quence ‘Give peace’ /gıf pi:s/, we will easily notice that /v/ in the first case is fully
voiced, while in the second case it is pronounced as some kind of /f/. However,
word boundary final voiceless consonants, in English do not show tendencies to as-
similate to their voiced counterparts; thus the pronunciation of ‘Nice boy’ /naız
boı/ will sound foreign to English ears (Cruttenden, 2001: 284).

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1.5 Basic definitions
In this section we will deal briefly with defining the segments involved in as-
similation as well as assimilation itself. Concerning the segments involved, at least
two segments are required for assimilation to take place. These segments affect
each other and change their phonetic properties. The segment that is influenced by
assimilation can be referred to as assimilee, the segment that causes another seg-
ment to undergo, assimilation can be dubbed the assimilator. The resulting seg-
ment, the segment produced through a particular assimilatory process, can be
termed the assimilant (Pavlik 2009: 4). For example, the word anbar [ambar], the
segment [b] is the assimilator, the segment [n] is the assimilee, while the segment
[m] is the assimilant, resulting from the [n] acquiring the place of articulation of
following [b].

2.1 Assimilation in Arabic

The sounds of any language are influenced when they are adjacent to each other
in a single word or two words because the speech of any language accords with
phonetic harmony. Hence, wherever there are two sounds in one word and they
have, for example, the same place of articulation, the first sound can affect the
second sound and vice versa. Assimilation is a phonological process by which two
sound are overlapped forming only one sound. The first sound is quiescent and the
second is movable, as it is difficult to pronounce the two sounds together, and so to
make their pronunciation easier, they tend to be assimilated to become one stressed
sound (1982 t;23 ,‫)المرصفي‬. The process occurs when the first sound connects with
the more alike sound without intervening any vowel between them, so that the
tongue is raised once time to reduce the muscular effort of the speaker to make the
articulation easy since the speaker feels a difficulty in raising the tongue to repeat
the same movement in producing the two similar sounds (2007 ;137 ,‫)الموسوي‬.

In this regard, (1975 ;145 ,‫ )انيس‬indicates that the influence rate is different from
one sound to another, and there are some of the sounds which are quickly influ-
enced by other sounds more than others in connected speech. The adjacent between

11
the sounds is the major reason behind occurring the assimilation. Additionally, the
phenomenon of assimilation was dealt with by the early Arab grammarians, Sib-
awayh has the term (Al- Mumathala)(‫)المماثلة‬, whereas those who are coming after
him have used the term (Mudharaa)(‫)المضارعة‬, and (approximation)(‫)التقريب‬. sib-
awayh states that (Al- Mumathala)(‫ )المماثلة‬happens when the sounds are influenced
by each other and the assimilation (‫ )األدغام‬occurs when the influence will be utmost
between the adjacent sounds (Ibid, 164). Likewise, (1998 ;280 ,‫ )الصيغ‬uses the term
(Al- Mumathala)(‫ )المماثلة‬which refers to a transformation of the phonemes into
similar one either partially or completely and may include many kinds of effects
between sounds like small assimilation, big assimilation…etc. (:283 ,‫ل‬tt‫د الجلي‬tt‫عب‬
1998) indicates that ‘Brosnahan’ defines assimilation as “ the quality modifications
of the sound when it is adjacent to other sounds”. Assimilation is a phonetic phe-
nomenon in speech and its function is to approximate between the two similar or
homogeneous sounds in their pronunciation (2007 t:186 ,‫)درار‬. (1983 t:70 ,‫)العطية‬
adds that these sounds are assimilated according to their place of articulation and
other features like manner of articulation, voicing , etc.

2.2 Types of Arabic assimilation

Generally speaking, ( 1983 t:83 ,‫)العطية‬, (240:1975 ,‫)الصيغ‬, (2007 t:139 t,‫)الموسوي‬,
and (2007 t:186 ,‫ )درار‬mention that traditionalists classify assimilation, depending
on the adjacent sounds and according to the Quran reciters, into two kinds;

1- Big assimilation occurs when the first sound of the two assimilated sounds is a
movable whether the two sounds are similar or approximate, then delete the vowel
from the first sound and assimilated into the second to have one sound. For exam-
ple, when the feminine /t/ assimilated with the sound /s/ or /ḍ/ and the sound /r/ as-
similates with the sound /l/ as in the following Quran verses:

)122 ‫(النساء‬ ۡ‫ت َسنُ ۡد ِخلُهُم‬ َّ ٰ ‫وا ٱل‬

ِ ‫صلِ ٰ َح‬ ْ ُ‫َو َع ِمل‬

)1 ‫(العاديات‬ ٗ ‫تض‬
‫َبحا‬ ِ t‫َو ۡٱل َعا ِديَا‬
) 27 ‫(النور‬ ‫ۡر لَّ ُكم‬ٞ ‫ٰ َذلِ ُكمۡ خَي‬

12
2- Small assimilation happens when the first sound is a quiescent (with sukoon). (
1998 t:242 ,‫ )الصيغ‬mentions that this assimilation refers to approximation of one
sound to another in which the deviates to bending to become like other sound.
However, (1982 t:231 ,‫ )المرصفي‬says that the small assimilation consists of two
types; assimilation with nasal, and assimilation without nasal, each of which has
its own letters where assimilation happens.

A) Assimilation with nasal (‫ )أدغام بغنة‬takes place when any of the “ , ‫ الياء‬,‫النون‬
‫ الميم‬,‫ ” الواو‬sounds come initially in a word which is preceded by a final consonantal
alveolar nasal /n / or non- consonantal as in “attanween”, i.e.) ‫ واوا‬, ʺ‫ ياءا‬, ‫ ميم‬,‫) ʺنون‬
associated with a sound comes from the nasal cavity that is why it is called assimi-
lation with nasal. For examples;

Quiescent nun and nunation with “‫ برق‬, ‫⸗الياء” يجعلون ← برقيجعلون وإن يروا ← وايّروا‬

Quiescent nun and nunation with “‫ أن نحن ←أنّحن يومئذ‬,‫←يومئذ ناعمة‬ ”‫⸗النون‬

Quiescent nun and nunation with “t‫ صراط‬, ‫من ماء ←م ّماء‬ ‫⸗الميم”مستقيم ←صراطمستقيم‬

Quiescent nun and nunation with “‫ ولكل⸗وجهة ←ولكلوجهة‬, ‫الواو” من وال ←موّال‬

(2008:65 ,‫)أبن الجزري‬.

B) Assimilation without nasal (‫ )أدغام بغير غنة‬by which two sounds become one,
and it is called so because when the assimilation happens no nasal comes from the
nasal cavity. The process takes place when quiescent nun or nunation meets at the
end of a word, “ ‫راء‬tt‫ ” الالم و ال‬at the beginning of the following one, becomes
“stressed ‫ ” راء‬as in : ‫من ربهم ← مربهم‬

‫عيشة⸗ راضية ← عيشتراضية‬

or “ stressed ‫ ” الم‬as in: ‫من لدنه ← ملدنه‬ ,

‫ويل لكل همزة ← ويللكل همزة‬
(8 : t‫)قمحاوي‬.

13
2.3 Direction of assimilation
When the sounds are produced contextually, they are likely to influence on to
another. This influence may work in either one direction or sometimes in both. (
1998 t:244 ,‫)الصيغ‬, (1975 t:145 ,‫)انيس‬, (2007 t:139 t,‫وي‬tt‫)الموس‬, and (2007 t:186 ,‫)درار‬
mention that modernists classify assimilation of the consonants into the kinds re-
garding the direction of assimilation process.

2.3.1 Progressive assimilation

Progressive assimilation, where the influential sound seems to be traveling for-
ward, in progressive assimilation the direction of the influence is from the left-to-
right. The sound is affected by the preceding conditioning one. It is also called per-
severative assimilation (Al- Fozan, 1989: 73).

S S

Examples:

‫ أضطرب‬/ʔiḍtaraba / [ʔiḍṭaraba] (to be confused).

‫ نيران‬/ni:ra:n / [nĩ:ra:n] (fires).

‫ عباد‬/ ʕibād / [ʕibe̅d] (people or servant).

‫ الحمد هلل‬/ al-h̟amdu lil-Lāhi / [al-h̟amdu lul-Lāhi] (praise be to Allah).

‫ صاله‬/s̟ alāh / [s̟ ʔl̟ ʔ̅h] (prayer). (Ibid, 74)

2.3.2 Regressive assimilation

Regressive assimilation happens when the first sound affects the second sound,
which means that the influential sounds move backwards. Generally speaking,
when the term assimilation used with the reference to Arabic, regressive assimila-
tion leads to germination. However, assimilation is not always exclusively regres-

14
sive. Arabic linguists and scholars of Tajwȋd discuss and explain the process of re-
gressive assimilation (Al-Fozan, 1989: 80). For example, /l/ in ‫ لطف‬/laTaf/ and
the /r/ in ‫ رضع‬/raĐiʕ/ have become dark due to the effect of the emphatic
sounds /T/ and /Đ / respectively.

S S

Examples:

‫ قرطاس‬/qirt̟ ās / [qir̟t̟ ās]

‫ الرحمن‬/al-rah̟mān / [ar-rah̟mān] (the most merciful).

‫ الرأس‬/al-raʔs / [ar-raʔs] (the head).

‫ الذهب‬/al-ðahab / [að-ðahab] (the gold).

‫ النور‬/al-nu̅r / [an-nu̅r] (the light).

‫ الشمس‬/al-šams / [aš-šams] (the sun).

(Al-Fozan, 1989: 80-88).

To understand the reason for the predominance of regressive and progressive

assimilation. It is necessary to consider the syllable structure of the language,
which determines the direction of assimilation. The syllable structures in Arabic
six in number ; (S. Al- Ani and D.R. 1970: 155-166)

15
 1. CV = li (for).
2. CV̅ = lā (no).
3. CVC = man (who?).
4. CVCC = ḍirs (molar).
5. CV̅C = bāb (door).
6. CV̅CC = mārr (passer – by).

C = consonant , V = vowel , and V̅ = long vowel (Al- Fozan, 1989: 81).

2.3.3 Coalescent assimilation

It is an assimilation process whereby the influence operates in both directions.
This is called coalescent assimilation. In fact, this term is defined variously by dif-
ferent linguists;

1. J. Hutcheson gives as a form for coalescent assimilation:

C1 C2 → C3 C3. The two sounds disappear and a geminated sound is put into their
place. An Arabic example to illustrate this;
‫ أذ ظلم‬/ʔið̟talama / → [ ʔit̟ t̟ alama ] .

2- Al- Fozan (1989: 109) says that coalescent assimilation” where both sounds,
that assimilated and conditioning, affect each other to result either in one gemi-
nated sound or more rarely, in two sounds different from the originals”. For exam-
ples, a voiceless /n/ in idghām bighunnah assimilating /n/ to the following sounds
with nasalization;

S S

Examples:

‫ أن يأتي‬/ ʔan yaʔtī / → [ ʔaŷ ŷaʔtī ] (to come)

‫ من واق‬/ min wāq / → [ miw̅ w̅āq ] (any protector) .

16
2.4 Complete and partial assimilation
The Arabs usually differentiate between complete and partial assimi-
lation in the following manner. If the two sounds become identical so as to be
geminated, then the assimilation is complete. Whereas, if there is no possibilities of
germination, the assimilation is partial (Al- Fozan, 1989: 110).

2.4.1 Complete assimilation

Complete assimilation occurs between two similar sounds which are identical in
all features with conditioning sounds. For example, ‫ ربطت ← ربط‬, the sound/t / is
influenced by the velarized sound /ṭ / that comes before it, and changed to the gem-
inate sound /ṭ /. Also, we find complete assimilation in the following g examples;

‫ من ربهم‬/min rbihim / ‫ مرّبهم‬/mirrabihim /,

‫ ماء⸗ مهين‬/ma:ʔin mahi:n / ‫ مائ ّمهين‬/ma:ʔmmahi:n /.

2.4.2 Partial assimilation

Partial assimilation occurs between two close or approximate sounds. In other
words, partial assimilation indicates that a sound become similar but not identical
in all features with a neighbouring sound ( Ibid). for example, , t‫فحصت ← فحصط‬
‫ فزت ← فزد‬, here the sound /t / is influenced by the preceding sound which is the
velarized sound /ṣ /, and the voiced sound /z / in which they have been changed to
the velarized sound /ṣ/ and the voiced sound /d/ respectively ( 192 t:2004 ,‫)الشايب‬.
Another example for partial assimilation; ‫ من بعد ← ممبعد‬/min baʕd/ become / mim-
baʕd/ , due to the influence of the following sound /b/ on the /n/ sound.

Indeed, most of the Arabic linguists do not call partial assimilation idghām be-
cause idghām to them is complete assimilation, leading to gemination . The most
frequent examples of complete assimilation in the definite article / al-/ with shamsī
sounds. However, the Arabs linguists call complete assimilation al-idghām al-

17
kāmil, and call partial assimilation al-idghām al-nāqis. Ibn Jinnī gives the division
more attention than the other linguists. He calls complete assimilation al-idghām
al-akbar, and partial assimilation al-idghām al-aṣghār. Complete assimilation in
Arabic is usually compulsory, while partial assimilation is usually optional. Ac-
cording to Arabic linguists; it is however obligatory in the reading of the Qurʔān,
according to some of Tajwīd (Al-Fozan, 1989:112).

2.4 Assimilation process

Generally, assimilation is subdivided into four types, in which the
neighbouring sounds affect each other in the following processes;

2.4.1 Voicing
Fortis vs. lenis‫ ) )الجهر والهمس‬:this process happens when the second sound of the
verbs whose form / Ɂfta'ala/ (‫ )أفتعل‬changes into one of the sounds /z , d , ð / like :

‫أزتان ⟵ أزدان‬

‫أزتجر ⟵ أزدجر‬

‫أذتكر ⟵ أذدكر‬

‫أزتاد ⟵ أزداد‬

Here, progressive assimilation happens and we find the sound / z / voiced and
fricative, whereas the sound / t / is voiceless and stop, hence the sound /t / has
changed to the sound /d / since the latter has the same point of articulation of the
sound /t / and the same voice feature of the sound / z / (75:1983,‫ )العطية‬.

18
2.4.2 Plosion and friction (‫)الشدة والرخاوة‬
This kind of assimilation can happen when there is a changing in the feature of
the sound from the plosion to the friction or friction to the plosion ( 150:1975,‫)أنيس‬.
It occurs when the fricative sound /s/ in the word (‫ )سدس‬is preceded by the stop
sound /d/ and it has changed to the sound /t/ which is the counterpart of the
sound /d/ and the word became as (‫)سدت‬. In this respect , Ibn Jini assures that this
case is called approximation without assimilation (‫ )تقريب لغير االدغام‬but later on the
assimilation occurs when the sound /d/ is assimilated to the sound /t/ and the word
changed into (‫)ست‬in order to be close to the fricative sound /s/.It is the regressive
assimilation that happened here.(Ibid.)

(‫سدت ⟵ ست ⟵ )سدس‬

2.4.3 Velarization and non-velarization (‫)االطباق و االنفتاح‬

AL-Saygh(1998:244) assures that both the progressive and regressive assimila-
tion can happen in this kind .He mentions Ibn Jini 's example about the changing of
the second sound /t/ in the verbs whose template /Ɂ ftaala/ ((‫ أفتعل‬into one of the
velarized sounds /ṣ , t̟ , ẓ , ḍ / and the sound /t/ assimilates to its velarized counter-
part because it is influenced by the adjacent velarized sounds as in :

‫أظتلم ⟵ أظطلم‬

‫أضترب ⟵ أظطرب‬

‫ ⟵ أصطبر‬t‫أصتبر‬

(,174:1975‫ )انيس‬indicates that the sound /t/ is changed to the velarized sound /
ḍ / and the traditionalists called the modern / ḍ / as the sound/ t̟ / and here the word
can be pronounced as (‫ ) أظضلم‬and sometimes it can be pronounced as (‫ )أظطلم‬.Then
,this word became as (‫ )أضلم‬and also it is found that word (‫ )أطلم‬is used and it is the
regressive assimilation which happened .

19
2.4.4 Vocal tract transition (‫)انتقال مجرى الصوت‬

It means the air passage changes from the mouth to the nose and from the nose
to the mouth. It includes two kinds :
1)This kind happens by assimilating a nasal sound like /n/ to its nasal
counterpart /m/ . Sibawayh called this kind of assimilation as (Meem
assimilatiom ) as in :

‫من بك ⟵ ممبك‬ ,‫شنباء وعنبر ⟵ اشمباء وعمبر‬

Here, the sound /n/ is assimilated to the sound /m/ because the latter is very
close in the point of articulation to the sound /n/ (ibid.)

2)This kind happens when one of the oral sounds change to a nasal sound as a re-
sult of the assimilation process .For instance the sound /b/ is changed to the
sound/m/ because both of them are bilabial sounds like :

‫أصحب مطر ⟵ اأصحممطرا‬

‫أركب معنا ⟵ أركمعنا‬

The changing of the nasal to the oral sound can be found when /n/ changes to /l/
because both of them are similar to lean sounds and tongue tip production as in the
following Quran verses ; )24 ‫(البقرة‬ ْ ُ‫فِإن لَّمۡ ت َۡف َعل‬
‫وا ⟵ فألم تفعلوا‬

(150 :1975 ,‫)أنيس‬.

2.5 Palatalization

The palatalization phenomenon is commonly found between the consonants and

vowels. The dental and velarized sounds are influenced by the neighboring vowels,
e.g. In Arabic, the sounds /k/ and /g/ are uvular when they are adjacent to
'dhamma' /u/ or ' declensioned fatha '/e/ and more velar with kasrah and it will
be moderate with fatha. Palatalization has an important role in forming the af-
fricate sound / ʤ/ which is the same sound (‫ )ج‬in Arabic .Hence, the original sound
of the Arabic / ʤ/ (is /g/ .Likewise ,when the sound /k/ comes with the adjacent

20
'kasrah' , the point of articulation becomes more front in which it is formed a
palatalized affricate sound /ʧ / which is the voiceless counterpart for the Arabic
sound / ʤ/ and also for another sound / ʧ/. One important point should be men-
tioned here is that /g/ disappeared in standard Arabic because of the palatalization
of the sound /g/ in which it is substituted by the affricate sound / ʤ/ and it is called
"AL-Geem AL-Faseeha". Whereas the palatalization of the sound /k/ gives a new
sound which is either /ts /( ‫ )تس‬or / ʧ/ (‫)تش‬but these two sounds are regarded as two
bad sounds which cannot be used in the Arabic language and hence the sound /k/ is
still as a basic sound in the standard Arabic language. Linguists could not justify
why the palatalization phenomenon happens and the reason behind it and they even
could not understand it very well and this may be due to that
linguists are not convinced about the impact of the vowels on changing the articu-
lation of the consonants. (251:2004 ,‫)الشايب‬

2.6 Labialization (rounding)

it is any noticeable lip- rounding of sounds that precedes the rounded sound/
vowels, e.g. /u/ it is expressed by the diacritic[w]. examples are given respectively;

‫كرة‬ /kura/ [kwura]

‫ كويكب‬/kuwajkib/ [kwuwajkib]

‫ سُكينة‬/sukainah/ [swukainah] (Ibid).

2.7 Nasalization
A process whereby an oral segment acquires nasality from a neighbouring seg-
ment. Nasalization occurs usually when there is lowering of the soft palate during a
sound in which air is going out through the mouth. In Arabic, nasalization may ap-
ply in the following words when the nasal is geminated ;

‫ الناس‬/an na:s/

‫ أما‬/am ma:/

21
‫ أتضنون‬/ataDunnu:na/

3.1 Comparison of Assimilation in English and Arabic

Apparently, that assimilation process has more variation in Arabic than English
language. However, assimilation in both languages can be summarized as follow;

A) Considering the direction of assimilation process, there are three types:

-Progressive (left- to- right),
-Regressive (right- to- left),
-Coalescent (both directions at once).

All them can be found in both languages but regressive assimilation is the most
common than others in both languages. Examples are given respectively in both
languages;

Bags →/bagz /, right place →/raip pleis /, did you? → /didӡu:/

‫ أزتاد ← أزداد‬, ‫ ←طهر‬t‫ يتطهر ←يطهر‬, ‫زلزل‬

B) In Arabic language, there are two major kinds of assimilation are not found
in English language. The ancients are called them the big and the small assimila-
tion. These two kinds are not found in English since the latter lacks harakat ,i.e.
fatha, kasrah, dhamma and assimilation happens in a condition that these
harakat must be involved .Thus, assimilation happens in the first kind when the
first sound of the two assimilated sounds is a quiescent whereas the second one
happens when the second sound is a movable. Examples are given respectively:

‫ ال زيدكنم‬t‫ وأذ يأذن ربكم لئن شكرتم‬, ‫والعاديات ضبحا‬

C) There are two types of assimilation which are classified according to an-
other mode of classification; total and partial assimilation. Actually, there is no
clear evidence that these categories can happen only for consonants and thus it may

22
also happen for vowels. In both languages , complete assimilation happens be-
tween two identical sounds which have participating features in which the assimi-
lated sound becomes similar to the influencing sound like in the following exam-
ples :

that place = /ðæt pleis/ →[ðæp pleis]

‫ربطت ← ربط‬

Whereas partial assimilation happens between two close or approximate sounds

in which the assimilated sound becomes only more similar to the influencing sound
like in the following examples:

Ten bikes /ten baiks/ → [tembaiks]

‫ فزت ← فزد‬, ‫فحصت ← فحصط‬

D) Concerning the minor categories of assimilation ,there are four phonemic

variations in English language :voice(fortis vs. lenis (t‫) )الجهر واألطباق‬, place of artic-
ulation , manner of articulation(plosion and friction (‫ ) )الشدة والرخاوة‬and nasality
(vocal tract transition (‫ الصوت‬t‫))انتقال مجرى‬. In addition to the above kinds , Arabic
has another variation which is not found in English and it is called velarization and
non-velarization ‫ و االنفتاح‬t‫))األطباق‬.Besides, in Arabic, there is no voiced sound adja-
cent to its counterpart voiceless sound like /d/ and /t/ , /z/ and /s/, etc. Otherwise
one of the two sounds must be changed to the other sound in which both of the two
sounds must be either voiced or voiceless sounds. Examples are given respectively
in both languages;

with thanks /wið Ѳæηks/ → [ wiѲ Ѳæηks]

/ ∫/ replaces /s/ before / ∫,j/ ,e.g: this shirt [ði∫ ∫ ɜ:t]
That side /ðæt said/→ / ðæs said/

‫ أذتكر ← أذدكر‬, ‫ حيثشئتما‬.. ← ‫فكال من حيث ماشئتما‬

‫ أركب معنا ← أركمعن‬, ‫أصتبر ← أصطبر‬

23
E) Concerning the assimilation of the approximate sounds, it is usually hap-
pened between the sounds which have a close point of articulation and features of
these sounds. One important thing should be mentioned here is that the major rea-
son behind the impossibility of the assimilation according to Sibawayh is that each
sound has a feature which is regarded as a minor part of the basic sound and this
minor feature will vanish as far as the basic sound assimilated with its approximate
sounds like the trill feature in the sound /r/ ,spread feature in the sound /f/ ,etc..In
addition, researcher tries to state the differences and similarities of the approxi-
mate sounds assimilation between the two languages but unfortunately these
sounds are not explained in detail in English like in Arabic except some sounds
like the bilabial ,velar ,palatal ,alveolar .

F) The oral sound is produced with nasalization (ghunna) when the sound /n/ is
adjacent to the sounds / w, j /.They are called nasalized sounds and this case can be
found also in English in which the air can pass through both the nose and mouth as
the sound became nasalized sound when it is followed by the nasal sound like;
calm /kæm/

G) The consonants in both languages can be influenced by the adjacent vowels

whose features can extend into a consonant as secondary modifications. Two phe-
nomena are found in English and they are called ' Palatalization' and ' labialization'
whereas in Arabic only the first one can be found. Actually, the Palatalization
means that the tongue position of a front vowel is superimposed on an adjacent
consonant like (electric , electricity) and in Arabic, this case can be found as the
dental and velarized sounds influenced by the neighboring vowels, e.g. the
sounds /k/ and /g/ are uvular when they are adjacent to 'dhamma' /u/ or 'declen-
sioned fatha '/e/ and more velar with kasrah and it will be moderate with fatha.
In labialization ,the lip position of a rounded vowel induces a secondary articula-
tion onto the consonant. Moreover, It has been shown that English has clear /l/
when it comes before a vowel and dark/l/ when it comes after a vowel ,before the
consonants ,and in final position . In Arabic, there is also dark /l/ when it comes af-
ter 'dhamma' or 'fatha' especially in the name of 'Allah' and it is clear when it
24
comes after 'kasrah'. The sound /r/ is also dark when it comes with 'fatha'and
'dhamma' and it is clear when it comes with 'kasrah' but in English, there is no
dark and clear /r/.
H) The vowels are influenced by the neighboring consonants in both
languages .In English, the vowel is completely changed into another one like :

/ʧildrən/ → /ʧuldrən/

Whereas in Arabic, it is found that the consonants can affect the vowels in the
following features :

1) point of the articulation like dhamma in (‫ ) ُمد‬is more front than in (‫) جُد‬

2) Fatha is dark after the emphatic sounds / / ṣ, ṭ , ẓ , ḍ / and it is between the dark-
ness and lightness with the sounds /q, x ,ɣ/ and it is light (clear) with the rest of the
sounds .

3) The vowel may change completely into another vowel like ‫ظفر ← ِظفر‬

4) The pharyngeal, glottal ,and emphatic sounds tend to the fatha like
‫حملة امه َوهَنا ً على َوهَن‬

5) When the third and fourth sound of the present tense /jafa'al/(‫ )يفعل‬is one of the
pharyngeal sounds, these sounds must be with fatha, e.g. ‫ يصهَل‬,‫يقرأ‬

6) The vowel follows the semi-consonant that comes after it like ‫ِسروة ← سُروة‬

7) Third person pronoun /h / (‫ )ﮭ‬with dhamma is changed to kasrah when it is

preceded by /j / like : ← ‫علي ِهن عليهُن‬

I) The assimilation of vowels (vowel harmony): The vowel is influenced by an-

other vowel in both languages like :

25
'we are ' /wiə/ .Here, /i:/ is replaced by /i/ under the influence of /ə /.ُ‫ب ِه ← به‬

Conclusion

Assimilation is a common phonological process. The advantages of having as-

similation are; firstly, reducing the differences between phonemes as much as pos-
sible, secondly, to approximate between the two similar sounds in their pronuncia-
tion. And thirdly, to make speech smoother, more effortless, more economical tran-
sition from one sound to another. In this research we are put the lights on assimila-
tion process in both English and Arabic languages, the findings summarize as fol-
lows:

1) The term 'assimilation' in English is not exactly equivalent to the Arabic term
'idgham' even though it is the most commonly used approximation and 'AL-Mum-
mathala'. Besides, the terms like 'AL-Mudharaa', and 'AL-Mudharaa' may refer to
the term germination since assimilation is regarded as one form of doubling
sounds..

2) Generally speaking, assimilation is a process which happens in both languages

for both the vowels and consonants in which both of them can influence each other
or each one can be affected by itself. Consonant assimilation is more common than
vowel assimilation.

3) The two languages are differ in their way of assimilating sounds, in English the
assimilated sounds are changed to another sound differ from them. Whereas, in
Arabic the sounds are overlapped with each other to have one sound with similar
sound to the second.

4) In English assimilation happens between two different sound in their place, and
manner of articulation. While in Arabic, assimilation occurs between two sounds,
the first is quiescent and the second is movable.

5) In Arabic, there is no voiced sound adjacent to its counterpart voiceless sound

like: /d /, /t /, /z /, and /s /, otherwise, one of the two sounds must be changed to the
other sound in which both of the sounds must be either voiced or voiceless sounds.

26
6) Total and partial assimilation are two types of assimilation which are found in
both languages for both the consonants and vowels. Besides, there are four minor
phonemic types which are voice(fortis vs. lenis ‫) ))الجهر والهمس‬, place of articulation
, manner of articulation(plosion and friction (‫ ) )الشدة والرخاوة‬and nasality (vocal
tract transition (‫)انتقال مجرى الصوت‬. All these kinds are found in both languages ex-
cept the category velarization and non-velarization (‫ )االطباق واالنفتاح‬which is found
only in Arabic not in English .

7) Progressive, regressive, and reciprocal assimilation are three kinds which are
concerned with determining the direction of the assimilation process and they are
found in both languages.

8) There are many cases of the quiescent /n/ and tanween. It is found that the
nasalized case which happens with the sound /n/ is the only one found in both lan-
guages. Besides, concerning the case of /m/ assimilation, the hidden case in both
languages will happen with the sound /m/ when it comes before the sound /b/ as
follows:

a)-In Arabic, the sound /m/ is hidden

b) -In English ,it is the sound /b/ which is hidden and the sound /m/ must be
produced.

9) Concerning the assimilation of vowels and consonants, It is found that the con-
sonants are influenced by the neighboring vowels in both languages and vice versa.
However, there are two major phenomena which are palatalization and labializa-
tion in which the former is found in both languages whereas the latter is found only
in English. Actually, there is no clear evidence about the labialization case and
whether it is found or not in Arabic because there are some examples about this
case but even this case is not mentioned directly in Arabic references like the clear
and dark /l/ and /r/ . However, clear and dark /l / and /r/ can be found in Arabic lan-
guage whereas only the first one ,i.e. Clear and dark /l / is found in English. In ad-
dition, the vowels are also influenced by the consonants in both languages and it is
noticed that Arabic cases are more varied than English cases like changes in some
of the features and sometimes the vowel is completely changed.

27
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‫‪In Linguistics.‬‬

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‫أنيس‪ ,‬ابراهيم ‪ .1975 .‬األصوات اللغوية‪ .‬ط ‪.5‬مصر ‪ .‬مكتبة االنجلو المصرية‪1-.‬‬
‫العطية‪ ,‬خليل ابراهيم ‪ .1983‬البحث الصوتي عند العرب ‪ .‬بغداد ‪ .‬دار الجاحظ للنشر‪2- .‬‬
‫الصيغ ‪,‬عبد العزي سعيد‪ .1998 .‬المصطلح الصوتي في الدراسات الصوتية‪ .‬دمشق ‪ .‬دار الفكر لنشر ‪3- .‬‬
‫عبد الجليل‪ ,‬عبد القادر‪ .1998 .‬االصوات اللغوية‪ .‬عمان‪ .‬دار صفاء للنشر والتويع‪4- . t‬‬
‫الشايب‪ ,‬فوزي‪ t‬حسن‪ .2004 .‬اثر القوانين الصوتية في بناء الكلمة العربية‪ .‬األردن‪ .‬عالم الكتب الحديث ‪5-.‬‬
‫درار‪ ,‬مكي‪ .2007 .‬الحروف العربية وتبدالتها الصوتية في كتاب سيبويه (خلفيات وامتداد)‪ .‬دمشق‪ .‬اتحاد ‪6-‬‬
‫‪ .‬الكتاب العرب‬

‫‪ .‬الموسوي‪ ,‬مناف مهدي‪ .2007 .‬علم االصوات اللغوية‪ .‬بغداد‪ .‬دار الكتب العلمية ‪7-‬‬
‫المرصفي‪ ,‬عبد الفتاح السيد عجمي‪ .‬هداية القاري الى تجويد كالم الباري‪ .‬المملكة العربية السعودية‪ .‬الطبعة ‪8-‬‬
‫‪ .‬االولى‪1420 .‬ﻫ ‪ 1982 /‬م‬

‫قمحاوي‪ ,t‬محمد صادق‪ .t‬البرهان في تجويد القرآن‪ .‬مجمع البحوث والثقافة‪ 2007 .‬م‪9- .‬‬

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