Paper- V- Modern Trends in application of knowledge of Science

Crop Science in India

 In India around 70% of the population earns its livelihood from agriculture.
 It fulfills the basic need of human beings and animals.
 It is an important source of raw material for many agro based industries.
 India’s geographical condition is unique for agriculture because it provides many
favorable conditions.
 There are plain areas, fertile soil, long growing seasons and wide variation in climatic
condition etc.
 Apart from unique geographical conditions, India has been consistently making
innovative efforts by using science and technology to increase production.

 
SALIENT FEATURES OF INDIAN AGRICULTURE

1. Mostly Subsistence Agriculture.

2. Pressure of population on Agriculture for employment and sustenance.
3. Limited Mechanization of farming.
4. Dependence upon monsoon mostly and irrigation in lesser percentage.
5. Variety of crops found due to diversity of topography, climate and soil.
6. Predominance of food crops cultivation.
7. Three distinct agricultural/cropping seasons- kharif, rabi and zaid

 
MAJOR CROPS OF INDIA
India grows almost each and every crop. If we consider the varieties of crop grown from
Kashmir to Kanyakumari and western coast of Gujarat to extreme north eastern states of
Arunachal Pradesh, then there would be hundreds of crops.
 
CROPS
COMMERCIAL/PLANTATION
FOOD GRAINS HORTICULTURE
CROPS
CEREALS PULSES OILSEEDS OTHERS VEGETABLES FRUITS
Rice, Coarse Tur, Groundnut, Caster Sugarcane, Potato, Sweet Banana,
 Cotton, Jute,
Mesta,
Mango,
seed, Niger seed, Coconut,
Gram, potato, Onion, Apple,
Sesamum, Tapioca,
Cereals/ Moong, Chillies, Tomato, Apricot,
Wheat Rapeseed, Mustard, Tobacco,
Millets Urad, Cauliflower, Grapes,
Linseed, Safflower, Rubber,
Lentil Brinjal Pineapple,
Sunflower, Soybean Coffee, Tea,
Walnut
Arecanut,
Spices
 
 
FOODGRAINS

 The importance of foodgrains in Indian agricultural economy may be gauged from the
fact these crops occupy about two-third of total cropped area in the country.
 Foograins are dominant crops in all parts of the country whether they have
subsistence or commercial agricultural economy.
 On the basis of the structure of grainthe food grainsare classified as cereals and
pulses.

CEREALS

 Cereals occupy about 54 percent of total cropped area in India.

 India produces a variety of cereals, which are classified as fine grains (rice,
wheat) andcoarse grains (jowar, bajra, maize, ragi).

RICE:

 It is the most important food crop of India. It is predominantly a Kharif crop. It

covers about one third of total cultivated area of the country and is staple foodof
more than half of the Indian population.
 Maximum population of India is of rice consumers. Hence many farmers in India
cultivate rice round the year that is, it is also cultivated in rabi season with the use of
irrigation. Some of the geographical conditions are as follows:

Temperature: Rice requires hot and humid conditions.

The temperature should be fairly high i.e. 240C mean monthly temperature with average
temperature of 220C to 320C.
 2. Rainfall: Rainfall ranging between 150 and 300 cmis suitable for its growth. In areas
of Punjab, Haryana and Western Uttar Pradesh where rainfall is less than 100cm; rice
is cultivated with the help of irrigation.
3. Soil: Rice is grown in varied soil conditions but deep clayey and loamy soilprovides
the ideal conditions.

Rice is primarily grown in plain areas like Gangetic plain, it is also grown below sea level
at Kuttanad (Kerala), hill terraces of north eastern part of India and valleys of Kashmir.

4. Labor: Rice cultivation requires easily available labourbecause, most of the

activities associated with it are labor oriented and are not very well suited for
mechanization.
5. Distribution:

Rice is grown in almost all the states of India.

 The three largest rice producing states are West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh and Andhra
Pradesh.
 The other major rice producing states are Tamil Nadu, Bihar, Jharkhand,
Uttarakhand, Chhattisgarh, Punjab, Orissa, Karnataka, Assam and
Maharashtra.
 It is also grown in Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Kerala, Gujarat and Kashmir Valley.

WHEAT:

 Wheat is the second most important food crop of India next to rice.
 It is a Rabi or winter crop. It is sown in the beginning of winter and harvested in the
beginning of summer.
 Normally (in north India) the sowingof wheat begins in the month of October-
November and harvesting is done in the month ofMarch-April.
 This is the staple foodof millions of people particularly in the northern and north-
western regions of India. Some of the geographical conditions are as follows:

1. Temperature: It is primarily a crop of mid-latitude grassland. It requires cool

climate. The ideal temperature is between 100C to 150Cat the time
of sowingand 210C to 260C at the time of ripening and harvesting.
2. Rainfall: Wheat thrives well in areas receiving annual rainfall of about 75cm.
Annual rainfall of about 100 cmis the upper limit for wheat cultivation. Like rice,
 wheat can also be grown by irrigation method in areas where rainfall is less than
75cm. Light drizzles at the time of ripening help in increasing the yield. But on the
other hand, frost at the time of flowering and hailstorm at the time of ripening can
cause heavy damage to the wheat crop.
3. Soil:Although wheat can be grown in a variety of soils but well drained fertile
loamy and clayey loamy soil is best suited for wheat cultivation. Plain areasare very
well suited for wheat production.
4. Labour: Wheat is extensive and highly mechanizedand requires less labour.
5. Distribution: The largest wheat producing states are P,Punjab and Madhya
Pradesh. Other than that the main regions of wheat production in India areHaryana,
Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Maharashtra.

MILLETS:

 Millets are short duration warm weather crops. These are coarse graincrops and are
used for both food and fodder.
 These are Kharifcropsthough sometimes grown in rabi seasons too. These are sown in
May-August and harvested in October-November. Today millets are mostly
consumed by poor people as their staple food.
 In India, lots of millet is grown and these are known by various local names.
 Some of these are Jowar, Bajra, Ragi, Korra, Kodon, Kutki, Hraka, Bauti and Rajgira.
 In India, Jowar, Bajra and Ragiare grown on large areas but unfortunately area
under these crops has drastically reduced over the years.
 Some of the geographical conditions for growing these crops are as follows:

1. Temperature: These crops are grown where the temperature is highwhich ranges
between 270C to 320
2. Rainfall: As mentioned earlier that millets are ‘dry land crop’, therefore, rainfall
ranging from 50 to 100 cmis ideal for their cultivation. These crops are rain-fed.
3. Soil: Millets are less sensitive to soil deficiencies. They can be grown in inferior
alluvial or loamy soil.
4. Distribution: Jowar and Bajra are grown both in north and south Indiawhereas ragi
is generally concentrated in the southern India. Jowar and Bajra are grown in
Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Karanataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra
Pradesh, Haryana and Punjab. Ragi is mostly concentrated in the southern India i.e.
Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. In total, coarse cereals can be found
in Rajasthan, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.
  Jowar(sorghum), Bajra (Pearl millet/Bull Rush millet)Ragi (Finger millet/Buck
wheat) are the important millets grown in India. Though, these are known as coarse
grains, they have very high nutritional value. For example, ragi is very rich in iron,
calcium, other micro nutrients and roughage.
 Maizeis a crop which is used both as food and fodder. It is a kharif crop which
requires temperature between 21°C to 27°C and grows well in old alluvial soil. In
some states like Bihar maize is grown in rabi season also. Use of modern inputs
such as HYV seeds, fertilisers and irrigation have contributed to the increasing
production of maize. Major maize-producing states are Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Telangana and Madhya Pradesh.

PULSES

 India is the largest producer as well as the consumer of pulses in the world. These are
the major source of protein in a vegetarian diet.
 Pulses need less moisture and survive even in dry conditions. Being leguminous
crops, all these crops except arhar(pigeon pea)helps in restoring soil fertility by fixing
nitrogen from the air.
 Therefore, these are mostlygrown in rotation with other crops. Most of these are green
manure crops Major pulse producing statesin India are Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan,
Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and Karnataka.
 Though gram and tur (arhar or pigeon pea/red gram) are the more important pulses,
several other pulses such as urd (black gram), mung (green gram), masur (lentil),
kulthi (horse gram), matar(peas), khersi, cow pea(black-eyed gram) and moth are also
grown. Pulses are generally fodder crops

Gram
It is the most important of all the pulses. It accounts for about 37% of the production and
about 30% of the total area of pulses in India. It is a Rabi cropwhich is sown between
September and November and is harvested between February and April. It is
either cultivated as a single crop or mixed with wheat, barley, linseed or mustard. Some
of the geographical conditions are as follows:

1. Temperature: It is grown in a wide range of climatic condition. Mild cool and

comparatively dry climatewith 200C -250C
2. Rainfall:40-45 cm rainfall is favorable for gram cultivation.
3. Soil: It grows well on loamy soils.
 4. Distribution:Although gram is cultivated in several parts of the country,
however, 90% of the total production comes from 5 states. These states are Madhya
Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, and Haryana

Green Manure Crops:

 Crops grown for the purpose of restoring or increasing the organic mattercontent in

the soil are called Green manure crops.
 Use of Green manure crops in cropping system is called ‘Green Manuring’where the
crop is grown in situ or brought from outside and incorporated when it is purposely
grown.
 Green manuring are low cost andeffective technology in minimising cost of
fertilizers and safeguarding productivity.
 Green Leaf Manuring consists of gathering green biomass from nearby location and
adding to the soil. Objectives of green manuringare to add Nitrogen to the companion
or succeeding crop and add or sustain organic matter in the soil.
 Examples of leguminous Green Manures are as follows: Local name- Cowpea,
Cluster bean (Guar), Green gram (Mung bean), Sesbania, Dhaincha, Sunhemp, Wild
Indigo, Pillipesara, Berseem, Madras Indigo etc.

COMMERCIAL/CASH CROPS
Cash crops are those crops which are grown for sale either in raw form or semi processed
form. Major of them are as follows:
SUGARCANE:

 Sugarcane is a Kharif crop. It is the main source of sugar, gur and khandsari.
 It also provides raw material for the manufacturing of alcohol.
 Bagasse, the crushed cane residue,has also multiple uses. It is used for manufacturing
of paper. It is also an efficient substitute for petroleum products and a host of
other chemical products.
 A part of it is also used as fodder. Some of the geographical conditions for the growth
of sugarcane are as follows:
 1. Temperature: It requires hot and humid climatewith an average temperature
of 210C to 270C.
2. Rainfall: 75-150 cmrainfall is favorable for sugarcane cultivation. Irrigation is
required in those areas where rainfall is less than the prescribed limit.
3. Soil: It can grow in a variety of soils. In fact sugarcane can tolerate any kind of soil
that can retain moisture. But deep rich loamy soilis ideal for its growth. The soil
should be rich in nitrogen, calcium and phosphorous but neither it should be too
acidic nor alkaline. Flat, plain and level pleatue is an advantage for sugarcane
cultivation because it facilitates irrigation and transportation of cane to the sugar
mills. Sugarcane cultivation requires heavy manures and fertilizers because it
exhausts the fertility of soils quickly and extensively.
4. Labour: It is a labour oriented cultivationand required cheap labour. Ample
human hands are required at every stage, i.e. sowing, hoeing, weeding, irrigation,
cutting and carrying sugarcanes to the factories.
5. Distribution: India has the largest area under sugarcane cultivation in the
world and the second largest producernext to Brazil. As far as distribution of
sugarcane cultivation in India is concerned, there are three distinct geographical
regions in the country. These regions are:
1. The Sutlej-Ganga plainfrom Punjab to Bihar containing 51% of the total area
and 60% of the country’s total production. Uttar Pradesh is the largest
producer of sugar in India.
2. The black soil belt from Maharashtra to Tamil Nadualong the eastern slopes of
the Western Ghats.
3. Coastal Andhra Pradesh and Krishna river valley.

 
COTTON:

 Cotton is the most important fibre cropnot only of India but also of the entire world. It
not only provides raw material for cotton textile industry but also its seed is used in
Vanaspati oil industry.
 The cotton seed is also used as part of fodder for milch cattle for better milk
production. Cotton is basically a kharif crop.Some of the geographical conditions are
as follows:

1. Distribution: India has the largest area under cultivationand is the largest

producer of cotton next only to China and the USA. Within the country two third
 of total area and production is shared by four states. The main states for cotton
production are Andhra Pradesh, Telegana, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Punjab and
Haryana.
2. Labour: As picking of cotton has not been made mechanized till now, therefore a lot
of cheap and efficient labouris required at the time of picking.
3. Soil: Cotton cultivation is very closely related to Black soils of Deccan and Malwa
plateau. However, it also grows well in alluvial soils of the Sutlej plain and red and
laterite soils of the peninsular region.
4. Rainfall: It grows mostly in the areas having at least 210 frost free daysin a year. It
requires modest amount of rainfall of 50 to 100 cm. However, cotton is successfully
grown with the help of irrigation in the areas where rainfall is less than 50
cm. High amount of rainfall in the beginning and sunny and dry weather at the
time of ripening are very useful for a good crop.
5. Temperature: Cotton is the crop of tropical and sub-tropical areasand
requires uniformly high temperature varying between 210C and 300C.

JUTE

 It is an important natural fibre crop in India next to cotton.

 It is a kharif crop.
 It requires hot and humid climate with 120-150cm rainfallfor its growth. Light sandy
or clayey soils is best for its cultivation.
 It is labour intensive. In trade and industry, jute and mesta croptogether known as raw
jute as their uses are almost same.
 Raw jute plays an important role in the country’s economy.
 Raw jute was originallyconsidered as a source of raw material for packaging
industries
 But it has now emerged as a versatile raw material for diverse applications, such
as, textile industries, paper industries, building and automotive industries, use as soil
saver, use as decorative and furnishing materials, etc.
 Raw jute being bio-degradable and annually renewable source, it is considered as
an environment-friendly cropand it helps in the maintenance of the environment and
ecological balance.
 Further attraction of Jute lies in its easy availability, inexhaustible quantity at a
comparatively cheaper rate. Moreover, it can easily be blended with other natural and
manmade fibres.
  With its insignificant coverage of total cultivated area, it plays a predominant role in
the country’s economyby generating employment, earning foreign exchange, solving
many of the socio-economic problems, etc.
 In earlier years, Jute was considered as a Golden Fibrebut there after it had to pass
through different critical situation.
 The main problemcame in the way with the introduction of synthetic fibre by the end
of sixties/early seventies. After the development of diversified product of jute fibre
and due to growing concern about the environment pollution, the importance of jute
has again revived.
 The crop can be grown in low, medium and high land situation, both moisture stress
and water stagnating condition. WhiteJute (Corchorus capsularis) can be grown
comparatively in low land situationwhile that of Tossa Jute prefers medium and high
land situation.
 Mesta is grown in almost all over the country. It being a hardy crop and can
tolerate moisture stress; its cultivation is spread in different agro-climatic situations
unlike jute which is concentrated only in eastern and north eastern States.
 Major jute and mesta producing states are West Bengal, Bihar and Assam.In a major
part of Jute area, particularly in North Bengal, Bihar and North-Eastern States, the soil
is acidic in nature.
 However, the Jute crop is growing in these areas in existing situation adjusting the
crop sequence. It is a water intensive crop-not only for growth but for processing as
well.

OILSEEDS 

 It is one of the important groups of commercial cropsin India.

 Oil extracted from oilseeds not only forms an important item of our diet but also
serves as raw material for the manufacturing of hydrogenated oils, paints, varnishes,
soaps, lubricants
 Oil-cake(the residue after the oil is extracted from the oilseeds) form an
important cattle feed and manure.
 Drylands of Malwa plateau (Madhya Pradesh), Marathwada (Maharashtra), Gujarat,
Rajasthan, Telangana and Rayalseema region of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka
plateau areoilseeds growing regions of India.
  These crops together occupy about 14 percentof total cropped area in the country.
Groundnut, rapeseed and mustard, sesamum, linseed, castor seed, soyabean and
sunflower are the main oilseed crops grown in India.

Groundnut
It is the most important oilseed of India. Groundnut is grown both as kharif and Rabi
crop but 90-95% of the total area is devoted to kharif crop. It is a rainfed crop. Some of
the geographical conditions are as follows:

1. Temperature: It thrives best in the tropical climateand requires 200C to 300C

2. Rainfall: 50-75 cm rainfallis favorable for groundnut cultivation. It is highly
susceptible to frost, prolonged drought, continuous rain and stagnant water.
Therefore, dry winter is needed at the time of ripening.
3. Soil: Well drained light sandy loams, red, yellow and black soilsare well suited for
its cultivation.
4. Distribution: It is the most important oilseed of India and accounts for about half of
the major oilseeds producedin the country. India is the largest producer of
groundnut in the world. Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan and
Gujarat are the main producer of groundnut in India and account for about 60% of
the total production. Another 30% of the total production comes from Maharashtra,
Karnataka and Orissa.

Soybean

 Soybean is known as the“Golden Bean” of the 20th Century.

 Though, Soybean is a legume crop, yet it is widely used as oilseed.
 Due to very poor cookability on account of inherent presence of trypsin inhibitor, it
cannot be utilized as a pulse.
 It is now the second largest oilseed in Indiaafter groundnut.
 It grows in varied agro-climatic conditionsbut it is best crop in Kharif
 It has emerged as one of the important commercial cropin many countries.
 Due to its worldwide popularity, the international trade of Soybeanis spread globally.
 Several countries such as Japan, China, Indonesia, Philippines, and European
countries are importing Soybean to supplement their domestic requirement for human
consumption and cattle feed.
 Soybean has great potentialas an exceptionally nutritive and very rich protein food.
  It can supply the much needed protein to human diets, because it contains above 40
per cent protein of superior qualityand all the essential amino acids particularly
glycine, tryptophan and lysine, similar to cow’s milk and animal proteins.  Soybean
also contains about 20 per cent oil with an important fatty acid, lecithin and Vitamin
A and D.
 The 4 percent mineral salts of soybeans are fairly rich in phosphorous and
calcium. Major soyabean producing states areMadhya Pradesh, Maharshtra and
Rajasthan

Sunflower: 

 Sunflower as an oilseed is a newly introduced cropin the country. Due to source

of high quality edible oil, sunflower oil is used as cooking oil in different recipes. Its
importance increases as sunflower oil is considered as a heart friendly oil.
 Besides oil, almost every part of sunflower has commercial value. This crop has
gained importance due to its short duration of maturity, containing of excellent
quality of oil, photo-insensitivity, wide adaptability into different kinds of
cropping pattern, high-energy hull anddrought tolerance. It is a short duration
crop and completes its life cycle in about three months.
 Hence can be incorporated in different type of cropping pattern. Since it is a photo-
insensitive crop, it can be grown throughout the year. Sunflower is cultivated as both
kharif and rabiseasons but, two-thirds of production comes from rabi season In
addition, sunflower is also cultivated as summer crop in Punjab and West Bengal.
 Oil cakeis rich in high quality protein (40 – 44 percent) and used as cattle and
poultry feed. This crop is considered valuable from economic as well as ornamental
point of view. Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Odisha are the major sunflower
producing states.

Sesamum (Til): 

 Sesamum is a rainfed cropand requires 45-50 cm rainfall. It thrives well in areas

having 21o-23oC temperature.
 Frost, prolonged drought and heavy rains for a longer duration are harmful to this
crop.
 Well-drained light loamysoils are best suited to sesamum. It is cultivated in plains as
well as on elevations upto 1,300 metres. It is grown as a kharif crop in the north
and as a rabi crop in the south.
Rapeseed and Mustard: 

 Like wheat and gram, they thrive only in cool climateof the Satluj-Ganga
plain and very small quantity is grown in the peninsular India.
 They are mainly grown as rabi cropin pure or mixed form with wheat, gram and
barley.

Linseed: 

 Although this crop can be grown under varied geographical conditions, it prefers
cool, moist climatewith about 20oC temperature and 75 cm rainfall.
 Clay loams, deep black soils and alluvial soils are best suited for its cultivation. It
can be cultivated upto a height of 800 metres above sea level.
 It is a rabi-cropwhich is sown in October-November and harvested in March-April.

Castor Seed: 

 Castor seed plant grows into a small tree and is generally raised as a mixed crop in
tropical and sub-tropical climates.
 It thrives well in areas of 200C-250C temperature and 50-75 cm rainfall.
 It is grown on red sandy loams in the peninsular India and on light alluvial soils of the
Satluj-Ganga plain.
 Almost the whole area of castor seed production is rainfed. It is a Kharif crop in the
north and a rabi crop in the south.

PLANTATION CROP
TEA:

 India is famous for its tea gardens.

 Tea plantation in India was started by the Britishers in 1923 when wild tea
plantswere discovered by them in the hilly and forest areas of Assam.
 Tea is made from tender sprouts of tea plantsby drying them.
 India is one of the leading tea producing country in the world. China and Sri Lanka
are other leading producers of tea. Some of the geographical conditions for the growth
of tea are as follows:

1. Temperature: It requires hot and wet climate. The ideal temperature for the growth
of tea bushes and leaf varies between 200C to 300C. If temperature eitherrises above
 350C or goes below 100C, it would be harmful for the growth of tea bushesand
leaves.
2. Rainfall:As mentioned above tea requires a good amount of rainfall ranging
between 150-300 cm and the annual rainfall should be well distributed throughout the
year. Long dry spell is harmful for tea.
3. Soil: Tea bush grows well in well drained, deep, friable loamy soil.
However, virgin forest soil rich in humus and iron contentare considered to be the
best soils for the tea plantation. Tea is a shade loving plant and grows better when
planted along with shady trees.
4. Labour: Cheap and efficient labouris required for tea production.
5. Distribution: Assam is the leading producerthat accounts for more than 50% of tea
production of India. Tea producing areas of Assam are the hill slopes bordering the
Brahmaputra and Surma valleys. West Bengal is the second largest producer of tea
where tea is mostly grown in the districts of Darjeeling, Siliguri, Jalpaiguri and cooch
Bihar districts. Tamil Nadu is the third largest producer where tea growing areas
are mostly restricted to Nilgiri hills.

COFFEE:

 It is the indigenous crop of Ethiopia(Abysinia Plateau). From Ethiopia, it was taken to

Arabia in 11th
 From Arabia, the seeds were brought by Baba Budan in 17thCentury and were raised
in Baba Budan hills of Karnataka.
 But it was British planters who took keen interest and large coffee estates were
established in the hills of Western Ghats. Some of the geographical conditions for the
growth of coffee are as follows:

1. Temperature: It requires hot and humid climate with temperature varying

between 150C and 280C. it is generally grown under shady trees. Therefore,strong
sun shine, high temperature above 300C,frost and snowfall are harmful for coffee
cultivation. Dry weather is necessary at the time of ripening of berried.
2. Rainfall: Rainfall between 150 and 250 cmis favorable for coffee cultivation.
3. Soil: Well drained, rich friable loamy soilcontaining good deal of humus and
minerals like iron and calcium are ideal for coffee to increase productivity.
4. Labour: Like tea, coffee cultivation also requires plenty ofcheap and skilled
labour for various purposes like sowing, transplanting, pruning, plucking, drying,
grading and packaging of coffee.
 5. Distribution: Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Naduare the main states of coffee
production in India.

HORTICULTURE CROPS

 In simple terms, horticulturecan be defined as the science of growing fruits,

vegetables, and flowers.
 Indiais a producer of tropical as well as temperate fruits.
 Mangoesof Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Uttar Pradesh and West
Bengal, oranges of Nagpur and Cherrapunjee (Meghalaya), bananas of Kerala,
Mizoram, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu, lichi and guava of Uttar Pradesh and
Bihar, pineapples of Meghalaya, grapes of Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and
Maharashtra, apples, pears, apricots and walnuts of Jammu and Kashmir and
Himachal Pradesh are in great demand the world over.
 Major flower growing states are Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh in
South, West Bengal in East, Maharashtra in West and Rajasthan, Delhi and Haryana
in North.
 Major exporting flower like orchidcovers the entire region of North-Eastern
region especially in the state of Arunanchal Pradesh which is also known as Orchid
State of India. India produces about 13 per cent of the world’s vegetables.
 It is an important producer of pea, cauliflower, onion, cabbage, tomato, brinjal and
potato.

 
1 b) Forests – Natural Vegetation of India:Types and distribution types

 Climate, soil and topographyare the major factors that influence Natural Vegetation
of a place.
 The main climatic factors arerainfall and temperature. The amount of annual
rainfall has a great bearing on the type of vegetation.

Annual Rainfall Type of Vegetation

200 cm or more Evergreen Rain Forests
100 to 200 cm Monsoon Deciduous Forests
50 to 100 cm Drier Deciduous or Tropical Savanna
25 to 50 cm Dry Thorny Scrub (Semi-arid)
Below 25 cm Desert (Arid)
  Temperature is the major factor in Himalayas and other hilly regions with an
elevation of more than 900 metres.
 As the temperature falls with altitude in the Himalayan region the vegetal cover
changes with altitude fromtropical to sub-tropical, temperate and finally alpine.
 Soil is an equally determining factor in few regions.Mangrove forests, swamp
forests are some of the examples where soil is the major factor.
 Topography is responsible for certain minor types e.g.alpine flora, tidal forests, etc..

Classification of Natural Vegetation of India

 Classification of Natural Vegetation of India is primarily based on spatial and annual

variations in rainfall. Temperature, soil and topography are also considered.
 India’s vegetation can be divided into 5 main types and 16 sub-types as given below.

A. Moist Tropical Forests

 Tropical Wet Evergreen

 Tropical Semi-Evergreen
 Tropical Moist Deciduous
 Littoral and Swamp

B. Dry Tropical Forests

 Tropical Dry Evergreen

 Tropical Dry Deciduous
 Tropical Thorn

C. Montane Sub-tropical Forests

 Sub-tropical broad leaved hill

 Sub-tropical moist hill (pine)
 Sub-tropical dry evergreen

D. Montane Temperate Forests

 Montane Wet Temperate

 Himalayan Moist Temperate
  Himalayan Dry Temperate

E. Alpine Forests

 Sub-Alpine
 Moist Alpine scrub
 Dry Alpine scrub

Forest Type in India % of Total Area

Tropical Moist Deciduous 37
Tropical Dry Deciduous 28
Tropical Wet Evergreen 8
Sub-Tropical Moist Hill 6
Tropical Semi-Evergreen 4
Rest below 4 %
Moist Tropical Forests
Tropical Wet Evergreen Forests or Rain Forests
Climatic Conditions

 Annual rainfall exceeds 250 cm

 The annual temperature is about 25°-27°C
 The average annual humidity exceeds 77 per cent and
 The dry season is distinctly short.

Characteristics

 Evergreen: Due to high heat and high humidity, the trees of these forests do not shed
their leaves together.
 Mesosphytic:Plants adopted to neither too dry nor too wet type climate.

What are mesophytes?

·         Unlike hydrophytic plants, such as water lily or pondweed, that grow in saturated soil
or water, or xerophytic plants, such as cactus, that grow in extremely dry soil, mesophytes
are ordinary plants that exist between the two extremes.
·         Mesophytic environments are marked by average to hot temperatures and soil that
is neither too dry nor too wet.

 Lofty: The trees often reach 45 – 60 metres in height.

  Thick Canopy: From the air, the tropical rain forest appears like a thick canopy of
foliage, broken only where it is crossed by large rivers or cleared for cultivation.
 All plants struggle upwards (mostephiphytes) for sunlight resulting in a peculiar layer
arrangement. The entire morphology looks like a green carpet when viewed from
above.

Less undergrowth: The sun light cannot reach the ground due to thick canopy. The
undergrowth is formed mainly of bamboos, ferns, climbers, orchids, etc.
Distribution

 Western side of the Western Ghats (500 to 1370 metres above sea level).
 Some regions in the Purvanchal hills.
 In the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

Timber

 Hardwood: The timber of these forests is fine-grained, hard and durable.

 It has high commercial value but it is highly challenging to exploit dueto dense
undergrowth, absence of pure stands and lack of transport facilities [Read
previous posts on Climatic regions to understand how lumbering industry works in
Equatorial Rainforests (hardwood) and Taiga Climatic (softwood) conditions].
 The important species of these forests aremahogany, mesua, white cedar, jamun,
canes, bamboo 

Tropical Semi-Evergreen Forests

 They are transitional forests between tropical wet evergreen forests and tropical
deciduous forests.
 They are comparatively drier areas compared to tropical wet evergreen forests.

Climatic Conditions

 Annual rainfall is 200-250 cm

 Mean annual temperature varies from 24°C to 27°C
 The relative humidity is about 75 per cent
 The dry season is not short like in tropical evergreen forests.

Distribution
  Western coast
 Assam
 Lower slopes of the Eastern Himalayas
 Odisha and

Characteristics

 The semi-evergreen forests are less dense.

 They are moregregarious [living in flocks or colonies – more pure stands] than the
wet evergreen forests.
 These forests are characterized by many species.
 Trees usually havebuttressed trunks with abundant epiphytes.

Buttressed Trunks
The important species are laurel, rosewood, mesua, thorny bamboo – Western Ghats, white
cedar, Indian chestnut, champa, mango, etc. – Himalayan region.
Timber
Hardwood: Similar to that in tropical evergreen forests except that these forests are less dense
withmore pure stands (timber industry here is better than in evergreen forests).
Tropical Moist Deciduous Forests
Climatic Conditions

 Annual rainfall 100 to 200 cm.

 Mean annual temperature of about 27°C
 The average annual relative humidity of 60 to 75 per cent.
 Spring (between winter and summer) and summer are dry.

Characteristics

 The trees drop their leaves during the spring and early summer when sufficient
moisture is not available.
 The general appearance is bare in extreme summers (April-May).
 Tropical moist deciduous forests present irregular top storey [25 to 60 m].
 Heavily buttressed trees and fairly complete undergrowth.
 These forests occupy a much larger area than the evergreen forests but large tracts
under these forests have been cleared for cultivation.

Distribution
  Belt running along the Western Ghats surrounding the belt of evergreen forests.
 A strip along the Shiwalik range including terai and bhabar from 77° E to 88° E.
 Manipur and Mizoram.
 Hills of eastern Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh.
 Chota Nagpur Plateau.
 Most of Odisha.
 Parts of West Bengal and
 Andaman and Nicobar islands.

Timber

 These provide valuable timer like

 The main species found in these forests are teak, sal, laurel, rosewood, amla, jamun,
bamboo, etc.
 It iscomparatively easy to exploit these forests due to their high degree of
gregariousness (more pure stands).

Littoral and Swamp Forests

 They can survive and grow both in fresh as well asbrackish water(The mixture of
seawater and fresh water in estuaries is called brackish water and its salinity can range
from 0.5 to 35 ppt).
 Occur in and around the deltas, estuaries and creeks prone totidal influences (delta
or tidal forests).
 Littoral (relating to or on the shore of the sea or a lake) forests occur at several places
along the coast.
 Swamp forests are confined to the deltas of the Ganga, the Mahanadi, the Godavari,
the Krishna and the Cauvery.
 Dense mangroves occur all along the coastline in sheltered estuaries, tidal creeks,
backwaters, salt marshes and mudflats. It provides useful fuel wood.
 The most pronounced and the densest is theSunderban in the Ganga delta where the
predominant species is Sundri (Heriteera).

Timber
  It provides hard and durable timber which is used for construction, building purposes
and making boats.
 The important species found in these forests are Sundri, agar, rhizophora, screw pines,
canes and palms, etc.

Dry Tropical Forests

Tropical Dry Evergreen Forests
Distribution
Along the coasts of Tamil Nadu.
Climatic Conditions

 Annual rainfall of 100 cm [mostly from the north-east monsoon winds in October –
December].
 Mean annual temperature is about 28°C.
 The mean humidity is about 75 per cent.
 The growth of evergreen forests in areas of such low rainfall is a bit strange.

Characteristics

 Short statured trees, up to 12 m high, with complete canopy.

 Bamboos and grasses not conspicuous.
 The important species are jamun, tamarind, neem, etc.
 Most of the land under these forests has been cleared for agriculture orcasuarina
plantations.

Casuarina plantation
·         It resembles feathery conifer in general appearance.
·         They are rapid-growing, carefree species for sites and climates as varied as coastal
sand dunes, high mountain slopes, hot humid tropics, and semi-arid regions.
·         They have the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen. It grows 15 to 25 metres in height
on an average.

Casuarina plantation
Distribution
·         Casuarina is the most popular farm forestry in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil
Nadu, West Bengal, Odisha, Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Karnataka.
Benefits
·         Reduces damage in the event of natural calamities.
·         Line planting in the coastal areas helps in controlling the wind force.
·         It is also used for tourism promotion in view of its ornamental appearance.
·         It provides top quality firewood.
·         The wood is suitable for paper pulp and useful raw material for the manufacture of
paper for writing, printing, and wrapping.
·         It is got some serious medicinal values as well.
Wasteland development
·         The characteristics which make it a suitable species for wasteland development include
adaptability to wide range of habitats, fast growth, salt tolerant, drought resistant, ability to
reclaim land and stabilize sand dunes.
·         Intercrops such as groundnut, cucumber, watermelons, sesamum, and pulses can also
be raised along with the plantation.
Tropical Dry Deciduous Forests
Climatic Conditions
Annual rainfall is 100-150 cm.
Characteristics

 These are similar to moist deciduous forests and shed their leaves in dry season.
 The major difference is that they can grow in areas of comparatively less rainfall.
 They represent a transitional type – moist deciduous on the wetter side and thorn
forests on the drier side.
 They have closed but uneven canopy.
 The forests are composed of a mixture of a few species of deciduous trees rising up to
a height of 20 metres.
 Undergrowth: Enough light reaches the ground to permit the growth of grass and
climbers.

Distribution

 They occur in an irregular wide strip running from the foot of the Himalayas to
Kanniyakumari except in Rajasthan, Western Ghats and West Bengal.
 The important species are teak, axlewood, rosewood, common bamboo,red sanders,
laurel, satinwood, etc.
  Large tracts of this forest have been cleared for agricultural purposes.
 These forests have suffer from over grazing, fire, etc.

Tropical Thorn Forests

Climatic Conditions

 Annual rainfall less than 75 cm.

 Humidity is less than 50 per cent.
 Mean temperature is 25°-30°C.

Characteristics

 The trees are low (6 to 10 metres maximum) and widely scattered.

 Acacias and Euphorbias are very prominent.
 The Indian wild date is common. Some grasses also grow in the rainy season.

Distribution

 Rajasthan, south-western Punjab, western Haryana, Kachchh and neighbouring parts

of Saurashtra.
 Here they degenerate into desert type in the Thar desert.
 Such forests also grow on the leeside of the Western Ghats covering large areas of
Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
 The important species are neem, babul, cactii, etc.

Montane Sub-Tropical Forests

Sub-tropical Broad-leaved Hill Forests
Climatic conditions

 Mean annual rainfall is 75 cm to 125 cm.

 Average annual temperature is 18°-21°C.
 Humidity is 80 per cent.

Distribution
Eastern Himalayas to the east of 88°E longitude at altitudes varying from 1000 to 2000 m.
Characteristics

 Forests of evergreen species.

 Commonly found species are evergreen oaks, chestnuts, ash, beech, sals and pines.
  Climbers and epiphytes [a plant that grows non-parasitically on a tree or other plant]
are common.
 These forests are not so distinct in the southern parts of the country. They occur only
in the Nilgiri and Palni hills at 1070-1525 metres above sea level.
 It is a “stunted rain-forest” and is not so luxuriant as the true tropical evergreen.
 The higher parts of the Western Ghats such as Mahabaleshwar, the summits of the
Satpura and the Maikal Range, highlands of Bastar and Mt. Abu in the Aravali Range
carry sub-types of these forests.

Sub-tropical Moist Pine Forests

Distribution

 Western Himalayas between 73°E and 88°E longitudes at elevations between 1000 to
2000 metres above sea level.
 Some hilly regions of Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Naga Hills and Khasi Hills.

Timber

 Chir or Chilis the most dominant tree which forms pure stands.
 It providesvaluable timber for furniture, boxes and buildings.
 It is also used for producing resin and turpentine.

Sub-tropical Dry Evergreen Forests

Distribution
Found in the Bhabar, the Shiwaliks and the western Himalayas up to about 1000 metres
above sea level.
Climatic Conditions

 Annual rainfall is 50-100 cm (15 to 25 cm in December-March).

 The summers are sufficiently hot and winters are very cold.

Characteristics

 Low scrub forest with small evergreen stunted trees and shrubs.
 Olive, acacia modesta and pistacia are the most predominant species.

Montane Temperate Forests

Montane Wet Temperate Forests
Climatic Conditions
  Grows at a height of 1800 to 3000 m above sea level
 Mean annual rainfall is 150 cm to 300 cm
 Mean annual temperature is about 11°C to 14°C and the
 Average relative humidity is over 80 per cent.

Distribution
Higher hills of Tamil Nadu and Kerala, in the Eastern Himalayan region.
Characteristics

 These are closed evergreen forests. Trunks have large girth.

 Branches are clothed with mosses, ferns and other epiphytes.
 The trees rarely achieve a height of more than 6 metres.
 Deodar, Chilauni, Indian chestnut, birch, plum, machilus, cinnamomum, litsea,
magnolia, blue pine, oak, hemlock, etc. are important species.

Himalayan Moist Temperate Forests

Climatic Conditions
Annual rainfall varies from 150 cm to 250 cm
Distribution

 Occurs in the temperate zone of the Himalayas between 1500 and 3300 metres.
 Cover the entire length of this mountain range in Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh,
Uttarakhand, Darjeeling and Sikkim.

Characteristics

 Mainly composed of coniferous species.

 Species occur in mostly pure strands.
 Trees are 30 to 50 m high.
 Pines, cedars, silver firs, spruce, etc. are most important trees.
 They form high but fairly open forest with shrubby undergrowth including oaks,
rhododendrons and some bamboos.

Timber
It provides fine wood which is of much use for construction, timber and railway sleepers.
Himalayan Dry Temperate Forests
Climatic Conditions
Precipitation is below 100 cm and is mostly in the form of snow.
Characteristics
Coniferous forests with xerophytic shrubs in which deodar, oak, ash, olive, etc are the main
trees.
Distribution

 Such forests are found in the inner dry ranges of the Himalayas where south-west
monsoon is very feeble.
 Such areas are in Ladakh, Lahul, Chamba, Kinnaur, Garhwal and Sikkim.

Alpine Forests

 Altitudes ranging between 2,900 to 3,500.

 These forests can be divided into: (1) sub-alpine; (2) moist alpine scrub and (3) dry
alpine scrub.
 The sub-alpine forests occur lower alpine scrub and grasslands.
 It is a mixture of coniferous and broad-leaved trees in which the coniferous trees
attain a height of about 30 m while the broad leaved trees reach only 10 m.
 Fir, spruce, rhododendron, etc. are important species.
 The moist alpine scrub is a low evergreen dense growth of rhododendron, birch etc.
which occurs from 3,000 metres and extends upto
 The dry alpine scrub is the uppermost limit of scrub xerophytic, dwarf shrubs, over
3,500 metres above sea level and found in dry zone. Juniper, honeysuckle, artemesia
etc. are important species.

1 c) Medicinal and aromatic plants

 Medicinal and aromatic plants constitute a major segment of the flora, which provides
raw materials for use in the pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and drug industries. The
indigenous systems of medicines, developed in India for centuries, make use of many
medicinal herbs. These systems include Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani, and many other
indigenous practices. More than 9,000 native plants have established and recorded
curative properties and about 1500 species are known for their aroma and flavour. It is
estimated that, more than 8,000 species of medicinal herbs and medicinal plants are
found in the country.
 In one of the studies by the World Health Organization, it is estimated that 80 per cent
of the population of developing countries relies on traditional plant based medicines
for their health requirements. Even in many of the modern medicines, the basic
composition is derived from medicinal plants and these have become acceptable
 medicines for many reasons that include easy availability, least side effects, low
prices, environmental friendliness and lasting curative property.
 India and China are the two major producing countries, having 40 per cent of the
global biodiversity and availability of rare species. These are well known as the home
of medicinal and aromatic crops that constitute a segment of the flora, and provide
raw materials to the pharmaceutical, cosmetic, fragrance, flavour etc. industries. The
aromatic plants are the important economical source of a number of well established
and important drugs; in addition, they are the source of some chemical intermediates
needed for the production of a number of drugs.
 India has been considered a treasure house of valuable medicinal and aromatic plant
species. The Indian System of Medicine uses over 1,100 medicinal plants and most of
them are collected from forests regularly, and over 60 species among them are
particularly in demands. On account of the fact that derivatives of medicinal and
aromatic plants have no side effects and deal curatively, the demand for these plants is
on the increase in both developing and developed countries. As a result, the trade of
medicinal plants is increasing fast.
 From the trade data available, it is clear that the global market for medicinal plants
has always been large and has been on increase in the recent past. In the report
commissioned by the World Wide Fund for Nature, it is pointed out that, the total
import in 1980 of “vegetable materials used in pharmacy” by the European Economic
Community was 80,738 tons. India was the largest supplier with 10.05 tons of plants
and 14 tons of vegetable alkaloid and their derivatives. India, Brazil and China are the
largest exporters of medicinal plants. Trade of medicinal plants from India is
estimated to be worth Rs. 550 crore.
 Cosmetics and aromatherapy products are two important areas where Indian
medicinal plants and their extracts like essential oils can contribute globally.
Medicinal and aromatic plants have a high market potential with the world demand
for herbal products growing of the rate of seven per cent per annum. Aromatic plants
provide products with are extensively used as spices, flavouring agents and in
perfumes and medicine. In addition, they also provide raw materials for the
production of many important industrial chemicals.
 The spices and essential oil industry traditionally was only a cottage industry in India.
Since 1947 a number of industrial organizations have been established for large scale
processing and production of spices, oleoresins, essential oils, their pure constituents
and perfumes. The essential oils which are being produced in India are oils of ajwain,
 cedar wood, celery seed, citronella, eucalyptus, lemon grass, mentha, spearmints,
Palmarosa, patchouli, turpentine and votive.
 Some of these products are the raw materials for the production of important
industrial chemical like β-ionone from lemongrass oil for the production of vitamin A.
India produces turpentine oil in the order of 10,000 to 35,000 tons annually and this
oil is used for the production of a number of chemicals. The essential oils are used in
every-day human-life in various ways and their consumption is rapidly increasing. A
few of the common uses to which essential oils and their derivatives are put to, are in
the manufacture of soaps, cosmetics, pharmaceutical preparation, confectionary,
aerated waters, disinfectants, detergents, incenses, etc.
 India was at one time famous for the manufacture and distillation of high quality
perfumes and scents. According to an estimate, 1000 different aromatic plants out of a
total of 1500 varieties used in perfumery throughout the world are found in India. The
extraction of essential oils is carried throughout India, but in an unorganized way.
This industry needs to be built up on scientific lines if all the raw materials available
or which can be produced, are to be exploited for the economic benefit of the country.
 The economic importance of both these groups of medicinal and aromatic plant can
be gauged from the fact than 25 years ago vegetable drugs worth million of rupees
were used to be exported from India. This trade dwindled later because of exporting
unstandardized and adulterated material. The trade can be revived if steps are taken to
produce and export material of standard quality.
 On other hand, a considerable quantity of crude drugs is imported from foreign
countries for the use of Pharmaceutical industry, therefore, will bring great economic
advantage to the country. These plants are now being utilized in the practice of
medicine in this country and are also exported to foreign countries.
 The aromatic plants provide the raw material for the production of flavours,
condiments, herbal cosmetics, perfumery, scented soaps, hair oils, aerated water, and
etc. demand for these herbs is increasing progressively with increase in number of star
hotels and multinationals establishing consumer oriented cosmetics, biscuits and
pharmaceutical units.
 Currently, most of these herbs are grown in large quantities and marketed by France,
U.K., Canada, Turkey and U.S.A. It is estimated that Indian Consumption alone of
these herbs is approximately 200 tons per annum, and only about 60 tones are
produced indigenously. Bulk of these herbs is used for culinary purposes and about 12
tones are consumed for medicinal and cosmetic preparations. The annual exports of
the derivatives from these plants are to the tune of Rs. 600-700 million.
 World trade in medicinal plants is increasing very fast. One of the interesting features
of this trade is that the direction of trade is from developing countries to the
developed countries. That has a positive income transfer effect. China and India are
the two leading countries in the trade sector. During the past decade, total trade has
increased from US $ 52.8 million to US $ 68.7 million, recording a growth rate of
3.56 per cent per annum. In spite of this, one cannot confidently say that we have
reached even the fragment of the potential of trade in medicinal plants.
  
  Central Sector Scheme for “Conservation, Development and Sustainable
Management of Medicinal Plants”
 Under this Scheme support is provided for undertaking activities on Survey,
Inventorization, in-situ conservation, ex-situ conservation / herbal gardens, linkage
with JFMCs, Research and Development etc. on Medicinal Plants.  Information
regarding financial assistance which includes the technical components viz. capacity
building of all stakeholders.

1 d) Usefulness of plants and human affairs (utility)

 Food
 Plants are the main source of food for humans. Plants, unlike humans and animals,
manufacture their own food. They do so by the process known as photosynthesis in
their green leaves by use of sunlight.  They can convert and store the light energy in
the form of carbohydrates. This process takes place in the leaves (chlorophyll) by use
of carbon-dioxide and water.
 From this manufactured food, they consume some of it and store the remaining. This
is stored in the form of fruits, seeds, tuberous roots, etc. This fruits and other parts of
plants are consumed by humans. The food is in the form of vegetables, fruits, grains,
cereals, leaves, seeds, mushrooms, etc.
 Clothing
 Plants are the largest providers of textile and fabric material.  These materials are eco-
friendly, compatible and less expensive.  So they are used for making cloth and
bedding material which is required by humans.
 Furniture & Shelter
 Plants are the important source of furniture. The plant wood is used to build houses
and also to make other furniture items. We use wood for the purpose due to its
features like durability, stylish finishing, resistance to temperature changes, etc. The
 trees like teak, neem, red sandal, etc. are good sources of wood for making doors,
chairs, shelves, tables, etc.
 Even the presence of plants around the area of human life relieves stress. Hence we
see many people growing small plants in their household to get fresh air and also give
naturalness.
 Flowers
 Flowers are used widely by humans. They are used for beauty, to convey feelings and
also for their fragrance. In some countries, they worn as garlands and even in the hair
on the head for beauty. While some use them to convey their love to their beloved
ones. They are also used to produce fragrance, and even their scent is extracted for
daily use.
 Natural pesticide
 Plants are also the source of insecticides and pesticides. Using artificial pesticides are
harmful to the environment. They may even enter food causing health issue to human
and animals. Using these naturally derived pesticides are safe. They degrade with time
and even do not harm the soil. Ex: Pyrethrin (as Mosquito repellant), Neem, bacteria,
etc.
 Biofuels
 Some plants are also grown for the sake of bio-fuels. The plant’s fuel is less toxic
since it does not emit harmful gasses and also less expensive. Even the plant waste is
used to generate electricity.
 Economic contribution
 Plants are great contributors to an economy. Many countries rely on agriculture as one
of the main sources of revenue.  Plants are responsible for the production of food,
cosmetics, drugs, cloth, honey, gum, tannins, essential oils (perfumes), alkaloids,
resins, etc. which are all money yielding. So plants provide a great contribution to
economic growth. Even now many countries economies are primarily dependent on
plant products.
 Importance of Plants in nature
 Environment and the climate are interlinked mainly with plants. The presence of
plants influences Rainfall, humidity, and temperature. Cutting down plants also
imbalance the environment which will indirectly affect human life.
 In cities and towns, there is a rise in gaseous pollution like(CO2, CO, SO2, etc.). So
city environments are highly polluted and unsafe for living.  This is due to
automobiles and factories ejecting toxic gases and also reducing the healthy oxygen
ratio of air. Air pollution causes diseases of various types. So growing plants on the
 roadside, parks, etc. helps minimize the gaseous pollution. For the benefit of plants
oxygen, they can even be grown in office, residential areas, education institutes, etc.
For this, we can use low maintenance plants like indoor potted plants, hanging plants,
etc.
 Miscellaneous benefits
 They are the source of essential oils which are used in perfumes. Their material is
used for making beverages like wine, beer, etc. Other items like paper, bio-diesel, bio-
manure are also obtained by use of plant material.  So they contribute to all the types
of living beings either big or small, on land or water.  But given the vast importance
of plants to human, we need to strive for plant conservation.

2 a) Biotechnology
 Concept of biotechnology
 The term ‘Biotechnology’ may sound futuristic, but it is nearly as old as civilization
itself. We have begun growing crops and raising animals 10,000 years ago to provide
a stable supply of food and clothing. We have been using the biological processes of
microorganisms for 6,000 years to make useful food products such as bread, cheese
and to preserve dairy products. The term ‘biotechnology’ has been used to signify
activities relating to biological process and technologies. Traditional biotechnology
and its development processes were entirely experiential. It was aimed at
understanding the mechanisms for improving every activity from farming to food
processing. Early farmers selected particular plants to grow crops and saved their
seeds for the following season. Over the years, they bred the varieties of seeds they
found best and learned how to grow them more efficiently through techniques of
irrigation and weed control. The process of choosing certain seeds for their expressed
characteristics and learning how to irrigate and rotate the crops was the genesis of
earlier days of biotechnology.
 The expression ‘modern biotechnology’ can be differentiated form traditional use of
biological process which was commonly termed as classical biotechnology. Even
though biotechnology has been in practice for thousands of years, the technological
explosion occurred only in the twentieth century. Various branches of science like
physics, chemistry, engineering, computer application and information technology
helped revolutionise the development of life sciences and it ultimately resulted in the
evolution of modern biotechnology. Unlike classical biotechnology, modern
biotechnology operates at the molecular level of life. It is modern in the sense that the
techniques are applied mainly to cells and Molecules. Life at the molecular level is
 the same among every species from humans to bacterium. Every living thing on earth
is built with molecules which are similar and there exists hardly any difference among
humans, fishes, trees, worms and bacterium at molecular level. Only the
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) coding is different among various species and it
ultimately makes every living thing what it is.
 The term biotechnology for the purpose of understanding can be divided in to two
‘bio’ and ‘technology’. ‘Bio’ means the use of biological processes and ‘technology’
means to solve problems or make useful products.  Biotechnology is a collection of
many different technologies. It is a highly multidisciplinary subject. It involves the
contribution of scientists from various fields like biology, chemistry, engineers,
statisticians, mathematicians, and information technology. It also involves
contributions from financial, legal, and managerial experts. It is a rapidly growing
technological terrain, recognised by its significant contribution to life science research
like the agricultural, medical and pharmaceutical sectors. In order to have a better
understanding of the major issues raised by biotechnology, we must have some grasp
of what biotechnology and bioscience are. The concepts and jargons frequently used
in biotechnology are not familiar to legal researchers. This chapter makes an attempt
to familiarise the common concepts and terminologies used in biotechnology for the
better understanding of legal issues relating to biotechnology and research data
protection.
 The simple definition of ‘biotechnology’ is the commercialization of cell biology”.
Biotechnology is an umbrella term that covers various techniques for using he
properties of living organisms to make products or provide services. The Convention
on Biological Diversity (CBD) defines biotechnology as: “any technological
application that uses biological systems, living organisms, or derivatives thereof, to
make or modify products for specific use.” This definition includes medical and
industrial applications as well as many of the tools and techniques that are common in
agriculture and food production.
 The developments of modern biotechnology
 The era of modern biotechnology is believed to have started with the discovery of the
microscope. The path of genetic manipulation can be said to have started in 1665
when the English scientist Robert Hook published a review of some observations he
had made while peering through a microscope. He saw tiny spaces surrounded by
walls while he was observing samples of cork. He is the one who coined the word
“cell.” Ten years later Anton van Leeuwenhoek designed the microscope with
magnifying power as great as 270 times. He was the first person to observe and
 describe micro-organisms which he called “very little animalcules”. He was also the
first person to observe the “bacteria” which according to him were twenty five times
smaller than the blood cells. He also discovered the presence of sperms in semen in
human and other animals.
 Even though cells were found everywhere from plants to animals, nobody came up
with the idea that the cells were fundamental to life. More than 70 years later, two
Germen biologists Matthias Schleiden and Theodore Schwann introduced the cell
theory which says that all living organism are made of cells. According to them cells
are the basic structural and functional units of a living organisms. The research on
cells further led to the discovery of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) which is believed to
be the heart of life. The area of biotechnology developed as a result of man’s
increasing desire to know the mechanisms that maintain living organisms.
 The landmark moment in the history of science occurred on April 25, 1953 when
James D. Watson and Francis Crick published “A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic
Acid” in the journal, Nature. Watson and Crick, along with their colleague Maurice
Wilkins, received the 1962 Nobel Prize in physiology and medicine for “their
discoveries concerning the molecular structure of nucleic acids and its significance for
information transfer in living material.
 The discovery of double helix DNA structure was a huge controversy during that
period. In fact the crystallographer Rosalind Franklin, who generated the legendary
“photograph 51” using the X-ray diffraction photo, was the first one to reveal DNA’s
double-helix structure. The controversy was that the Rosalind Franklin’s X-ray
crystallography image, “photo”, was shown to Watson and Crick without her
knowledge and consent. The image which actually indicated the doublehelix structure
of DNA, was not the discovery of Watson and Crick which earned them the Nobel
Prize. They could not have proposed their celebrated structure of the DNA without
access to the experimental results obtained by Rosalind Franklin, particularly her
crucial X-ray diffraction photograph. She was known as the dark lady of DNA.
 The major development in medical biotechnology was the discovery and development
of antibiotics. The first antibiotic was ‘moldy soybean curd’ used by the Chinese
almost 2,500 years ago to treat skin infections. The Sudanese-Nubian civilization of
Africa used a form of the same micro organism which created tetracycline as an
antibiotic as early as 350 B.C.41 The traces of tetracycline have been found in human
skeletal remains of ancient Sudanese Nubia. The distribution of tetracycline in bones
was only understandable after exposure to tetracyclinecontaining materials in the diet
of these ancient people. In the middle ages in Europe, tinctures made from plant
 extracts or cheese curds were used to ward off infection. The tetracycline as a large
family of generic antibiotics was discovered as natural products by Benjamin Minge
Duggar in 1948.

 2 b) Genetic engineering
Introduction and application of genetic engineering
Genetic engineering
Genetic engineering, the artificial manipulation, modification, and recombination of DNA or
other nucleic acid molecules in order to modify an organism or population of organisms.
The term genetic engineering initially referred to various techniques used for the modification
or manipulation of organisms through the processes of heredity and reproduction. As such,
the term embraced both artificial selection and all the interventions of biomedical techniques,
among them artificial insemination, in vitro fertilization (e.g., “test-tube” babies), cloning,
and gene manipulation. In the latter part of the 20th century, however, the term came to refer
more specifically to methods of recombinant DNA technology (or gene cloning), in which
DNA molecules from two or more sources are combined either within cells or in vitro and are
then inserted into host organisms in which they are able to propagate.
The possibility for recombinant DNA technology emerged with the discovery of restriction
enzymes in 1968 by Swiss microbiologist Werner Arber. The following year American
microbiologist Hamilton O. Smith purified so-called type II restriction enzymes, which were
found to be essential to genetic engineering for their ability to cleave a specific site within the
DNA (as opposed to type I restriction enzymes, which cleave DNA at random sites). Drawing
on Smith’s work, American molecular biologist Daniel Nathans helped advance the technique
of DNA recombination in 1970–71 and demonstrated that type II enzymes could be useful in
genetic studies. Genetic engineering based on recombination was pioneered in 1973 by
American biochemists Stanley N. Cohen and Herbert W. Boyer, who were among the first to
cut DNA into fragments, rejoin different fragments, and insert the new genes into E. coli
bacteria, which then reproduced.
Process And Techniques
Most recombinant DNA technology involves the insertion of foreign genes into the plasmids
of common laboratory strains of bacteria. Plasmids are small rings of DNA; they are not part
of the bacterium’s chromosome (the main repository of the organism’s genetic information).
Nonetheless, they are capable of directing protein synthesis, and, like chromosomal DNA,
they are reproduced and passed on to the bacterium’s progeny. Thus, by incorporating foreign
DNA (for example, a mammalian gene) into a bacterium, researchers can obtain an almost
limitless number of copies of the inserted gene. Furthermore, if the inserted gene is operative
(i.e., if it directs protein synthesis), the modified bacterium will produce the protein specified
by the foreign DNA.
A subsequent generation of genetic engineering techniques that emerged in the early 21st
century centred on gene editing. Gene editing, based on a technology known as CRISPR-
Cas9, allows researchers to customize a living organism’s genetic sequence by making very
specific changes to its DNA. Gene editing has a wide array of applications, being used for the
genetic modification of crop plants and livestock and of laboratory model organisms (e.g.,
mice). The correction of genetic errors associated with disease in animals suggests that gene
editing has potential applications in gene therapy for humans.
Applications Genetic engineering
Animal Husbandry
Neither the use of animal vaccines nor adding bovine growth hormones to cows to
dramatically increase milk production can match the real excitement in animal husbandry:
transgenic animals and clones.  Transgenic animals model advancements in DNA technology
in their development. The mechanism for creating one can be described in three steps:

 Healthy egg cells are removed from a female of the host animal and fertilized in the
laboratory.
 The desired gene from another species is identified, isolated, and cloned.
 The cloned genes are injected directly into the eggs, which are then surgically
implanted in the host female, where the embryo undergoes a normal development
process.

 
Control of Oil Pollution
Oil spills from oil tankers either on water or water surfaces cause a major environmental
hazard. Earlier use of chemical dispersants was shown to cause major pollution in shallow
water due to their toxic nature and prolong persistence in the environment.
Various species of Pseudomonas have the property to consume available hydrocarbons from
oil and can produce active surface compounds that can emulsify oil in water and thus facili-
tate easy removal of oil. Dr. Ananda Chakrobarty has engineered a strain of Pseudomonas
aeruginosa which produces a glycolipid emulsifier that reduces the surface tension of an oil-
water interface and thus helps in removal of oil from water.
Many such genetically engineered microbes can be used by mixing with straw, which then
will be scattered over the spilled oil, the straw will first soak oily water and then the microbes
will break up the oil into non-toxic, non-polluting substances, rendering the environment
harmless.
Control of Heavy Metal Pollution
Integrated management of polluted ecosystem by the use of diverse kind of organisms which
restore the natural process in the ecosystem is called bioremediation. Application of
genetically engineered organisms, specially plants in bioremediation, to rid contaminated soil
from heavy metal toxicity has proved encouraging.
Use of Bio-Pesticides
In developing countries, about 60 to 70% of food, during harvesting and post-harvested
period is lost on account of pests. Majority of chemical pesticides, herbicides and fertilisers
cause numerous hazards, because these substances release various pollutants in the
environment. To minimise the use of chemicals and pesticides, bio-pesticides are being used.
These are compounds derived from natural biological sources like animals, plants; bacteria
and can limit the growth of pests. For example, plant-incorporated protectants (PIPs) are bio-
pesticides produced by plants through genetic manipulation.
Medicine
Genetic engineering has resulted in a series of medical products. The first two commercially
prepared products from recombinant DNA technology were insulin and human growth
hormone, both of which were cultured in the E. coli bacteria. Since then a plethora of
products have appeared on the market, including the following abbreviated list, all made in E.
coli:

 Tumor necrosis factor. Treatment for certain tumor cells

 Interleukin-2 (IL-2). Cancer treatment, immune deficiency, and HIV infection
treatment
 Treatment for heart attacks Taxol.
 Treatment for ovarian cancer Interferon. Treatment for cancer and viral infections

In addition, a number of vaccines are now commercially prepared from recombinant hosts. At
one time vaccines were made by denaturing the disease and then injecting it into humans with
the hope that it would activate their immune system to fight future intrusions by that invader.
Unfortunately, the patient sometimes still ended up with the disease.
Agriculture
Crop plants have been and continue to be the focus of biotechnology as efforts are made to
improve yield and profitability by improving crop resistance to insects and certain herbicides
and delaying ripening (for better transport and spoilage resistance). The creation of a
transgenic plant, one that has received genes from another organism, proved more difficult
than animals. Unlike animals, finding a vector for plants proved to be difficult until the
isolation of the Ti plasmid, harvested from a tumor-inducing (Ti) bacteria found in the soil.
The plasmid is “shot” into a cell, where the plasmid readily attaches to the plant’s DNA.
Although successful in fruits and vegetables, the Ti plasmid has generated limited success in
grain crops.
Creating a crop that is resistant to a specific herbicide proved to be a success because the
herbicide eliminated weed competition from the crop plant. Researchers discovered
herbicide-resistant bacteria, isolated the genes responsible for the condition, and “shot” them
into a crop plant, which then proved to be resistant to that herbicide. Similarly, insect-
resistant plants are becoming available as researchers discover bacterial enzymes that destroy
or immobilize unwanted herbivores, and others that increase nitrogen fixation in the soil for
use by plants.
Geneticists are on the threshold of a major agricultural breakthrough. All plants need nitrogen
to grow. In fact, nitrogen is one of the three most important nutrients a plant requires.
Although the atmosphere is approximately 78 percent nitrogen, it is in a form that is unusable
to plants. However, a naturally occurring rhizobium bacterium is found in the soil and
converts atmospheric nitrogen into a form usable by plants. These nitrogen-fixing bacteria are
also found naturally occurring in the legumes of certain plants such as soybeans and peanuts.
Because they contain these unusual bacteria, they can grow in nitrogen-deficient soil that
prohibits the growth of other crop plants. Researchers hope that by isolating these bacteria,
they can identify the DNA segment that codes for nitrogen fixation, remove the segment, and
insert it into the DNA of a profitable cash crop! In so doing, the new transgenic crop plants
could live in new fringe territories, which are areas normally not suitable for their growth,
and grow in current locations without the addition of costly fertilizers.
Stem Cell Research
Stem Cell Research
Stem cells are undifferentiated, or “blank,” cells. This means they’re capable of developing
into cells that serve numerous functions in different parts of the body. Most cells in the body
are differentiated cells. These cells can only serve a specific purpose in a particular organ.
For example, red blood cells are specifically designed to carry oxygen through the blood.
All humans start out as only one cell. This cell is called a zygote, or a fertilized egg. The
zygote divides into two cells, then four cells, and so on. Eventually, the cells begin to
differentiate, taking on a certain function in a part of the body. This process is called
differentiation.
Stem cells are cells that haven’t differentiated yet. They have the ability to divide and make
an indefinite number of copies of themselves. Other cells in the body can only replicate a
limited number of times before they begin to break down. When a stem cell divides, it can
either remain a stem cell or turn into a differentiated cell, such as a muscle cell or a red blood
cell.
Potential uses of stem cells Since stem cells have the ability to turn into various other types of
cells, scientists believe that they can be useful for treating and understanding diseases.
According to the Mayo Clinic, stem cells can be used to:

 grow new cells in a laboratory to replace damaged organs or tissues

 correct parts of organs that don’t work properly
 research causes of genetic defects in cells
 research how diseases occur or why certain cells develop into cancer cells
 test new drugs for safety and effectiveness

Types of stem cells

There are several types of stem cells that can be used for different purposes.  Embryonic
stem cells
Embryonic stem cells come from human embryos that are three to five days old. They are
harvested during a process called in-vitro fertilization. This involves fertilizing an embryo in
a laboratory instead of inside the female body. Embryonic stem cells are known as
pluripotent stem cells. These cells can give rise to virtually any other type of cell in the body.
Non-embryonic (adult) stem cells
Adult stem cells have a misleading name, because they are also found in infants and children.
These stem cells come from developed organs and tissues in the body. They’re used by the
body to repair and replace damaged tissue in the same area in which they are found.
For example, hematopoietic stem cells are a type of adult stem cell found in bone marrow.
They make new red blood cells, white blood cells, and other types of blood cells. Doctors
have been performing stem cell transplants, also known as bone marrow transplants, for
decades using hematopoietic stem cells in order to treat certain types of cancer.
Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs)
Scientists have recently discovered how to turn adult stem cells into pluripotent stem cells.
These new types of cells are called induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs). They can
differentiate into all types of specialized cells in the body. This means they can potentially
produce new cells for any organ or tissue. To create iPSCs, scientists genetically reprogram
the adult stem cells so they behave like embryonic stem cells.
Cord blood stem cells and amniotic fluid stem cells
Cord blood stem cells are harvested from the umbilical cord after childbirth. They can be
frozen in cell banks for use in the future. These cells have been successfully used to treat
children with blood cancers, such as leukemia, and certain genetic blood disorders.
Stem cell research controversy
Adult stem cells don’t present any ethical problems. However, in recent years, there has been
controversy surrounding the way human embryonic stem cells are obtained. During the
process of harvesting embryotic stem cells, the embryo is destroyed. This raises ethical
concerns for people who believe that the destruction of a fertilized embryo is morally wrong.
Opponents believe that an embryo is a living human being. They don’t think the fertilized
eggs should be used for research. They argue that the embryo should have the same rights as
every other human and that these rights should be protected.
With the breakthrough discovery of iPSCs, there may be less of a need for human embryos in
research. This may help ease the concerns of those who are against using embryos for
medical research. However, if iPSCs have the potential to develop into a human embryo,
researchers could theoretically create a clone of the donor. This presents another ethical issue
to take into consideration. Many countries already have legislation in place that effectively
bans human cloning.
Applications of stem cell research
Neurodegeneration
Research has been conducted on the effects of stem cells on animal models of brain
degeneration, such as in Parkinson’s, Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and Alzheimer’s disease.
There have been preliminary studies related to multiple sclerosis. Healthy adult brains
contain neural stem cells which divide to maintain general stem-cell numbers, or become
progenitor cells. In healthy adult laboratory animals, progenitor cells migrate within the brain
and function primarily to maintain neuron populations for olfaction (the sense of smell).
Pharmacological activation of endogenous neural stem cells has been reported to induce
neuroprotection and behavioral recovery in adult rat models of neurological disorder.
Brain and spinal cord injury
Stroke and traumatic brain injury lead to cell death, characterized by a loss of neurons and
oligodendrocytes within the brain. Clinical and animal studies have been conducted into the
use of stem cells in cases of spinal cord injury.
Heart
Stems cells are studied in people with severe heart disease. The work by Bodo-Eckehard
Strauer was discredited by identifying hundreds of factual contradictions. Among several
clinical trials reporting that adult stem cell therapy is safe and effective, actual evidence of
benefit has been reported from only a few studies. Some preliminary clinical trials achieved
only modest improvements in heart function following use of bone marrow stem cell therapy.
Stem-cell therapy for treatment of myocardial infarction usually makes use of autologous
bone marrow stem cells, but other types of adult stem cells may be used, such as adipose-
derived stem cells.
 
Biotechnology and its Applications
Biotechnology and its Applications
Biotechnology is defined as the industrial application of living organisms and their biological
processes such as biochemistry, microbiology, and genetic engineering, in order to make best
use of the microorganisms for the benefit of mankind. Modern biotechnology provides
breakthrough products and technologies to combat debilitating and rare diseases, reduce our
environmental footprint, feed the hungry, use less and cleaner energy, and have safer, cleaner
and more efficient industrial manufacturing processes.
Biotechnology began in the 1970s after the development of genetic engineering that allowed
scientists to modify the genetic material of living cells. Genetic engineering is the
manipulation of DNA molecules to produce modified plants, animals, or other organisms.
DNA is the part of a cell that controls the genetic information of an animal or plant. DNA is a
double-stranded molecule that is present in every cell of an organism. The genetic
information is contained in individual units or sections of DNA called genes. The genes that
are passed from parent to offspring determine the traits that the offspring will have.
Applications of Biotechnology
Health and medicine
Fighting infectious diseases : Biotechnology is used extensively in the study of infectious
diseases such as SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome), and influenza. As a result
more effective pharmaceuticals have been developed.
Development of vaccines and antibiotics : Using technology, microorganisms are used to
develop antibiotics and vaccines to cure diseases. For example, bacteria Bacillus polymysea
is used to produce polymyxin B (antibiotic used to cure urinary tract infections), fungus
Penicillium notatum is used to produce penicillin (used to cure pneumonia, and many other
bacterial infections.)
Treating genetic disorders : Disease can occur when genes become defective due to
mutations. With advancements in biotechnology, in the near future it will be possible to use
gene therapy to replace an abnormal or faulty gene with a normal copy of the same gene. It
may be used to treat ailments such as heart disease, inherited diseases such as SCID, and
Thalassaemia.
In forensic science : A lot of New techniques have been developed such as DNA
fingerprinting, besides having a number of other applications which have facilitated the
speedy identification of the criminals.
Environment
Cleaning up and managing the environment : Cleaning up the environment using living
organisms is called bioremediation. Naturally occurring, as well as genetically modified
microorganisms, such as bacteria, fungi and enzymes are used to break down toxic and
hazardous substances present in the environment.
Agriculture
Biotechnology has also made possible the production of crops improved disease resistan;
herbicide-toleran and insecticide-resistan. Plants with improved nutritional value for livestock
have also been obtained through biotechnology.
Control of pests : One application of biotechnology is in the control of insect pests. The
genetic make-up of the pest is changed by causing some mutations. These pests become
sterile and do not reproduce further.
Manufacturing and bio-processing : With the help of new biological techniques it has become
possible to grow, the plants that produce compounds for use in detergents, paints, lubricants
and plastics on large scale.
Food and drinks : Biotechnology, has also made the processing of foods and their products
easier. Preservation and storing of food for consumption later has become easy and cheap
with the help of biotechnology. Seedless grapes and seedless citrus fruits have been
developed using biotechnology.
Industry
Biotechnology has been used in the industry to produce new products for human
consumption. Food additives have been developed which help in the preservation of food.
Microorganisms are used in the mass production of items such as cheese, yoghurt, and
alcohol.
Food bio-technology
Food bio technology

 Biotechnology is defined in accordance with the Convention on Biological Diversity,

i.e. “any technological application that uses biological systems, living organisms, or
derivatives thereof, to make or modify products or processes for specific use”
 Biotechnology as applied to food processing in most developing countries makes use
of microbial inoculants to enhance properties such as the taste, aroma, shelf-life,
texture and nutritional value of foods.
  The process whereby micro-organisms and their enzymes bring about these desirable
changes in food materials is known as fermentation.
 Fermentation processing is also widely applied in the production of microbial
cultures, enzymes, flavours, fragrances, food additives and a range of other high
value-added products.
 These high value products are increasingly produced in more technologically
advanced developing countries for use in their food and non-food processing
applications.
 Many of these high value products are also imported by developing countries for use
in their food-processing applications.

Agriculture & Food Biotechnology

 Biotechnology is necessary to maintain our agriculture competitive and remunerative

and to achieve nutrition security in the face of major challenges such as
 Declining per capita availability of arable land;
 Lower productivity of crops, livestock and fisheries, heavy production losses due to
biotic (insects pests, weeds) and abiotic (salinity, drought, alkalinity) stresses
 Heavy postharvest crop damage and declining availability of water as an agricultural
input.
 Investment in agricultural related biotechnology has resulted in significantly enhanced
R&D capability and institutional building over the years.
 However, progress has been rather slow in converting the research leads into usable
products.
 Uncertainties regarding IPR management and regulatory requirements, poor
understanding of risk assessment and lack of effective management and
commercialization strategies have been significant impediments. India owns very few
genes of applied value.
 The majority of the genes under use about 40 are currently held by MNCs and have
been received under material transfer agreements for R&D purpose without clarity on
the potential for commercialization.
 The spectrum of biotechnology application in agriculture is very wide and includes
 Generation of improved crops, animals, plants of agro forestry importance;
 Microbes;
 Use of molecular markers to tag genes of interest;
 Accelerating of breeding through marker assisted selection;
  Fingerprinting of cultivars, land raises, germplasm stocks;
 DNA based diagnostics for pests / pathogens of crops, farm animals and fish;
 Assessment and monitoring of bio diversity;
 In vitro mass multiplication of elite planting material;
 Embryo transfer technology for animal breeding; food and feed biotechnology.
 Plants and animals are being used for the production of therapeutically or industrially
useful products, the emphasis being on improving efficiency and lowering the cost of
production.
 However, emphasis should not be on edible vaccines for which use in real life
condition is difficult.
 Nutrition and balanced diet are emerging to be important health promotional
strategies.
 Biotechnology has a critical role in developing and processing value added products
of enhanced nutritive quality and providing tools for ensuring and monitoring food
quality and safety.
 It has been estimated that if Biofertilizers were used to substitute only 25% of
chemical fertilizers on just 50% of India’s crops the potential would be 2,35,000 MT.
 Today about 13,000 MT of Biofertilizers are used – only 0.36% of the total fertilizer
use. The projected production target by 2011 is roughly around 50,000 23 MT.
 Biopesticides have fared slightly better with 2.5% share of the total pesticide market
of 2700 crores and an annual growth rate of 10-15 %.
 In spite of the obvious advantages, several constraints have limited their wider usage
such as products of inconsistent quality, short shelf life, sensitivity to drought,
temperature, and agronomic conditions.

CURRENT USE, RESEARCH AND IMPENDING DEVELOPMENT OF FOODS

PRODUCED THROUGH MODERN BIOTECHNOLOGY
Foods produced through modern biotechnology can be categorized as follows:

1. Foods consisting of or containing living/viable organisms, e.g. maize.

2. Foods derived from or containing ingredients derived from GMOs, e.g. flour, food
protein products, or oil from GM soybeans.
3. Foods containing single ingredients or additives produced by GM microorganisms
(GMMs), e.g. colours, vitamins and essential amino acids.
 4. Foods containing ingredients processed by enzymes produced through GMMs, e.g.
high-fructose corn syrup produced from starch, using the enzyme glucose isomerase
(product of a GMM).

Crops
Crop breeding and the introduction of GM crops for food production

 Conventional breeding, especially of crops, livestock and fish, focuses principally on

increased productivity, increased resistance to diseases and pests, and enhanced
quality with respect to nutrition and food processing.
 Advances in cellular genetics and cell biology methods in the 1960s contributed to the
so-called ‘green revolution’ that significantly increased varieties of staple food crops
containing traits for higher yield and resistance to diseases and pests in a number of
both developed and developing countries.
 A key driver of the green revolution was to improve the potential to provide sufficient
food for all.
 The intensification and expansion of agriculture brought about by these methods and
agricultural systems have, however, also resulted in new forms of health and
environmental risks through, for example, increased use of agrochemicals and
intensified cultivation resulting in soil erosion.
 Various transformation methods are used to transfer recombinant DNA into recipient
species to produce a GMO.
 For plants, these include transformation mediated by Agrobacterium tumefaciens (a
common soil bacterium that contains genetic elements for infection of plants) and
biolistics shooting recombinant DNA placed on microparticles into recipient cells.
 The methods used in the transformation of various animal species include
microinjection, electroporation and germ-line cells.
 The success rate of transformations in animals tends to be lower than in plants, and to
vary from species to species, thus requiring the use of many animals.
 Genetic modification is often faster than conventional breeding techniques, as stable
expression of a trait is achieved using far fewer breeding generations.
 It also allows a more precise alteration of an organism than conventional methods of
breeding, as it enables the selection and transfer of a specific gene of interest.
 However, with the present technology, in many cases it leads to random insertion in
the host genome, and consequently may have unintended developmental or
physiological effects.
  However, such effects can also occur in conventional breeding and the selection
process used in modern biotechnology aims to eliminate such unintended effects to
establish a stable and beneficial trait.

Livestock and fish

 In terms of food production, the application of modern biotechnology to livestock

falls into two main areas: animal production and human nutrition.
 Many of the applications discussed below are in the early stages of R&D.

Fish

 The projected increasing demand for fish suggests that GM fish may become
important in both developed and developing countries.
 Enhanced-growth Atlantic salmon containing a growth hormone gene from Chinook
salmon is likely to be the first GM animal on the food market.
 These fish grow 3–5 times faster than their non-transgenic counterparts, to reduce
production time and increase food availability.
 At least eight other farmed fish species have been genetically modified for growth
enhancement. Other fish in which genes for growth hormones have been
experimentally introduced include grass carp, rainbow trout, tilapia and catfish.
 In all cases, the growth-hormone genes are of fish origin.

Livestock and poultry

 Foods derived from GM livestock and poultry are far from commercial use.
 Several growth enhancing novel genes have been introduced into pigs that have also
affected the quality of the meat, i.e. the meat is more lean and tender.
 This research was initiated over a decade ago, but owing to some morphological and
physiological effects developed by the pigs, these have not been commercialized.
Many modifications to milk have been proposed that either add new proteins to milk
or manipulate endogenous proteins.
 Recently, researchers from New Zealand developed GM cows that produce milk with
increased levels of casein protein. Use of such protein-rich milk would increase the
efficiency of cheese production.
 Other work aims to reduce the lactose content of milk, with the intent of making milk
available to the population of milk-intolerant individuals.
Microorganisms
Microorganisms as foods

 Currently, there are no known commercial products containing live genetically

modified microorganisms (GMMs) on the market.
 In the United Kingdom, GM yeast for beer production has been approved since 1993,
but the product was never intended to be commercialized.
 Other microorganisms used in foods (which are in the R&D phase) include starter
fermentation cultures for various foods (bakery and brewing), and lactic acid bacteria
in cheese.
 R&D is also aimed at minimizing infections by pathogenic microorganisms and
improving nutritional value and flavour.
 Attempts have been made to genetically modify ruminant microorganisms for
protecting livestock from poisonous feed components.
 Microorganisms improved by modern biotechnology are also under development in
the field of probiotics, which are live microorganisms that, when consumed in
adequate amounts as part of food, confer a health benefit on the host.

Food and nutrition

 R&D would be focused on:

 Development of biotechnology tools for evaluating food safety, development of rapid
diagnostic kits for detection of various food borne pathogens
 Development of analogical methods for detection of genetically modified foods and
products derived there from;
 Development of nutraceuticals / health food supplements/ functional foods for holistic
health;
 Development of pre-cooked, ready-to-eat, nutritionally fortified food for school going
children;
 Development of suitable pro-biotics for therapeutic purposes and development of bio
food additives.
 It is proposed to set up (under the auspices of Department of Biotechnology) an
autonomous institute for nutritional biology and food biotechnology (2006).

Biofertilizers and biopesticides

  Priorities would include screening of elite strains of micros-organisms and / or
productions of super-strains, better understanding of the dynamics of symbiotic
nitrogen fixation, process optimization for fermentor – based technologies, improved
shelf life, better quality standards, setting up accredited quality control laboratories
and standardization of GMP guidelines.
 Integrated nutrient management system would be further strengthened.

Fermentation Bioprocess

 The fermentation bioprocess is the major biotechnological application in food

processing. It is often one step in a sequence of food-processing operations, which
may include cleaning, size reduction, soaking and cooking.
 Fermentation bioprocessing makes use of microbial inoculants for enhancing
properties such as the taste, aroma, shelf-life, safety, texture and nutritional value of
foods.
 Microbes associated with the raw food material and the processing environment serve
as inoculants in spontaneous fermentations, while inoculants containing high
concentrations of live micro-organisms, referred to as starter cultures, are used to
initiate and accelerate the rate of fermentation processes in non-spontaneous or
controlled fermentation processes.
 Microbial starter cultures vary widely in quality and purity.

Spontaneous inoculation of fermentation processes

 In many developing countries, fermented foods are produced primarily at the

household and village level, using spontaneous methods of inoculation.
 Spontaneous fermentations are largely uncontrolled.
 A natural selection process, however, evolves in many of these processes which
eventually results in the predominance of a particular type or group of micro-
organisms in the fermentation medium

“Appropriate” starter cultures as inoculants of fermentation processes

 “Appropriate” starter cultures are widely applied as inoculants across the fermented
food sector, from the household to industrial level in low-income and lower-middle-
income economies.
 These starter cultures are generally produced using a backslopping process which
makes use of samples of a previous batch of a fermented product as inoculants
Defined starter cultures as inoculants of fermentation processes

 Few defined starter cultures have been developed for use as inoculants in commercial
fermentation processes in developing countries.
 Nevertheless, the past ten years have witnessed the development and application of
laboratory-selected and pre-cultured starter cultures in food fermentations in a few
developing countries.
 “Defined starter cultures” consist of single or mixed strains of micro-organisms. They
may incorporate adjunct culture preparations that serve a food-safety and preservative
function.
 Adjunct cultures do not necessarily produce fermentation acids or modify texture or
flavour, but are included in the defined culture owing to their ability to inhibit
pathogenic or spoilage organisms.
 Their inhibitory activity is due to the production of one or several substances such as
hydrogen peroxide, organic acids, diacetyl and bacteriocins.

Defined starter cultures developed using the diagnostic tools of advanced biotechnologies

 The use of DNA-based diagnostic techniques for strain differentiation can allow for
the tailoring of starter cultures to yield products with specific flavours and/or textures.
 Random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) techniques have been applied in, for
example, Thailand, in the molecular typing of bacterial strains and correlating the
findings of these studies to flavour development during the production of the
fermented pork sausage, nham.
 The results of these analyses led to the development of three different defined starter
cultures which are currently used for the commercial production of products having
different flavour characteristics

GM starter cultures

 To date, no commercial GM micro-organisms that would be consumed as living

organisms exist.
 Products of industrial GM producer organisms are, however, widely used in food
processing and no major safety concerns have been raised against them.
 Rennet which is widely used as a starter in cheese production across the globe is
produced using GM bacteria.

Food additives and processing aids

Enzymes, amino acids, vitamins, organic acids, polyunsaturated fatty acids and certain
complex carbohydrates and flavouring agents used in food formulations are currently
produced using GM micro-organisms
National Agri-Food Biotechnology Institute (NABI)

 National Agri-Food Biotechnology Institute (NABI) is the first Agri-Food

Biotechnology Institute, established in India on 18th February 2010.
 The institute aims at catalysing the transformation of Agri – food sector in India.
 The institute has the vision to be a nodal organization for knowledge generation and
translational science leading to value added products based on Agri-food biotech
innovations.
 The main research focus of NABI is to harness biotechnological tools in the area of
Agriculture Biotechnology, Food and Nutritional Biotechnology so as to provide
sustainable and novel solutions towards quality food and nutrition.
 Activities undertaken at NABI under different areas includes,

1. Agricultural Biotechnology
2. Food and Nutritional Biotechnology
3. Human Resource Development
4. Meeting and Courses
5. Technology Transfer and Outreach

 The institute has developed strong linkages with National and International
organizations and industries.
 The institute is part of agri-food cluster in the “Knowledge City” of Mohali (Punjab)
along with its neighboring institutes.

 
Food Safety And Microbial Standards, Food Quality Standards,
 
Food safety and Microbial standards, Food quality standards
Food safety-Indicators of food microbial Quality and safety-Coliforms, Enterococci,
Bifidobacteria, Coliphages/Enteroviruses, predictive Microbiology/ Microbial modeling
Microbial Standards of Processed and preserved Foods
The Center for disease control (CDC) investigates each documented outbreak of food borne
disease and attempts to determine not only the specific microorganisms and foods involved
but also the events which led to the outbreak.
Indicators of Food Safety:
Microbial indicators are employed more often to assess food safety and sanitation than
quality. Ideally a food safety indicator should meet certain important criteria.

1. It should be easily and rapidly detectable

2. It should be easily distinguishable from other members of the food biota.
3. It should have a history of constant association with the pathogen whose presence it is
to indicate
4. It should always be present when the pathogen of concern is present
5. It should be an organism whose numbers ideally should correlate with those of the
pathogen of concern.
6. It should possesses growth requirements and a growth rate equaling or exceeding that
of the pathogen
7. It should have a die-off rate at least it parallels that of the pathogen and ideally
persists slightly longer than pathogen of concern.
8. It should be absent from foods that are free of the pathogen except perhaps at certain
minimum numbers.

HACCP (Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point) System

 HACCP is a system that should lead to the production of microbiologically safe foods
by analyzing for the hazards of raw materials-those that may appear throughout
processing and those that may occur from consumer abuse.
  It is a proactive, systematic approach to controlling food bome hazards.
 Although some classic approaches to food safety rely heavily on end product testing,
the HACCP system places emphasis on the quality of all ingredients and all process
steps on the premise that safe products will result if these are properly controlled.
 The system is thus designed to control organisms at the point of production and
preparation.

HACCP principles:
Although interpreted variously, the ICMSF and NACMCF view HACCP as a natural and
systematic approach to food safety and as consisting of the following seven principles:

1. Assess the hazards and risks associated with the growing, harvesting, raw materials,
ingredients, processing, manufacturing, distribution, marketing, preparation, and
consumption of the food in question.
 2. Determine the CCP(s) required controlling the identified hazards.
3. Establish the critical limits that must be met at each identified CCP.
4. Establish procedures to monitor the CCP(s).
5. Establish corrective actions to be taken when there is a deviation identified by
monitoring a given CCP.
6. Establish procedures for verification that the HACCP system is working correctly.
7. Establish effective record-keeping systems that document the HACCP plan.

Coli forms:

 Etiologic agent of cholera in 1885.

 Originally named as bacterium coli concerne because it was present in the stools of
each patient he examined.
 Schardinger – suggested the use of this organism as an index of fecal pollution.
Rapidly than individual water borne pathogens.
 A test for this organism as a measure of drinking water portability was suggested in
1895 by T. Smith.
 They produce metallic sheen on calories embager coliforms, citro bacter,
Enterobacter, klebsicela, Raoultella.
 IMVIC formula is the classic method used.

(I = Indole Production; M = Methyl red reaction; V = Voges – Proskauer reaction; C = Citrate

utilization)
Coliphages / Enterovinuses:

 Indirect indicators.
 A coli phage assay procedure for water samples that contain five or more phases /
100ml and that can be completed in 4-6 hours is described in “Standard methods for
the examination of water and waste water”

Bifidobacteria:
Tissier (1908) identified and named as Bacillus bifidus. Later it was named as Lacto bacillus
bifidus and contently known as Bifidobacterium bifidum.

 Commonly present in stools

 They are gram positive anaerobic bacteria as indicators of fecal pollution, especially
of waters.
  Some bifido bacteria are employed in the production of fermented milks, yogurt and
other food products and they are belived to provide some health benefits.
 Growth conditions – Temperature min 25-28°C and max 43-45°C and PH 5-8
 Produce lactic and acetic acids as the major end products of their carbohydrate
metabolism

Distribution:

 Found in human feces at higher lutes per gram (108 – 109 ) than E. coli (106 – 107 )
and this makes them more attractive as indicators of human fecal pollution.
 By using the bifide bacteria, it is possible to determine their origin among the
following three sources: human feces, animal feces or environmental conditions.
 Gavinietal (1991) devised the method to distinguish between human and animal
strains and it devides bifido bacteria into suten groups.
 Human origin belong to I, III and VII.
 B. adolescentis and B. longum are mount often isolated in highest numbers.

Coliform criteria and standards:

1. Grade A pasteurized milk & milk products including cultured products not over 10/ml
2. Certified raw milk not more 10/ml. Certified pasteurized milk not over 1/ml
3. Pre cooked & partially cooked frozen foods not over 10/ml
4. Crab meat not over 100/ml
5. Custard filled items not over 100/ml

IEMSF – International commission on the microbiological specifications for foods

Enterococci:
E. Faecalis (M. ovalis

 Pollution indicators for water:

1. They generally do not multiply in water especially if the organic matter

content is low.
2. They are generally less numerous in human feces than E.coli
3. The enterococci die off at a slower rate than coliformds in waters.
  E. Faccium present in hogs & wild boars, E. Faccalis present in feces of vanity
of mammals
 Grows at 10°C – 45°C
 PH – 9.6
 Mole % GTC – 37 – 45
 Enterococci are more fastidious in their nutritional requirements for more
growth factors
 Although they are aerobes but they do not produce catalise.

Predictive microbiology or Microbial modeling:

 Microbial modeling or predictive microbiology is a rapidly emerging sub discipline

that entails the use of mathematical models/equations to predict the growth and/or
activity of microorganisms in a food product over time.
 It is applied in heat process calculations in the canning of low acid foods, food
poisoning and food spoilage organisms by the use of more sophisticated mathematical
/ computer models that can handle more growth parameters.
 The effective applications of predictive microbiology require the selection of
appropriate to reflect the effect of growth parameters. Among the many models that
have been proposed and tested are two kinetic models – the non linear arrhenius and
Belebradek types.
 Non linear Arrhenius model is applied with the dependent variable expressed as in
(logarithm) rate latter square root model; the dependent variable is expressed as rate.
 Computer software packages for predictive microbiology are available from private
and commercial sources.
 One of the simplest applications of predictive microbiology is the use of Monte Carlo
simulation. Based on collected dates to predict shelf life/safety relative to changes in
environmental parameters such as PH, aw etc.

Food quality standards

 The present initiative of the government seeks to meet the requirements of the food
sector and is aimed at bringing together the proposed initiatives of the Ministry of
Food Processing Industry (MoFPI), as well as related schemes proposed by other
concerned ministries like the Ministry of Agriculture, Department of Commerce,
Ministry of Health, and Department of Consumer Affairs — all of which are directly
involved in the implementation of the Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006.
  The initiative has certain components.

Some of these are:

 Under the new scheme of upgradation of hygiene and quality of street food of the
Ministry, 10,000 street vendors across the nation would be identified, profiled and
steps taken to upgrade the safety and quality of their food. They would also be granted
quality certification on the basis of standards which have already been worked out by
the Ministry.
 Also, 10 food streets with ethnic cuisine will be identified, under which the majority
of stakeholders would be upgraded in terms of quality and hygiene, and support will
be given for creation of infrastructure such as drainage, water supply, lighting, etc., so
that these efforts result in more hygienic and safe conditions of food preparations.
 A protocol based on best international and trade standards would be prepared and
checks against the prepared protocol in HACCP certified units would be conducted.
The field protocol will be evaluated and companies graded into Platinum, Gold and
Silver categories.
 National and regional industry associations would be involved in identifying units and
launching a programme for capacity building through HACCP or ISO 22000 for the
food processing units who are members of their Organisations. Under this
programme, 10,000 units could be targeted, which would be taken up, profiled and
detailed programmes drawn up for upgradation and follow-up steps launched.
Certification would be achieved within a period of 18 months.
 50 food safety laboratories will be identified which would be benchmarked against
industry best practices and a plan of action drawn up for their upgradation. Steps will
be initiated to bring them up to best practice levels within the next two years.Good
Agricultural Practices (GAP) have already been identified as a thrust area for
improving traceability, hygiene and safety of food items. Across the country, 10,000
farmers would be identified (approximately 500 in each state) who would be taken in
a step by step process to achieve certification of GAP or for organic food. Viable
projects would be created so that the agri-horticultural produce from these farms is
marketed and the returns accrue to the farmers.
 The current Food Safety Standards under the Prevention of Food Adulteration Act
would be reviewed in consultation with stakeholders, and revised proposals would be
drawn up for consideration of the Central Food Authority.
 Along with the Quality Council of India, a brochure has been brought out on the food
safety issues faced by a housewife and safe practices required in the kitchen. The QCI
has also been roped in to introduce food safety issues in schools and proper teaching
material has been drawn up through an expert group.
 In addition, the QCI is also part of a project to publish a book on Indian cuisine and
its relation to cultural aspects. Alternatively, the best few books in the area of cuisine
and food will be identified and rewarded.

 To support the Indian food industry, there are certification bodies that offer solutions
to industry for certification, inspections and training.
 17025:2005 (NABL) accredited laboratories in our country are offering routine to
highly specialised testing, e.g. nutritional labelling test, chemical and microbiological
test, analysis of antibiotics and pesticide residues, heavy metals, vitamin estimations
and shelf life studies.
 The certification bodies offer NABCB, DAR, etc. accredited certifications for ISO
9K, 14K, 18K, 22K, HACCP, BRC Global Food & Packaging, IFS, Fami-QS, GMP+,
etc.
 The MoFPI has also chalked out a three-pronged strategy to attain food safety and
quality. While coordination between the various ministries and state governments tops
the list, the other moves include a global focus on the quality of food.
 Simply put, this only underscores that food safety and quality are of paramount
importance to sustain and increase the country’s food exports.
 While globalisation and the removal of tariff and non-tariff barriers have brought in
international competition to the domestic markets, it has prompted the Indian food
industry to adopt strong practices of food safety and quality in order to be
competitive.
 Also, it is important to note that improving food safety and quality has to be a
constant and continuous effort rather than a one-shot effort, and all stakeholders from
the government and its institutions, to the industry, spanning the entire food chain,
academic and research institutions, consumer bodies, and professionals in the field
have to be involved in it.
 Awareness, or rather the creation of it, is the only solution.
 The endeavour should be to include food safety and quality, as well as consumer
rights in the curriculum of schools so that future consumers will become aware of
their rights and demand the best quality food. Simultaneously, proper training
 programmes for food handlers working in the processing industries in their native
language are essential

What is Codex Alimentarius?

 The Codex Alimentarius is the food code that has become the global food standard for
consumer foods, food producers and processors, national food regulatory agencies and
international trade practices. The code has enormous impact and its influence extends
to every continent.
 The Codex Alimentarius Commission was created in 1963 by the UN Food and
Agricultural Organisation (FAO) and the World Health Organisation (WHO).
 It chalked out the blueprint to develop food standards, guidelines and related texts,
such as codes of practice, under the Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards Programme.
 The main purposes of this Programme are protecting health of the consumers and
ensuring fair trade practices in the food trade, and promoting coordination of all food
standards work undertaken by international governmental and non-governmental
organisations.
 Ever since its creation, the Commission coordinates all of the food standards work
done by international governmental and non-governmental organisations and makes
recommendations for compliance regulations.
 With the 1985 UN Resolution (39/248), the Codex became the guideline for
governments in developing and enforcing consumer protection policies around the
world. Various international trade agreements in the global food market have also
called for complying with the Codex.
 Its standards have also become the benchmarks against which food regulations are
evaluated within the legal parameters of WHO agreements. The reach of the Codex,
however, has changed over the years.
 The Codex system has presented a unique opportunity for all countries to join the
international community in formulating and harmonising food standards and ensuring
their global implementation.
 It also allows them a role in the development of codes governing hygienic processing
practices and recommendations relating to compliance with those standards.
 The Codex Alimentarius is not the only product of the Codex Alimentarius
Commission. Its scientific mission has become as influential.
 It establishes the scientific standards for food quality and safety, food production,
labeling laws, food legislation and food regulations.
  Its scientific reviews and science- based efforts bring together experts and specialists
from a wide range of disciplines “to ensure that its standards withstand the most
rigorous scientific scrutiny.”
 The WHO and the FAO point out that the work of the Codex Alimentarius
Commission has provided a focal point for foodrelated scientific research and
investigation, and the Commission itself has become an important international
medium for the exchange of scientific information about food.

 Food laws and regulations

 Until recently, effectiveness of food control in the Indian domestic market was found
to be severely undermined by the existence of multiple jurisdictions, and weaknesses
in surveillance, monitoring and enforcement.
 Several of these food laws were enacted under different ministries in India that had
their own rules and orders, which created a perplex and sometime contradictory
environment for the food business sector.
 Thus, despite a notable list of food legislations, not much could be achieved in terms
of food safety and consumers’ protection in the country.
 In the second quarter of 2006, the country witnessed a new initiative of enactment of
the latest Act, ‘the Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006, under the Ministry of Health
and Family Welfare that integrates the existing eight food laws.
 It brings about one statute under a single apex regulatory authority known as Food
Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) with minor revisions, while adding
the key provisions to further strengthen food safety regulation.
 The Central Government notifies Food Safety and Standards Rules,2011 on May 5,
2011. This new initiative lays down science-based standards for better food quality
control.
 The Act is based on international legislations, instrumentalities and Codex
Alimentarius Commission.
 It is divided in 12 chapters containing 101 sections and two schedules that provide
key provisions to improve food safety in primary food from production to
consumption

FOOD SAFETY AND STANDARDS ACT, 2006

An Act to consolidate the laws relating to food and to establish the Food Safety and
Standards Authority of India for laying down science based standards for articles of food and
to regulate their manufacture, storage, distribution, sale and import, to ensure availability of
safe and wholesome food for human consumption and for matters connected therewith or
incidental thereto.
Establishment of Food Safety and Standards Authority of India

1. The Central Government shall, by notification, establish a body to be known as the

Food Safety and Standards Authority of India to exercise the powers conferred on,
and to perform the functions assigned to, it under this Act.
2. The Food Authority shall be a body corporate by the name aforesaid, having perpetual
succession and a seal with power to acquire, hold and dispose of property, both
movable and immovable, and to contract and shall, by the said name, sue or be sued.
3. The head office of the Food Authority shall be at Delhi.
4. The Food Authority may establish its offices at any other place in India.

Duties and functions of Food Authority

 It shall be the duty of the Food Authority to regulate and monitor the manufacture,
processing, distribution, sale and import of food so as to ensure safe and wholesome
food.
 Without prejudice to the provisions of sub-section (1),the Food Authority may by
regulations specify
 The standards and guidelines in relation to articles of food and specifying an
appropriate system for enforcing various standards notified under this Act;
 The limits for use of food additives, crop contaminants, pesticide residues,
residues of veterinary drugs, heavy metals, processing aids, myco-toxins,
antibiotics and pharmacological active substances and irradiation of food;
 The mechanisms and guidelines for accreditation of certification bodies
engaged in certification of food safety management systems for food
businesses;
 The procedure and the enforcement of quality control in relation to any article
of food imported into India;
 The procedure and guidelines for accreditation of laboratories and notification
of the accredited laboratories;

The method of sampling, analysis and exchange of information among enforcement

authorities;

 Conduct survey of enforcement and administration of this Act in the country;

  Food labelling standards including claims on health, nutrition, special dietary uses and
food category systems for foods;
 The manner in which and the procedure subject to which risk analysis, risk
assessment, risk communication and risk management shall be undertaken.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF FOOD SAFETY

The Central Government, the State Governments, the Food Authority and other agencies, as
the case may be, while implementing the provisions of this Act shall be guided by the
following principles namely:-

1. Endeavour to achieve an appropriate level of protection of human life and health and
the protection of consumer’s interests, including fair practices in all kinds of food
trade with reference to food safety standards and practices;
2. Carry out risk management which shall include taking into account the results of risk
assessment and other factors which in the opinion of the Food Authority are relevant
to the matter under consideration and where the conditions are relevant, in order to
achieve the general objectives of regulations;
3. Where in any specific circumstances, on the basis of assessment of available
information, the possibility of harmful effects on health is identified but scientific
uncertainty persists, provisional risk management measures necessary to ensure
appropriate level of health protection may be adopted, 21 pending further scientific
information for a more comprehensive risk assessment;
4. The measures adopted on the basis of clause
5. Shall be proportionate and no more restrictive of trade than is required to achieve
appropriate level of health protection, regard being had to technical and economic
feasibility and other factors regarded as reasonable and proper in the matter under
consideration;
6. The measures adopted shall be reviewed within a reasonable period of time,
depending on the nature of the risk to life or health being identified and the type of
scientific information needed to clarify the scientific uncertainty and to conduct a
more comprehensive risk assessment;
7. In cases where there are reasonable grounds to suspect that a food may present a risk
for human health, then, depending on the nature, seriousness and extent of that risk,
the Food Authority and the Commissioner of Food Safety shall take appropriate steps
to inform the general public of the nature of the risk to health, identifying to the
fullest extent possible the food or type of food, the risk that it may present, and the
 measures which are taken or about to be taken to prevent, reduce or eliminate that
risk; and
8. Where any food which fails to comply with food safety requirements is part of a
batch, lot or consignment of food of the same class or description, it shall be
presumed until the contrary is proved, that all of the food in that batch, lot or
consignment fails to comply with those requirements.

GENERAL POVISIONS AS TO ARTICLES OF FOOD

Use of food additive or processing aid

 No article of food shall contain any food additive or processing aid unless it is in
accordance with the provisions of this Act and regulations made thereunder.
 Explanation– For the purposes of this section, “processing aid” means any substance
or material, not including apparatus or utensils, and not consumed as a food ingredient
by itself, used in the processing of raw materials, foods or its ingredients to fulfil a 23
certain technological purpose during treatment or processing and which may result in
the non-intentional but unavoidable presence of residues or derivatives in the final
product.

Contaminants, naturally occurring toxic substances, heavy metals, etc

No article of food shall contain any contaminant, naturally occurring toxic substances or
toxins or hormone or heavy metals in excess of such quantities as may be specified by
regulations.
Pesticides, veterinary drugs residues, antibiotic residues and microbiological counts

1. No article of food shall contain insecticides or pesticides residues, veterinary drugs

residues, antibiotic residues, solvent residues, pharmacological active substances and
micro-biological counts in excess of such tolerance limit as may be specified by
regulations.
2. No insecticide shall be used directly on article of food except fumigants registered
and approved under the Insecticides Act, 1968 (46 of 1968)

Genetically modified foods, organic foods, functional foods, proprietary foods, etc
Save as otherwise provided under this Act and regulations made thereunder, no person shall
manufacture, distribute, sell or import any novel food, genetically modified articles of food,
irradiated food, organic foods, foods for special dietary uses, functional foods,
neutraceuticals, health supplements, proprietary foods and such other articles of food which
the Central Government may notify in this behalf.
Packaging and labelling of foods

1. No person shall manufacture, distribute, sell or expose for sale or despatch or deliver
to any agent or broker for the purpose of sale, any packaged food products which are
not marked and labelled in the manner as may be specified by regulations: Provided
that the labels shall not contain any statement, claim, design or device which is false
or misleading in any particular concerning the food products contained in the package
or concerning the quantity or the nutritive value implying medicinal or therapeutic
claims or in relation to the place of origin of the said food products.
2. Every food business operator shall ensure that the labelling and presentation of food,
including their shape, appearance or packaging, the packaging materials used, the
manner in which they are arranged and the setting in which they are displayed, and
the information which is made available about them through whatever medium, does
not mislead consumers.

Restrictions of advertisement and prohibition as to unfair trade practices

1. No advertisement shall be made of any food which is misleading or deceiving or

contravenes the provisions of this Act, the rules and regulations made thereunder.
2. No person shall engage himself in any unfair trade practice for purpose of promoting
the sale, supply, use and consumption of articles of food or adopt any unfair or
deceptive practice including the practice of making any statement, whether orally or
in writing or by visible representation which –

1. falsely represents that the foods are of a particular standard, quality, quantity or grade-
composition;
2. makes a false or misleading representation concerning the need for, or the usefulness;
3. gives to the public any guarantee of the efficacy that is not based on an adequate or
scientific justification thereof:
Provided that where a defence is raised to the effect that such guarantee is based on adequate
or scientific justification, the burden of proof of such defence shall lie on the person raising
such defence.
 
PROVISIONS RELATING TO IMPORT
All imports of articles of food to be subject to this Act.
No person shall import into India –

1. any unsafe or misbranded or sub-standard food or food containing extraneous matter;

2. any article of food for the import of which a licence is required under any Act or rules
or regulations, except in accordance with the conditions of the licence; and

Any article of food in contravention of any other provision of this Act or of any rule or
regulation made thereunder or any other Act.
The Central Government shall, while prohibiting, restricting or otherwise regulating import
of article of food under the Foreign Trade (Development and Regulation) Act, 1992 (22 of
1992), follow the standards laid down by the Food Authority under the provisions of this Act
and the Rules and regulations made there under.

SPECIAL RESPONSIBILITIES AS TO FOOD SAFETY

Responsibilities of the Food business operator

1. Every food business operator shall ensure that the articles of food satisfy the
requirements of this Act and the rules and regulations made there under at all stages
of production, processing, import, distribution and sale within the businesses under
his control.
2. No food business operator shall himself or by any person on his behalf manufacture,
store, sell or distribute any article of food
3. which is unsafe; or
4. which is misbranded or sub-standard or contains extraneous matter; or
5. for which a licence is required, except in accordance with the conditions of the
licence; or
6. which is for the time being prohibited by the Food Authority or the Central
Government or the State Government in the interest of public health; or
 7. In contravention of any other provision of this Act or of any rule or regulation made
there under.

2. No food business operator shall employ any person who is suffering from infectious,
contagious or loathsome disease.
3. No food business operator shall sell or offer for sale any article of food to any vendor
unless he also gives a guarantee in writing in the form specified by regulations about
the nature and quality of such article to the vendor: Provided that a bill, cash memo,
or invoice in respect of the sale of any article of food given by a food business
operator to the vendor shall be deemed to be a guarantee under this section, even if a
guarantee in the specified form is not included in the bill, cash memo or invoice.
4. Where any food which is unsafe is part of a batch, lot or consignment of food of the
same class or description, it shall be presumed that all the food in that batch, lot or
consignment is also unsafe, unless following a detailed assessment within a specified
time, it is found that there is no evidence that the rest of the batch, lot or consignment
is unsafe.

Liability of the manufacturers, packers, wholesalers, distributors and sellers

1. The manufacturer or packer of an article of food shall be liable for such article of food
if it does not meet the requirements of this Act and the rules and regulations made
there under.
2. The wholesaler or distributor shall be liable under this Act for any article of food
which is
1. Supplied after the date of its expiry; or
2. Stored or supplied in violation of the safety instructions of the manufacturer;
or
3. Unsafe or misbranded; or
4. Unidentifiable of manufacturer from whom the article of food have been
received; or
5. Stored or handled or kept in violation of the provisions of this Act, the rules
and regulations made thereunder; or
 6. received by him with knowledge of being unsafe
3. The seller shall be liable under this Act for any article of food which is
1. sold after the date of its expiry; or
2. handled or kept in unhygienic conditions; or
3. misbranded; or
4. unidentifiable of the manufacturer or the distributors from whom such articles
of food were received; or
5. received by him with knowledge of being unsafe

ANALYSIS OF FOOD
Recognition and accreditation of laboratories, research institutions and referral food
laboratory

1. The Food Authority may notify food laboratories and research institutions accredited
by National Accreditation Board for Testing and Calibration Laboratories or any other
accreditation agency for the purposes of carrying out analysis of samples by the Food
Analysts under this Act.
2. The Food Authority shall, establish or recognise by notification, one or more referral
food laboratory or laboratories to carry out the functions entrusted to the referral food
laboratory by this Act or any rules and regulations made thereunder.
3. The Food Authority may frame regulations specifying –
1. The functions of food laboratory and referral food laboratory and the local
area or areas within which such functions may be carried out;

The procedure for submission to the said laboratory of samples of articles of food for analysis
or tests, the forms of the laboratory’s reports thereon and the fees payable in respect of such
reports; and
Such other matters as may be necessary or expedient to enable the said laboratory to carry out
its functions effectively.
Recognition of organisation or agency for food safety audit
The Food Authority may recognise any organisation or agency for the purposes of food safety
audit and checking compliance with food safety management systems required under this Act
or the rules and regulations made thereunder.
OFFENCES AND PENALTIES
Penalty for selling food not of the nature or substance or quality demanded
Any person who sells to the purchaser’s prejudice any food which is not in compliance with
the provisions of this Act or the regulations made thereunder, or of the nature or substance or
quality demanded by the purchaser, shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding five lakh
rupees.
Penalty for sub-standard food
Any person who whether by himself or by any other person on his behalf manufactures for
sale or stores or sells or distributes or imports any article of food for human consumption
which is sub-standard, shall be liable to a penalty which may extend to five lakh rupees.
Penalty for misbranded food

1. Any person who whether by himself or by any other person on his behalf
manufactures for sale or stores or sells or distributes or imports any article of food for
human consumption which is misbranded, shall be liable to a penalty which may
extend to three lakh rupees.
2. The Adjudicating Officer may issue a direction to the person found guilty of an
offence under this section, for taking corrective action to rectify the mistake or such
article of food shall be destroyed.

Penalty for food containing extraneous matter

Any person whether by himself or by any other person on his behalf manufactures for sale or
stores or sells or distributes or imports any article of food for human consumption containing
extraneous matter, shall be liable to a penalty which may extend to one lakh rupees.

Penalty for misleading advertisement

1. Any person who publishes, or is a party to the publication of an advertisement, which

(a) falsely describes any food; or (b) is likely to mislead as to the nature or substance
or quality of any food or gives false guarantee, shall be liable to a penalty which may
extend to ten lakh rupees.
2. In any proceeding the fact that a label or advertisement relating to any article of food
in respect of which the contravention is alleged to have been committed contained an
accurate statement of the composition of the food shall not preclude the court from
finding that the contravention was committed.

Penalty for failure to comply with the directions of Food Safety Officer
If a food business operator or importer without reasonable ground, fails to comply with the
requirements of this Act or the rules or regulations or orders issued thereunder, as directed by
the Food Safety Officer, he shall be liable to a penalty which may extend to two lakh rupees.
Penalty for unhygienic or unsanitary processing or manufacturing of food
Any person who, whether by himself or by any other person on his behalf, manufactures or
processes any article of food for human consumption under unhygienic or unsanitary
conditions, shall be liable to a penalty which may extend to one lakh rupees
Punishment for false information
If a person, in connection with a requirement or direction under this Act, provides any
information or produces any document that the person knows is false or misleading, he shall
be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to three months and also with
fine which may extend to two lakh rupees.
Punishment for carrying out a business without licence
If any person or food business operator (except the persons exempted from licensing under
sub-section (2) of section 31 of this Act), himself or by any person on his behalf who is
required to obtain licence, manufacturers, sells, stores or distributes or imports any article of
food without licence, shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to
six months and also with a fine which may extend to five lakh rupees.
 

Recent trends in organic farming and farm mechanization

organic farming
Organic farming also known as ecological agriculture8 or biodynamic agriculture,9 works in
harmony with nature i.e. the agricultural practices followed in organic agriculture do not
cause any harm to the environment. Due to eco-friendly nature of the organic farming it is
considered as an viable alternative in comparison to chemical based farming, in a scenario
where excessive use of chemical based fertilizers and pesticides have raised the concerns for
ecotoxicity and health hazards. Nutrient management in organic agriculture is based on
agronomic practices like crop rotations, soil fertility building via nitrogen and nutrient
recycling using organic material like crop residues, farmyard manure and minimization of use
of chemical based fertilizers.Control of pest populations in organic farming relies on use of
resistant crops, crop rotation, increase in predators for natural control of the pests and
increase in genetic diversity along with the judicious use of water resources and animal
husbandry.
While extensive use of pesticides and fertilisers increase crop production, they also create the
burning issues relevant to food quality. That’s why, the modern world has begun to focus on
food quality not quantity, and is shifting towards organic agriculture.
Organic agriculture is a holistic production management system which promotes and
improves health of agro ecosystem including biodiversity, biological cycles, and soil
biological activity.Organic fertilisers include animal and green manure, fish and bone meal,
and compost.
And the organic pest management focuses on prevention through such method as: growing
resistant varieties of crops and in the proper season of the variety; improving soil health to
resist soil pathogens and promote plant growth; rotating crops; encouraging natural biological
agents for control of disease, insects and weeds; using physical barriers for protection from
insects, birds and animals; modifying habitat to encourage pollinators and natural enemies of
pests etc.
Today, insect pest management in organic agriculture involves the adoption of scientifically
based and ecologically sound strategies as specified by the international and national organic
production standards. These include a ban on synthetic insecticides and, more recently, on
growing curbs on genetically modified organisms (GMOs).
The General Assembly of the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements
has approved four principles of organic agriculture: health, ecology, fairness and care.
Principles apply to agriculture in the broadest sense, including the way people tend soils,
water, plants and animals in order to produce, prepare and distribute goods. They are
concerned the way people interact with living landscapes, relate to one another and shape the
legacy of future generations. Each principle is followed by an action oriented explanation.
Various techniques are utilised for farming organically, some extensively, others rarely.
Biodynamic farming stress biological methods in regard to humane treatment of animals,
food quality and soil health (such as green manures, cover crops and composting).
The other method is natural farming. There is no water, no pesticide, no fertiliser and no
herbicide utilisation except seed sowing. It is also known as ecological farming solely
established by a Japanese farmer. Another farming practice is principally ‘bio intensive,’
which uses low energy input, fosters healthy soils, and conserves space, while maximising
yields and increasing sustainability. Some others are permaculture, no-tilling and holistic
management etc.
The issue has also to be seen in the context of gross domestic product (GDP) which is
supposed to measure the wealth of nations and has emerged as the dominant concept in our
times. However, economic growth hides the poverty it creates through the destruction of
nature, which, in turn, tends to deprive communities of the capacity to provide livelihood for
themselves.
Organic products are usually more expensive than ‘conventional’ agricultural products
because there is an ‘extra cost’, called ‘organic premium’ to be paid in addition to the
‘reference price’. Some of the key factors that make organic products expensive include
health and nutritional concerns, superior taste, food-safety concerns, and environmental
friendliness. Consumer’s willingness to pay more represents a price premium for
environmental quality and health.
However, when a farmer starts organic farming, the land, soil and the environment is not as
good as it should be. With the organic farming practices over time, the land and environment
becomes poison-free and totally healthy for growing of healthy crops, and farmer also
acquires experience of organic farming.
So, on the start of almost fifth year, organic farming gives outcomes comparable with modern
synthetic agricultural practices. If we critically compare the inputs, we come to know, as no
synthetic fertiliser and pesticide is added, the organic farming requires less cost. On the other
hand, due to its premium quality, it is sold at 3-4 times higher prices than other produces and
farmers earn 3-4 times more profit.
Farm mechanization
The agriculture sector in India has witnessed a considerable decline in the use of animal and
human power in agriculture related activities. The trend has paved a way for a range of
agricultural tools. A large number of these are driven by fossil fuel operated Though, farm
mechanization in India stands at about 40%-45%, which is still low when compared to
countries such as the U.S. (95%), Brazil (75%) and China (57%). While the level of
mechanization lags behind other developed countries, it has seen strong growth through the
last decade.The farm power availability on Indian farms has grown from 1.47 kW/ha in 2005-
06 to 2.02 kW/ha in 2013-14.
In India, the level of mechanization varies greatly by region. States in the north such as
Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh have high level of mechanization due to the highly
productive land in the region as well as a declining labor force. The state governments in
these states have also provided timely support in promoting mechanization of farms.
 Safe drinking water
Safe Drinking and Supply

 Safe drinking water is the birthright of all humankind – as much a birthright as clean
air.
  The majority of the world’s population, however, does not have access to safe
drinking water. This is certainly true in most parts of Africa and Asia. Even in
relatively advanced countries such as India, safe drinking water is not readily
available, particularly in rural areas.
 One reason safe drinking water is of paramount concern is that 75 percent of all
diseases in developing countries arise from polluted drinking water.
 Knowledge about how to make water safe for consumption is rare in most developing
countries.
 We simply must do a better job of raising public awareness and understanding about
the nature of the problem and the technologies and strategies that are available to
address it.

Background

 Safe drinking water is a human birthright – as much a birthright as clean air.

However, much of the world’s population does not have access to safe drinking water.
Of the 6 billion people on earth, more than one billion (one in six) lack access to safe
drinking water.
 Moreover, about 2.5 billion (more than one in three) do not have access to adequate
sanitation services. Together, these shortcomings spawn waterborne diseases that kill
on average more than 6 million children each year (about 20,000 children a day).
Water covers 70 percent of the globe’s surface, but most is saltwater.
 Freshwater covers only 3 percent of the earth’s surface and much of it lies frozen in
the Antarctic and Greenland polar ice.
 Freshwater that is available for human consumption comes from rivers, lakes and
underground sources and aquifers. Together these sources account for just 1 percent
of all water on earth. Six billion people depend on this supply and a significant
portion of the world’s population now face water shortages.

Ways to save and replenish

 We must meet the world’s growing demand for freshwater.

 However, we must do so with limited financial resources and with practices that
minimize ecological disruption.
 An analysis of the situation suggests that our goals can be reached. Experts have
proposed a four-fold path towards a viable solution for making water both potable and
safe:
  Seek new sources
 Save and redistribute supplies
 Reduce demand
 Recycle
 Some of these approaches are global in nature, while others are regional, national,
local and even family-specific.
 These efforts will ultimately succeed only when we empower people with the
knowledge and means to address the issue on their own.

Individuals and communities Role in Safe Water

Efforts need not be left solely to governmental and nongovernmental agencies. Individuals,
families and communities also have a vital role to play. Such responsibilities include:

1. Water harvesting at home, schools and community buildings

2. Water recycling at the microlevel, including at homes, buildings and communities
3. Saving water by ensuring taps and pipes are not leaky and by using optimum amounts
of water for washing and toilet flushing
4. Making sure that the water is purified by methods suited to family conditions and
needs
5. Maintaining proper levels of sanitation at home

Private industry and nongovernmental organizations role in Safe Drinking Water SUpply
Many countries – for example, India, Indonesia, Kenya, and Nepal – have active
nongovernmental organizations that involve communities in the funding and implementation
of programmes designed to transform arid and semiarid terrains into productive agricultural
regions receiving sufficient amounts of water. Such efforts should be expanded by:

 Exchanging information among and between industry and nongovernmental

organizations on relevant and novel methods and strategies
 Focusing on sociological factors that may have an impact on the most suitable
technologies and programmes for a given region/ community
 Ensuring equity in both services and benefits
 Involving communities in all aspects of water harvesting, recycling, storage,
purification and supply
 Coordinating efforts among governmental and intergovernmental sectors for the
purposes of achieving harmonious processes and results.
Various Initiatives by Ministry of Drinking Water
The National Rural Drinking Water Programme (NRDWP)

 The National Rural Drinking Water Programme (NRDWP) is a centrally sponsored

scheme aimed at providing adequate and safe drinking water to the rural population of
the country.
 The NRDWP is a component of Bharat Nirman which focuses on the creation of rural
infrastructure.
 This has resulted in the provision of significant additional resources to the sector and
for creating an environment for the development of infrastructure and capacities for
the successful operation of drinking water supply schemes in rural areas.

Bharat Nirman

 Bharat Nirman was launched by the Government of India in 2005 as a programme to

build rural infrastructure.
 While Phase-I of the programme was implemented in the period 2005-06 to 2008-09,
the Phase-II was implemented from 2009-10 to 2011-12. Rural drinking water is one
of the six components of Bharat Nirman.
 Funds provided under the NRDWP are counted towards the Bharat Nirman also and
no additional funds are provided under Bharat Nirman

Scheme for providing safe drinking water supply through community water purification
plants in fluoride, arsenic, uranium and other heavy/toxic metals and pesticide/fertilizer
affected rural habitations in the country

 The National Rural Drinking Water Programme (NRDWP) funds for supplying “safe”
water in contaminated areas are being utilized by the States as a policy mostly for
alternate safe Piped Water Supply (PWS) schemes including Multivillage schemes
(MVS) (i. e., from far away safe sources) the gestation period of such MVS projects is
about 4-5 years.
 Since the rural people cannot be put to risk due to consumption of unsafe drinking
water in the interim period as also whereas all such Multi-Village Schemes carrying
safe water from far away sources cannot be planned and completed in the span of 4-5
years due to huge funds involved, hence, the Ministry of Drinking Water & Sanitation
has submitted an EFC proposal to provide community water purification plants in
fluoride, arsenic, uranium and other heavy/toxic metals and pesticide/fertilizer
 affected rural habitations in the country for providing safe drinking water immediately
with an anticipated expenditure of total capital cost of Rs 3,600 crore with fund
sharing pattern of 75:25 (90:10 in case of NE, J&K) between Centre and State in
approx 20,000 habitations during the period 2014-15 to 2016-17.

Combined Water Supply Schemes (CWSS)

 Combined Water Supply Schemes are being implemented where more than one local
body, either rural or urban with a common source of water supply is involved with
financial assistance under the Minimum Needs Programme, National Rural Drinking
Water Programme and with funding from financial institutions like TUFIDCO,
TNUIFSL, NABARD and Asian Development Bank.
 During 2009 – 10 combined water supply schemes have been completed to benefit
4352 rural habitations and 41 towns at a cost of Rs. 795.04 crores. Presently Board is
maintaining 422 CWSS in the state to serve 10,101 habitations benefiting populations
of 131.59 lakhs which is about 20 percent of the state population
 Defluoridation and other Techniques of water purification
 Defluoridation and other Techniques of water purification
 Defluoridation
 Defluoridation is the downward adjustment of the level of fluoride in drinking water.
Worldwide, fluoride is one of the most abundant anions present in groundwater.
Fluoride is more present in groundwater than surface water mainly due to the leaching
of minerals. Groundwater accounts for 98 percent of the earth’s potable water. An
excess of fluoride in drinking water causes dental fluorosis and skeletal fluorosis. The
World Health Organization has recommended a guideline value of 1.5 mg/L as the
concentration above which dental fluorosis is likely. Fluorosis is endemic in more
than 20 developed and developing nations.
 Defluoridation of groundwater using brick powder as an adsorbent was studied in
batch process. Different parameters of adsorption, viz. effect of pH, effect of dose and
contact time were selected and optimized for the study. Feasible optimum conditions
were applied to two groundwater samples of high fluoride concentration to study the
suitability of adsorbent in field conditions. Comparison of adsorption by brick powder
was made with adsorption by commercially available activated charcoal. In the
optimum condition of pH and dose of adsorbents, the percentage defluoridation from
synthetic sample, increased from 29.8 to 54.4% for brick powder and from 47.6 to
80.4% for commercially available activated charcoal with increasing the contact time
 starting from 15 to 120 min. Fluoride removal was found to be 48.73 and 56.4% from
groundwater samples having 3.14 and 1.21 mg l−1 fluoride, respectively, under the
optimized conditions. Presence of other ions in samples did not significantly affect the
deflouridation efficiency of brick powder. The optimum pH range for brick powder
was found to be 6.0–8.0 and adsorption equilibrium was found to be 60 min. These
conditions make it very suitable for use in drinking water treatment. Deflouridation
capacity of brick powder can be explained on the basis of the chemical interaction of
fluoride with the metal oxides under suitable pH conditions. The adsorption process
was found to follow first order rate mechanism as well as Freundlich isotherm.
  
 Boiling
 Boiling water is the cheapest and safest method of water purification. Water sources
and or channels of distribution may render your water unsafe. For example, parasites
and germs are things you may not see by bare eyes, but their effects can be life
threatening.
 In this method, clean water should be brought to boil and left at rolling-boil for 1-3
minutes. For people living in high altitude areas, it is recommended to boil your water
for longer than water boiled at lower altitudes. This is because water boils at lower
temperatures in higher altitudes. Boiled water should be covered and left to cool
before drinking. For water drawn from wells, leave it for compounds to settle before
you filter out clean water for use.
 Filtration
 Filtration is one of the effective ways of purifying water and when using the right
multimedia filters it’s effective in ridding water of the compounds. This method uses
chemical and physical processes to purify water and make it safe for human
consumption. Filtration eliminates both large compounds and small, dangerous
contaminants that cause diseases with a simple and quick filtration process.. Since
filtration does not deplete all the mineral salts, water that has been filtered is
considered healthier compared to water purified using other methods. It’s one of the
effective water purification methods that utilize chemical absorption process that
effectively removes unwanted compounds from water.
 Compared to reverse osmosis, filtration is considered effective when it comes to
selective elimination of much smaller molecular compounds such as chlorine and
pesticides. The other factor that makes filtration less costly is that it does not require a
lot of energy needed in distillation and reverse osmosis. It is an economic method of
water purification because little water is lost during purification.
   
 Distillation
 Distillation is a water purification method that utilizes heat to collect pure water in the
form of vapor. This method is effective by the scientific fact that water has a lower
boiling point than other contaminants and disease-causing elements found in water.
Water is subjected to a heat source until it attains its boiling point. It is then left at the
boiling point until it vaporizes. This vapor is directed into a condenser to cool. Upon
cooling, vapor is reversed into liquid water that is clean and safe for drinking. Other
substances that have a higher boiling point are left as sediments in the container.
 This method is effective in removing bacteria, germs, salts and other heavy metals
such as lead, mercury and arsenic. Distillation is ideal for people who have access to
raw, untreated water. This method has both advantages and disadvantages. A notable
disadvantage is that it is a slow process of water purification. In addition, it requires a
heat source for the purification to work. Although cheap sources of energy are being
developed, distillation remains a costly process of purifying water. It is only ideal
(effective and least costly) when purifying small quantities of water (It is not ideal for
large scale, commercial or industrial purification).
 Chlorination
 Chlorine is a powerful chemical that has been in use for many years to treat water for
home consumption. Chlorine is an effective water purification method that kills
germs, parasites and other disease-causing organisms found in ground or tap water.
Water can be purified using chlorine tablets or liquid chlorine. As an off-the-shelf
water purification product, chlorine is cheap and effective. However, caution should
be taken when using chlorine liquid or tablets to treat drinking water. For example,
people suffering from thyroid problems should talk to a medical practitioner before
using this product. When using chlorine tablets, it is important to apply them in heated
water, as they dissolve well in water that is at 21 degree Celsius or higher. Chlorine
tablets kill all bacteria leaving your water clean and safe.
 If you are looking for the best ways of treating your water, Schultz Soft Water is your
best source of advice on best water purification methods and custom solutions to your
water purification needs. Reverse osmosis is the best option, whereas filtering is good
for basic water tasks such as sediment and chlorine removal. Reverse osmosis covers
a larger spectrum of contaminant removal.
  
Microbial infections
Microorganisms
Microscopic organisms, commonly known as microorganisms or microbes, are found all
around us and even inside our bodies. The category ‘Microbes’ includes a massive range of
organisms including bacteria, fungi, viruses, algae, archaea and protozoa. Some of these, such
as bacteria and fungi, are well known, but others such as archaea much less so.
The vast majority of microbes on the earth pose no real threat to humans, plants or animals;
in fact they actually work alongside humans to make world go round, aiding decomposition,
decay and even helping us to digest our food. However, there are some microorganisms
which negatively impact our lives, causing illness, bad odours and damaging products and
surfaces. Some of the names we regularly hear in the media are Salmonella, E.Coli, MRSA,
Malaria and Bird flu.
common bacteria
The types of bacteria prevalent in an environment are determined by several factors.
However, bacteria are found in every habitable place on earth. They survive in soil, rocks,
oceans, volcanoes, and even arctic snow. Some have been found living in or on other
organisms including plants, animals, and humans. The common types of bacteria found in
buildings are not harmful when in low numbers. However, just like with mold, elevated
levels of bacteria particularly the gram negative type are potentially a health hazard.
Some types of bacteria in buildings are brought in with occupants and with outdoor air.
Others are human-gut-associated bacteria such as Lactobacillus, Staphylococcus and
Clostridium. These types of bacteria are most common in bathroom environment. Research
has shown that the types of bacteria in a building are also influenced by the type of
ventilation, i.e., mechanically or naturally ventilated. For example, naturally ventilated
buildings are associated with more plant- and soil-associated bacteria while mechanically
ventilated buildings are likely to be dominated by human-associated bacteria.
Virus
Virus, an infectious agent of small size and simple composition that can multiply only in
living cells of animals, plants, or bacteria. The name is from a Latin word meaning “slimy
liquid” or “poison.”
The earliest indications of the biological nature of viruses came from studies in 1892 by the
Russian scientist Dmitry I. Ivanovsky and in 1898 by the Dutch scientist Martinus W.
Beijerinck. Beijerinck first surmised that the virus under study was a new kind of infectious
agent, which he designated contagium vivum fluidum, meaning that it was a live, reproducing
organism that differed from other organisms. Both of these investigators found that a disease
of tobacco plants could be transmitted by an agent, later called tobacco mosaic virus, passing
through a minute filter that would not allow the passage of bacteria. This virus and those
subsequently isolated would not grow on an artificial medium and were not visible under the
light microscope. In independent studies in 1915 by the British investigator Frederick W.
Twort and in 1917 by the French Canadian scientist Félix H. d’Hérelle, lesions in cultures of
bacteria were discovered and attributed to an agent called bacteriophage (“eater of bacteria”),
now known to be viruses that specifically infect bacteria.

Diagram showing different kinds of viruses illustration

The unique nature of these organisms meant that new methods and alternative models had to
be developed to study and classify them. The study of viruses confined exclusively or largely
to humans, however, posed the formidable problem of finding a susceptible animal host. In
1933 the British investigators Wilson Smith, Christopher H. Andrewes, and Patrick P.
Laidlaw were able to transmit influenza to ferrets, and the influenza virus was subsequently
adapted to mice. In 1941 the American scientist George K. Hirst found that influenza virus
grown in tissues of the chicken embryo could be detected by its capacity to agglutinate (draw
together) red blood cells.
A significant advance was made by the American scientists John Enders, Thomas Weller, and
Frederick Robbins, who in 1949 developed the technique of culturing cells on glass surfaces;
cells could then be infected with the viruses that cause polio (poliovirus) and other diseases.
(Until this time, the poliovirus could be grown only in the brains of chimpanzees or the spinal
cords of monkeys.) Culturing cells on glass surfaces opened the way for diseases caused by
viruses to be identified by their effects on cells (cytopathogenic effect) and by the presence of
antibodies to them in the blood. Cell culture then led to the development and production of
vaccines (preparations used to elicit immunity against a disease) such as the poliovirus
vaccine.
Scientists were soon able to detect the number of bacterial viruses in a culture vessel by
measuring their ability to break apart (lyse) adjoining bacteria in an area of bacteria (lawn)
overlaid with an inert gelatinous substance called agar—viral action that resulted in a
clearing, or “plaque.” The American scientist Renato Dulbecco in 1952 applied this technique
to measuring the number of animal viruses that could produce plaques in layers of adjoining
animal cells overlaid with agar. In the 1940s the development of the electron microscope
permitted individual virus particles to be seen for the first time, leading to the classification of
viruses and giving insight into their structure.
Advancements that have been made in chemistry, physics, and molecular biology since the
1960s have revolutionized the study of viruses. For example, electrophoresis on gel substrates
gave a deeper understanding of the protein and nucleic acid composition of viruses. More-
sophisticated immunologic procedures, including the use of monoclonal antibodies directed
to specific antigenic sites on proteins, gave a better insight into the structure and function of
viral proteins. The progress made in the physics of crystals that could be studied by X-ray
diffraction provided the high resolution required to discover the basic structure of minute
viruses. Applications of new knowledge about cell biology and biochemistry helped to
determine how viruses use their host cells for synthesizing viral nucleic acids and proteins.
Logic originally dictated that viruses be identified on the basis of the host they infect. This is
justified in many cases but not in others, and the host range and distribution of viruses are
only one criterion for their classification. It is still traditional to divide viruses into three
categories: those that infect animals, plants, or bacteria.
Virtually all plant viruses are transmitted by insects or other organisms (vectors) that feed on
plants. The hosts of animal viruses vary from protozoans (single-celled animal organisms) to
humans. Many viruses infect either invertebrate animals or vertebrates, and some infect both.
Certain viruses that cause serious diseases of animals and humans are carried by arthropods.
These vector-borne viruses multiply in both the invertebrate vector and the vertebrate host.
Certain viruses are limited in their host range to the various orders of vertebrates. Some
viruses appear to be adapted for growth only in ectothermic vertebrates (animals commonly
referred to as cold-blooded, such as fishes and reptiles), possibly because they can reproduce
only at low temperatures. Other viruses are limited in their host range to endothermic
vertebrates (animals commonly referred to as warm-blooded, such as mammals).
Diseases – Communicable diseases, Endemic diseases
Top 10 Causes of Death (Source: WHO World Health Statistics 2012)

 Ischemic heart disease 12 %

 Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease 11%
 Stroke 9%
 Diarrheal disease 6%
 Lower respiratory infections 5%
 Preterm birth complications 4%
 Tuberculosis 3%
 Self-inflicted injuries 3%
 Falls 3%
 Road injuries 2%

Communicable diseases

 Communicable diseases continue to be a major public health problem in India.

 Many communicable diseases like tuberculosis, leprosy, vector borne diseases like
malaria, kalaazar, dengue fever, chikungunya, filariasis, Japanese encephalitis, water-
 borne diseases like cholera, diarrhoeal diseases, viral hepatitis A & E, typhoid fever,
leptospirosis, etc and other viral infections are endemic in the country.
 In addition to these endemic diseases, there is always a threat of new emerging and re-
emerging infectious diseases like nipah virus, avian influenza, SARS, novel H1N1
influenza, hanta virus etc.
 Local or widespread outbreaks of these diseases result in high morbidity, mortality
and adverse socio-economic impact.

The most common diseases which are endemic in India are as follows:
Communicable Disease- Malaria:

 Malaria is a very common disease in developing countries. The word malaria is

derived from the word ‘mal-aria meaning bad air.
 Ronald Ross first discovered the transmission of malaria by mosquitoes, while he was
working in India (Secunderabad, AP) in 1897. Malaria is one of the most widespread
diseases in the world.
 Each year, there are 300 to 500 million clinical cases of malaria, 90 percent of them in
Africa alone.
 Among all infectious diseases, malaria continues to be one of the biggest contributors
to disease burden in terms of deaths and suffering.
 Malaria kills more than one million children a year in the developing world,
accounting for about half of malaria deaths globally.
 The risk of getting malaria extends to almost the entire population in India (almost 95
percent).
 The following states that have the highest number of malaria cases are Madhya
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Karnataka, Rajasthan, Assam, Gujarat and Andhra
Pradesh.

Communicable Disease- Typhoid:

 Typhoid fever is an acute, systemic infection presenting as fever with abdominal

symptoms, caused by Salmonella typhi and paratyphi.
 Before nineteenth century, typhus and typhoid fever were considered to be the same.
Enteric fever is an alternative name for typhoid. Salmonella typhi and paratyphi
colonise only humans.
 The organisms are acquired via ingestion of food or water, contaminated with human
excreta from infected persons.
  Direct person-to-person transmission is rare. Typhoid is a global health problem. It is
seen in children older than the age of one.
 Outbreak of typhoid in developing countries results in high mortality. The recent
development of antibiotic resistant organisms is causing much concern.
 Typhoid fever is more common in the tropics. It tends to occur in places, where the
sanitation standards are poor. A bacterial organism called salmonella typhi causes
typhoid fever.
 Salmonella paratyphi can also cause fever and abdominal symptoms. The disease
caused by both these entities is called enteric fever.
 The disease presents with a typical, continuous fever for about three to four weeks,
relative bradycardia with abdominal pain (due to enlargement of lymph nodes in the
abdomen), and constipation.
 Geographical Distribution Worldwide, typhoid fever affects about six million people
with more than 6, 00,000 deaths a year.
 Almost 80 percent of cases and deaths occur in Asia, and most others in Africa and
Latin America. Among Asian countries, India probably has a large number of these
cases.

 Indian Statistics Typhoid fever is endemic in India.

 Health surveys conducted by the Central Ministry of Health in the community
development areas indicated a morbidity rate varying from 102 to 2,219 per 1, 00,000
population in different parts of the country.
 A limited study in an urban slum showed 1 percent of children up to 17 years of age
suffer from typhoid fever every year.
 Carriers of Typhoid Fever Typhoid infection is mainly acquired from persons who are
carriers of the disease.
 Carriers are the people who continue to excrete salmonella through their urine and
feces a year after an attack of typhoid. A chronic carrier state develops in about 2 to 5
percent of the cases.
 The organisms in such cases make the gall bladder their habitat.

Communicable Disease- Hepatitis:

 Hepatitis is the inflammation of liver. It can be caused by viruses (five different

viruses— termed A, B, C, D and E cause viral Hepatitis), bacterial infections, or
continuous exposure to alcohol, drugs, or toxic chemicals, such as those found in
aerosol sprays and paint thinners, or as a result, of an auto-immune disorder.
  Hepatitis results in either damage or reduction in the livers ability to perform life-
preserving functions, including filtering harmful, infectious agents from blood, storing
blood sugar and converting it into usable energy forms, and producing many proteins
necessary for life.
 Symptoms seen in Hepatitis differ according to the cause and the overall health of the
infected individual. However, at times, the symptoms can be very mild.
 The commonly seen clinical features are general weakness and fatigue, loss of
appetite, nausea, fever, abdominal pain and tenderness.
 The main feature is the presence of jaundice (yellowing of skin and eyes that occurs
when the liver fails to break-down excess yellow- coloured bile pigments in the
blood).
 Depending on the progress and intensity, Hepatitis can be categorized as acute or
chronic. In acute Hepatitis, clinical features often subside without treatment within a
few weeks or months. However, about 5 percent of the cases go on to develop into
chronic Hepatitis, which may last for years. Chronic Hepatitis slowly leads to
progressive liver damage and cirrhosis.

Hepatitis A:

 Hepatitis A is a self-limiting disease that is found all across the world.

 It is usually transmitted through oral ingestion of infected material (mainly water), but
sometimes transmitted parenterally; most cases resemble the symptoms of a mild flu
attack and jaundice is mild too.

Hepatitis B:

 Hepatitis B is an acute vital disease. It primarily spreads parenterally, but sometimes

orally as well.
 However, the main mode of spread is intimate contact and from mother to the new
born.
 Fever, anorexia, nausea, vomiting are the initial symptoms, and they soon lead to
severe jaundice, urticarial skin lesions, arthritis, etc.
 Some patients become carriers or even remain chronically ill, even though most
patients recover in about three to four months.

Hepatitis C:
  Hepatitis C is a viral disease commonly occurring after transfusion or parenteral drug
abuse.
 It frequently progresses to a chronic form that is usually asymptomatic, but may
involve liver cirrhosis.

Hepatitis D:

 Hepatitis D or Delta Hepatitis is caused by the Hepatitis D virus.

 It usually occurs simultaneously with or as a super infection in case of Hepatitis B,
thus increasing its severity.

Hepatitis E:

 Hepatitis E is transmitted by the oral fecal route; usually by contaminated water.

 Chronic infection does not occur but acute infection may be fatal in pregnant women.

Communicable Disease- Jaundice:

 Jaundice, also known as icterus, is a condition, which is characterized by yellowish

discolouration of the skin and whites of eyes. It is a symptom or clinical sign, not a
disease by itself.
 The yellow colouration is caused by an excess amount of bile pigment known as
bilirubin in the body. Normally, bilirubin is formed by the breakdown of haemoglobin
during the destruction of worn-out red blood cells.

Communicable Disease- Leptospirosis:

 Leptospirosis is a disease caused by a type of bacteria and is associated with animals.

It is more common in the tropical countries.
 The disease is also known as canefield fever; cani- cola fever, field-fever, mud fever,
seven day fever and swineherd disease. Leptospirosis is caused by different strains of
bacteria of the genus Leptospira.
 Of all the varieties that cause disease, Leptospira icterohaemorrhagiae is the most
serious type.
 If not treated properly, it could lead to serious complications. Leptospirosis is a
disease of animals that can spread to humans.
  Rats are the most common carriers. Soil contaminated with urine of infected animals
can also transmit the disease to persons exposed to cattle urine, rat urine or to foetal
fluids from cattle.
 Sewage workers, agricultural workers, butchers, meat inspectors, workers in contact
with contaminated waters and veterinarians are generally at risk.

 Person to person transmission is not possible. Leptospirosis can spread due to contact
with urine, blood or tissues from infected persons. The organisms enter the body
through the breaks in the skin or through mucous membranes.
 The organisms can also be acquired by drinking contaminated water. Infection is
commonly acquired by bathing in contaminated water.
 The organisms multiply in the blood and tissues of the body. Though the organism
can affect any organ of the body, the kidney and liver are commonly involved. The
incubation period is usually 10 days. It may vary from 2 to 20 days.

Communicable Disease- Diarrhoeal Diseases:

 The term gastroenteritis’ is most frequently used to describe acute diarrhoea.

Diarrhoea is defined as the passage of loose, liquid or watery stools.
 These liquid stools are usually passed more than three times a day. The attack usually
lasts for about 3 to 7 days, but may also last up to 10 to 14 days.
 Diarrhoea is a major public health problem in developing countries. Diarrhoeal dis-
eases cause a heavy economic burden on health services.
 About 15 percent of all pediatric beds in India are occupied by admissions due to
gastroenteritis.
 In India, diarrhoeal diseases are a major public health problem among children under
the age of 5 years. In health institutions, up to a third of total pediatric admissions are
due to diarrhoeal diseases.
 Diarrhoea related diseases are a significant cause of mortality in children less than
five years of age. Incidence is highest in the age group of 6 to 11 months.
 The National Diarrhoeal Disease Control Programme has made a significant
contribution in averting deaths among children less than five years of age.

Communicable Disease- Amoebiasis:

  Amoebiasis is an infection caused by a parasite ‘Entamoeba Histolytica. The intestinal
disease varies from mild abdominal discomfort and diarrhoea to acute fulminating
dysentery.
 Extra intestinal amoebiasis includes involvement of the liver (liver abseess), lungs,
brain, spleen, skin, etc.
 Amoebiasis is a common infection of the human gastrointestinal tract. It has a
worldwide distribution.
 It is a major health problem in the whole of China south-east and west Asia and Latin
America, especially Mexico. It is generally agreed that amoebiasis affects about 15
percent of the Indian population. Amoebiasis has been reported throughout India.

Communicable Disease-  Cholera:

 Cholera is an acute diarrhoeal disease caused by V. Cholera (classical or El T). It is

now commonly due to the El T or biotype.
 The majority of infections are mild or symptomatic. Epidemics of cholera are
characteristically abrupt and often create an acute public health problem.
 They have a high potential to spread fast and cause deaths. The epidemic reaches a
peak and subsides gradually as the ‘force of infection declines.
 Often, when time control measures are instituted, the epidemic has already reached its
peak and is waning.

Communicable Disease- Brucellosis:

 Brucellosis is one of the major bacterial zoonoses, and in humans is also known as
undulent fever, Malta fever or Mediterranean fever.
 It is occasionally transmitted to humans by direct or indirect contact with infected
animals.
 The disease may last for several days, months or occasionally, even years.
 Brucellosis is both a severe human disease and a disease of animals with serious
economic consequences. Brucellosis is a recognized public health hazard that is found
the world over.
 It is endemic wherever cattle, pigs, goats and sheep are raised in large numbers. The
important endemic areas for Brucellosis exist in Mediterranean zones, Europe, Central
Asia, Mexico and South America. Animal Brucellosis has been reported from
practically every state in India.
  However, no statistical information is available about the extent of infection in
humans in various parts of the country.
 The prevalence of human Brucellosis is difficult to estimate. Many cases remain
undiagnosed either because they are not apparent, or because physicians in many
countries are unfamiliar with the disease.

Communicable Disease- Hookworm Infection:

 Hookworm infection is defined as: ‘any infection caused by Ancylostoma or Necator’.

 They may occur as single or mixed infections in the same person through various fac-
tors, which have to be prevented. Hookworm infection is widely prevalent in India.
 Necator americanus is predominant in south India, and Ancylostoms duodenal in
north India. Recently, another species, A. ceylanicum has been reported from a village
near Calcutta.
 The heavily infected areas are found in Assam (tea gardens).
 West Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Maharashtra.
More than 200 million people are estimated to be infected in India.
 It is believed that 60 to 80 percent of the population of certain areas of West Bengal,
Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa, Punjab, and the eastern coast of Tamil Nadu and Andhra
Pradesh are infected with hookworms.

Communicable Disease- Influenza:

 Influenza is an acute respiratory tract infection caused by influenza virus of which

there are three types—A, B and C.
 All known pandemics were caused by influenza A strains, due to various factors.
Influenza is found all over the world.
 It occurs in all countries and affects millions of people. Outbreaks of influenza A
occur virtually every year. Major epidemics occur at intervals of two to three years,
and pandemics at intervals of about 10 to 15 years.
 The first pandemic during the present century occurred in 1918-19, which affected an
estimated 500 million people and killed more than 20 million.
 In India alone, over six million people died during this pandemic. This pandemic was
caused by what is now known as the swine influenza virus.
 Recent pandemics occurred in 1957-58 owing to the influenza A (H2N2) and in 1968
owing to the influenza A (H3N2).
  Outbreaks of influenza B also occur annually with epidemics occurring at intervals
of407 years. Influenza brought on by the type C virus occurs sporadically as small
outbreaks.
 The unique features of influenza epidemics are the suddenness with which they arise,
and the speed and ease with which they spread.
 The short incubation period, a large number of subclinical cases, a high proportion of
susceptible population, short duration of immunity, and an absence of cross-
immunity, all contribute to its rapid spread.
 The fate of the virus during inter-epidemic periods is also known. Possible expla-
nations include transmission of virus to extra-human reservoirs (pigs, horses, birds.
etc.,) latent infection or continuous transfer from one human to another. This explains
the occurrence of sporadic cases.

Communicable Disease- Filariasis:

 It is caused by a parasite, which belongs to the nematode family Filariasis. According

to WHO reports, an estimated 751 million people are at ‘risk’ for infection, and 120
million have actually been infected.
 The public health problem of lymphatic filariasis is greatest in China, India and
Indonesia. These three countries account for about two-thirds of the estimated world
total of persons infected.

Filarial Problem in India:

 

 Filariasis is a major public health problem in India. There are an estimated six million
attacks of acute filarial disease per year, and at least 45 million persons currently have
one or more chronic filarial lesions.
 Heavily infected areas are found in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa,
Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Gujarat.
 The infection is acquired from a person who has filariasis. The maximum infectivity
is when the organisms are circulating the blood.
 The largest number appears in the blood at night time, and retreats from the blood
stream during the day. Their usual habitat is in the lymph nodes.
 The mosquito feeds on such a person and acquires the filarial parasite. The filarial
organism is transmitted when the mosquito bites a person. The parasite is deposited
near the site of puncture.
  It passes through the punctured skin or may penetrate the skin on its own and finally
reach the lymphatic system. Filariasis affects all age groups.

Communicable Disease- Tuberculosis:

 Tuberculosis remains a worldwide public health problem, particularly in the Third

World countries. Tuberculosis is India’s biggest public health problem. An estimated
that 5, 00,000 deaths annually are reported due to this disease, while a similar number
of persons get cured.
 The population in the Third World countries like India is exposed to tuberculosis. The
disease, however, does not develop in everyone who is exposed. Poor nutrition,
overcrowding, low socio-economic status, are more likely to develop the disease.
 The prevalence of people who are infected is about 30 percent of the population. The
prevalence of infection is more common in the younger population.
 The vast majority of cases are to be found in rural and semi-urban areas, where more
than 80 percent of the country’s population lives. In urban areas, tuberculosis is found
more frequently in slum-dwellers and lower socio-economic groups than in well-off
groups

Current Burden of Non-Communicable Diseases in India

 Non communicable diseases are the one which are of long duration and slow in
progression. As per World health organization, NCDs account for total 53% of all
deaths in India. Most of the burden is attributed by cardiovascular diseases (24%),
followed by respiratory diseases (11%), other NCDs (10%) and Injuries (10%).
 According to a report presented by world economic forum and Harward School of
public health, the prevalent NCDs in India are CVDs, chronic respiratory diseases,
Diabetes, and cancer.
 Cancer is one the leading cause of death in India with 28 lac cases at a point of time
and 10 lac new cases taking place very year. The burden of cancer is expected to rise
in the country due to the effects of tobacco, demographic transitions and increase in
the life expectancy.
 Diabetes is another leading NCD in the nation. Estimated total number of people
suffering with diabetes is 40.9 million in India and by 2025 it is expected to increase
up-to 69.9 million. Diabetes accounts for 1.09 lakh deaths in a year.
  Hypertension is a major risk factor for cardiovascular diseases. Hypertension is
directly responsible for 57% of all stroke deaths and 24% of all coronary heart disease
deaths in India. The cases of CVDs are expected to rise up to 741 lacs in 2015.
 Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease is responsible for high rate of mortality and
morbidity across the world. In 2010, almost 24 million adults over the age of 40 in
India had COPD. It is expected to increase to 32 million by 2020.
 The other conditions which contribute to the burden of non-communicable diseases
are mental health conditions (schizophrenia, depression & bipolar disorder) and
musculoskeletal disorders (Rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis & gout).
 The non-communicable diseases are emerging due to the risk factors associated with
it. The main risk factors which are associated with NCDs are tobacco use, harmful use
of alcohol, lack of physical activity and poor diet.3Table 2&3 shows the risk
factors(Behavioral & Metabolic respectively) associated with noncommunicable
diseases and their prevalence.
 In addition to the above said risk factors for NCDs; Globalization and urbanization
has also contributed to its burden. It has caused the nutritional transition in the
country because of the availability of the commercial food. One another important
factor causing the rise in NCDs is change in demographic profile of the country.
 A study conducted by Joy Kumar Chakma & Sanjay Gupta on“Lifestyle and Non-
Communicable Diseases: A double edged sword for future India” showed that In
India, 53% of the deaths in 2008 were due to NCDs (WHO). The cardiovascular
diseases (CVDs) alone account for 24 percent of all deaths.
 The anticipated cumulative loss of national income due to NCDs mortality for India
for 2006-2015 will be USD237 billion. By 2030, this productivity loss is expected to
double. These major NCDs can be prevented through effective interventions by
undertaking the lifestyle related modifiable risk factors.
 Total deaths (in thousands) caused by non-communicable diseases as per WHO
(2008) estimates are 2967.6 and 2273.8 among males and females respectively. NCD
deaths under the age of 60 years are 35.0% (Males) and 32.1% (Females).

 
Vaccines: Introduction to immunity
Vaccines
A vaccine is a biological preparation that improves immunity to a particular disease. A
vaccine typically contains an agent that resembles a disease-causing microorganism, and is
often made from weakened or killed forms of the microbe, its toxins or one of its surface
proteins. The agent stimulates the body’s immune system to recognize the agent as foreign,
destroy it, and “remember” it, so that the immune system can more easily recognize and
destroy any of these microorganisms that it later encounters.
Introduction to immunity
The immune system refers to a collection of cells and proteins that function to protect the
skin, respiratory passages, intestinal tract and other areas from foreign antigens, such as
microbes (organisms such as bacteria, fungi, and parasites), viruses, cancer cells, and toxins.
The immune system can be simplistically viewed as having two “lines of defense”: innate
immunity and adaptive immunity. Innate immunity represents the first line of defense to an
intruding pathogen. It is an antigen-independent (non-specific) defense mechanism that is
used by the host immediately or within hours of encountering an antigen. The innate immune
response has no immunologic memory and, therefore, it is unable to recognize or “memorize”
the same pathogen should the body be exposed to it in the future. Adaptive immunity, on the
other hand, is antigen-dependent and antigen-specific and, therefore, involves a lag time
between exposure to the antigen and maximal response. The hallmark of adaptive immunity
is the capacity for memory which enables the host to mount a more rapid and efficient
immune response upon subsequent exposure to the antigen. Innate and adaptive immunity are
not mutually exclusive mechanisms of host defense, but rather are complementary, with
defects in either system resulting in host vulnerability.
Innate immunity
The primary function of innate immunity is the recruitment of immune cells to sites of
infection and inflammation through the production of cytokines (small proteins involved in
cell-cell communication). Cytokine production leads to the release of antibodies and other
proteins and glycoproteins which activate the complement system, a biochemical cascade that
functions to identify and opsonize (coat) foreign antigens, rendering them susceptible to
phagocytosis (process by which cells engulf microbes and remove cell debris). The innate
immune response also promotes clearance of dead cells or antibody complexes and removes
foreign substances present in organs, tissues, blood and lymph. It can also activate the
adaptive immune response through a process known as antigen presentation.
Numerous cells are involved in the innate immune response such as phagocytes
(macrophages and neutrophils), dendritic cells, mast cells, basophils, eosinophils, natural
killer (NK) cells and lymphocytes (T cells). Phagocytes are sub-divided into two main cell
types: neutrophils and macrophages. Both of these cells share a similar function: to engulf
(phagocytose) microbes. In addition to their phagocytic properties, neutrophils contain
granules that, when released, assist in the elimination of pathogenic microbes. Unlike
neutrophils (which are short-lived cells), macrophages are long-lived cells that not only play
a role in phagocytosis, but are also involved in antigen presentation to T cells. Macrophages
are named according to the tissue in which they reside. For example, macrophages present in
the liver are called Kupffer cells while those present in the connective tissue are termed
histiocytes.
Adaptive immunity
Adaptive immunity develops when innate immunity is ineffective in eliminating infectious
agents and the infection is established. The primary functions of the adaptive immune
response are the recognition of specific “non-self” antigens in the presence of “self” antigens;
the generation of pathogen-specific immunologic effector pathways that eliminate specific
pathogens or pathogen-infected cells; and the development of an immunologic memory that
can quickly eliminate a specific pathogen should subsequent infections occur. The cells of the
adaptive immune system include: T cells, which are activated through the action of antigen
presenting cells (APCs), and B cells.
T cells derive from hematopoietic stem cells in bone marrow and, following migration,
mature in the thymus. These cells express a unique antigen-binding receptor on their
membrane, known as the T-cell receptor (TCR), and as previously mentioned, require the
action of APCs (usually dendritic cells, but also macrophages, B cells, fibroblasts and
epithelial cells) to recognize a specific antigen.
The surfaces of APCs express cell-surface proteins known as the major histocompatibility
complex (MHC). MHC are classified as either class I (also termed human leukocyte antigen
[HLA] A, B and C) which are found on all nucleated cells, or class II (also termed HLA, DP,
DQ and DR) which are found on only certain cells of the immune system, including
macrophages, dendritic cells and B cells. Class I MHC molecules present endogenous
(intracellular) peptides while class II molecules present exogenous (extracellular) peptides.
The MHC protein displays fragments of antigens (peptides) when a cell is infected with a
pathogen or has phagocytosed foreign proteins.
T cells are activated when they encounter an APC that has digested an antigen and is
displaying antigen fragments bound to its MHC molecules. The MHC-antigen complex
activates the TCR and the T cell secretes cytokines which further control the immune
response. This antigen presentation process stimulates T cells to differentiate into either
cytotoxic T cells (CD8+ cells) or T-helper (Th) cells (CD4+ cells). Cytotoxic T cells are
primarily involved in the destruction of cells infected by foreign agents. They are activated
by the interaction of their TCR with peptide-bound MHC class I molecules. Clonal expansion
of cytotoxic T cells produce effector cells which release perforin and granzyme (proteins that
causes lysis of target cells) and granulysin (a substance that induces apoptosis of target cells).
Upon resolution of the infection, most effector cells die and are cleared by phagocytes.
However, a few of these cells are retained as memory cells that can quickly differentiate into
effector cells upon subsequent encounters with the same antigen.
T helper (Th) cells play an important role in establishing and maximizing the immune
response. These cells have no cytotoxic or phagocytic activity, and cannot kill infected cells
or clear pathogens. However, they “mediate” the immune response by directing other cells to
perform these tasks. Th cells are activated through TCR recognition of antigen bound to class
II MHC molecules. Once activated, Th cells release cytokines that influence the activity of
many cell types, including the APCs that activate them.
Passive Immunity
Passive immunity is the transfer of antibody produced by one human or other animal to
another. Passive immunity provides protection against some infections, but this protec – tion
is temporary. The antibodies will degrade during a period of weeks to months, and the
recipient will no longer be protected. The most common form of passive immunity is that
which an infant receives from its mother. Antibodies are trans – ported across the placenta
during the last 1–2 months of pregnancy. As a result, a full-term infant will have the same
antibodies as its mother. These antibodies will protect the infant from certain diseases for up
to a year.
Protection is better against some diseases (e.g., measles, rubella, tetanus) than others (e.g.,
polio, pertussis). Many types of blood products contain antibody. Some products (e.g.,
washed or reconstituted red blood cells) contain a relatively small amount of antibody, and
some (e.g., intravenous immune globulin and plasma products) contain a large amount.
In addition to blood products used for transfusion (e.g., whole blood, red cells, and platelets)
there are three major sources of antibody used in human medicine. These are homologous
pooled human antibody, homologous human hyperimmune globulin, and heterologous
hyperimmune serum.
Homologous pooled human antibody is also known as immune globulin. It is produced by
combining (pooling) the IgG antibody fraction from thousands of adult donors in the United
States. Because it comes from many different donors, it contains antibody to many different
antigens. It is used primarily for postexposure prophylaxis for hepatitis A and measles and
treatment of certain congenital immuno – globulin deficiencies.
Active Immunity
Active immunity is stimulation of the immune system to produce antigen-specific humoral
(antibody) and cellular immunity. Unlike passive immunity, which is temporary, active
immunity usually lasts for many years, often for a lifetime.
One way to acquire active immunity is to survive infection with the disease-causing form of
the organism. In general, once persons recover from infectious diseases, they will have
lifelong immunity to that disease. The persistence of protection for many years after the
infection is known as immunologic memory. Following exposure of the immune system to an
antigen, certain cells (memory B cells) continue to circulate in the blood (and also reside in
the bone marrow) for many years. Upon reexposure to the antigen, these memory cells begin
to replicate and produce antibody very rapidly to reestablish protection.
Another way to produce active immunity is by vaccination. Vaccines interact with the
immune system and often produce an immune response similar to that produced by the
natural infection, but they do not subject the recipient to the disease and its potential
complications. Many vaccines also produce immunologic memory similar to that acquired by
having the natural disease.
Fundamental concepts in vaccination
Fundamental concepts in vaccination
Immunology and Vaccine-Preventable Diseases Immunology is a complicated subject, and a
detailed discussion of it is beyond the scope of this text. However, an understanding of the
basic function of the immune system is useful in order to understand both how vaccines work
and the basis of recommendations for their use. The description that follows is simplified.
Many excellent immunology textbooks are available to provide additional detail.
Immunity is the ability of the human body to tolerate the presence of material indigenous to
the body (“self”), and to eliminate foreign (“nonself”) material. This discriminatory ability
provides protection from infectious disease, since most microbes are identified as foreign by
the immune system. Immunity to a microbe is usually indicated by the presence of antibody
to that organism. Immunity is gener – ally specific to a single organism or group of closely
related organisms. There are two basic mechanisms for acquiring immunity, active and
passive.
Traditional methods of vaccine production ( production of DPT and Rabies vaccine)
Traditional methods of vaccine production
The first human vaccines against viruses were based using weaker or attenuated viruses to
generate immunity. The smallpox vaccine used cowpox, a poxvirus that was similar enough
to smallpox to protect against it but usually didn’t cause serious illness. Rabies was the first
virus attenuated in a lab to create a vaccine for humans.
Egg-Based Vaccines
Over the last 60 years, seasonal flu vaccines have been manufactured using fertilized
embryonic eggs.  Using this method, it takes about four months to produce a batch of
vaccines for a new strain of influenza virus; from the moment the new influenza virus’
culture becomes available for vaccine manufacturing.   The advantages of using embryonic
eggs to manufacture seasonal flu vaccines are that the safety and effectiveness of the vaccines
produced have been well established.
Cell-Based Vaccines
Since the mid 1990’s, newer vaccine manufacturing methods were developed.  The cell-based
vaccine manufacturing process is one of such methods.   The cell-based vaccine
manufacturing process uses cells from mammals to culture the influenza virus for vaccine
production.  Various pharmaceutical companies use different sources of mammalian cell
cultures for the vaccine manufacturing process.  Baxter Healthcare uses cells extracted from
the kidney of the African Green Monkey while companies such as Solvay Biologicals and
Novartis Vaccines use kidney cells from canines to produce seasonal flu vaccines.
Production of DPT vaccine
DPT is a class of combination vaccines against three infectious diseases in humans:
diphtheria, pertussis (whooping cough), and tetanus. The vaccine components include
diphtheria and tetanus toxoids and killed whole cells of the bacterium that causes pertussis.
Although different combinations may contain the same toxoids or antigens each vaccine may
differ substantially according to the toxoid or antigen dose, number of pertussis components
(for acellular vaccines), method of purification and inactivation of the toxins and
incorporation of adjuvants and excipients. All of these factors may have an impact on the
reactogenicity of different DTP vaccine combinations.
Diphtheria and Tetanus (DT and Td) toxoid combination: DT vaccine used for primary
immunisation and boosting in children contains 6.7-25Lf of diphtheria toxoid and 5 – 7.5 Lf
of tetanus toxoid per dose. An adult combination, Td, is used for boosting and primary
immunisation in adolescents and adults and contains a lower dose of diphtheria (less than 2
Lf/dose) but a similar dose of tetanus toxoid.
Diphtheria, Tetanus and Pertussis (DTP) combinations: Initial DTP combination
preparations contained whole-cell pertussis antigens. Concern due to common occurrence of
minor local reactions and less common severe reactions of whole-cell pertussis led to the
development of acellular vaccines and clinical trials demonstrating their efficacy in the
1980’s. Multiple acellular pertussis vaccines are now available and are referred to by the
number of acellular antigen components that they contain. Whole-cell pertussis vaccine
remains a safe, inexpensive and effective vaccine which is used in many countries because
whole cell vaccines that generate a higher level of antibody to pertussis toxin are associated
with higher vaccine efficacy.
DTP with other vaccine antigen combinations: There are many vaccine formulations
containing diphtheria and tetanus toxoids and whole cell or acellular pertussis antigens in
combination with Haemophilus influenzae type b, hepatitis B and/or inactivated polio virus to
produce quadrivalent, pentavalent and hexavalent combination vaccines.
Rabies vaccine
Pre-exposure vaccination should be offered to people at high risk of exposure to rabies, such
as laboratory staff working with rabies virus, veterinarians, animal handlers and wildlife
officers, and other individuals living in or travelling to countries or areas at risk. Travellers
with extensive outdoor exposure in rural areas – such as might occur while running,
bicycling, hiking, camping, backpacking, etc. – may be at risk, even if the duration of travel
is short. Preexposure vaccination is advisable for children living in or visiting countries or
areas at risk, where they provide an easy target for rabid animals. Pre-exposure vaccination is
also recommended for individuals travelling to isolated areas or to areas where immediate
access to appropriate medical care is limited or to countries where modern rabies vaccines are
in short supply and locally available rabies vaccines might be unsafe and/or ineffective.
Pre-exposure rabies vaccination consists of three full intramuscular (i.m.) doses of cell-
culture- or embryonated-egg-based vaccine given on days 0, 7 and 21 or 28 (a few days’
variation in the timing is not important). For adults, the vaccine should always be
administered in the deltoid area of the arm; for young children (under 1 year of age), the
anterolateral area of the thigh is recommended. Rabies vaccine should never be administered
in the gluteal area: administration in this manner will result in lower neutralizing antibody
titres.
To reduce the cost of cell-derived vaccines for pre-exposure rabies vaccination, intradermal
(i.d.) vaccination in 0.1-ml volumes on days 0, 7 and either 21 or 28 may be considered. This
method of administration is an acceptable alternative to the standard intramuscular
administration, but it is technically more demanding and requires appropriate staff training
and qualified medical supervision. Concurrent use of chloroquine can reduce the antibody
response to intradermal application of cell-culture rabies vaccines. People who are currently
receiving malaria prophylaxis or who are unable to complete the entire three-dose pre-
exposure series before starting malarial prophylaxis should therefore receive pre-exposure
vaccination by the intramuscular route.
Periodic booster injections are not recommended for general travellers. However, in the event
of exposure through the bite or scratch of an animal known or suspected to be rabid,
individuals who have previously received a complete series of pre- or post-exposure rabies
vaccine (with cell-culture or embryonated-egg vaccine) should receive two booster doses of
vaccine. Ideally, the first dose should be administered on the day of exposure and the second
3 days later. This should be combined with thorough wound treatment (see “Post-exposure
prophylaxis”, below). Rabies immunoglobulin is not required for patients who have
previously received a complete vaccination series.
Production of modern vaccines (production of Hepatitis Vaccine)
Production of modern vaccines
Live Attenuated Vaccines
Live vaccines are derived from “wild,” or disease-causing, viruses or bacteria. These wild
viruses or bacteria are attenuated, or weakened, in a laboratory, usually by repeated culturing.
For example, the measles virus used as a vaccine today was isolated from a child with
measles disease in 1954. Almost 10 years of serial passage using tissue culture media was
required to transform the wild virus into attenuated vaccine virus.
To produce an immune response, live attenuated vaccines must replicate (grow) in the
vaccinated person. A relatively  small dose of virus or bacteria is administered, which
replicates in the body and creates enough of the organism to stimulate an immune response.
Anything that either damages the live organism in the vial (e.g., heat, light) or interferes with
replication of the organism in the body (circulating antibody) can cause the vaccine to be
ineffective. Although live attenuated vaccines replicate, they usually do not cause disease
such as may occur with the “wild” form of the organism. When a live attenuated vaccine does
cause “disease,” it is usually much milder than the natural disease and is referred to as an
adverse reaction.
The immune response to a live attenuated vaccine is virtu – ally identical to that produced by
a natural infection. The immune system does not differentiate between an infection with a
weakened vaccine virus and an infection with a wild virus. Live attenuated vaccines produce
immunity in most recipients with one dose, except those administered orally. However, a
small percentage of recipients do not respond to the first dose of an injected live vaccine
(such as MMR or varicella) and a second dose is recommended to provide a very high level
of immunity in the population. Live attenuated vaccines may cause severe or fatal reac – tions
as a result of uncontrolled replication (growth) of the vaccine virus. This only occurs in
persons with immunodefi – ciency (e.g., from leukemia, treatment with certain drugs, or
human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection).
A live attenuated vaccine virus could theoretically revert to its original pathogenic (disease-
causing) form. This is known to happen only with live (oral) polio vaccine. Active immunity
from a live attenuated vaccine may not develop because of interference from circulating
antibody to the vaccine virus. Antibody from any source (e.g., transpla – cental, transfusion)
can interfere with replication of the vaccine organism and lead to poor response or no
response to the vaccine (also known as vaccine failure). Measles vaccine virus seems to be
most sensitive to circulating antibody. Polio and rotavirus vaccine viruses are least affected.
Live attenuated vaccines are fragile and can be damaged or destroyed by heat and light. They
must be handled and stored carefully.
Inactivated Vaccines
Inactivated vaccines are produced by growing the bacterium or virus in culture media, then
inactivating it with heat and/ or chemicals (usually formalin). In the case of fractional
vaccines, the organism is further treated to purify only those components to be included in the
vaccine (e.g., the polysac – charide capsule of pneumococcus.) Inactivated vaccines are not
alive and cannot replicate. The entire dose of antigen is administered in the injection. These
vaccines cannot cause disease from infection, even in an immunodeficient person.
Inactivated antigens are less affected by circulating antibody than are live agents, so they may
be given when antibody is present in the blood (e.g., in infancy or following receipt of
antibody-containing blood products.) Inactivated vaccines always require multiple doses. In
general, the first dose does not produce protective immunity, but “primes” the immune
system. A protective immune response develops after the second or third dose. In contrast to
live vaccines, in which the immune response closely resembles natural infection, the immune
response to an inactivated vaccine is mostly humoral. Little or no cellular immunity results.
Antibody titers against inactivated antigens diminish with time. As a result, some inactivated
vaccines may require periodic supplemental doses to increase, or “boost,” antibody titers.
Currently available whole-cell inactivated vaccines are limited to inactivated whole viral
vaccines (polio, hepatitis A, and rabies). Inactivated whole virus influenza vaccine and whole
inactivated bacterial vaccines (pertussis, typhoid, cholera, and plague) are no longer available
in the United States. Fractional vaccines include subunits (hepatitis B, influenza, acellular
pertussis, human papillomavirus, anthrax) and toxoids (diphtheria, tetanus.) A subunit
vaccine for Lyme disease is no longer available in the United States.
Polysaccharide Vaccines
Polysaccharide vaccines are a unique type of inactivated subunit vaccine composed of long
chains of sugar molecules that make up the surface capsule of certain bacteria. Pure
polysaccharide vaccines are available for three diseases: pneumococcal disease,
meningococcal disease, and Salmonella Typhi.
The immune response to a pure polysaccharide vaccine is typically T-cell independent, which
means that these vaccines are able to stimulate B cells without the assistance of T-helper
cells. T-cell–independent antigens, including polysaccharide vaccines, are not consistently
immunogenic in children younger than 2 years of age. Young children do not respond
consistently to polysaccharide antigens, probably because of immaturity of the immune
system.
Repeated doses of most inactivated protein vaccines cause the antibody titer to go
progressively higher, or “boost.” This does not occur with polysaccharide antigens; repeat
doses of polysaccharide vaccines usually do not cause a booster response. Antibody induced
with polysaccharide vaccines has less functional activity than that induced by protein
antigens. This is because the predominant antibody produced in response to most
polysaccharide vaccines is IgM, and little IgG is produced.
Recombinant Vaccines
Vaccine antigens may also be produced by genetic engi – neering technology. These products
are sometimes referred to as recombinant vaccines. Four genetically engineered vaccines are
currently available in the United States. Hepatitis B and human papillomavirus (HPV)
vaccines are produced by insertion of a segment of the respective viral gene into the gene of a
yeast cell or virus. The modified yeast cell produces pure hepatitis B surface antigen or HPV
capsid protein when it grows. Live typhoid vaccine (Ty21a) is Salmonella Typhi bacteria that
have been genetically modified to not cause illness. Live attenuated influenza vaccine has
been engineered to replicate effectively in the mucosa of the nasopharynx but not in the
lungs.
Production of Hepatitis Vaccine
Hepatitis B vaccine is a vaccine that prevents hepatitis B. The first dose is recommended
within 24 hours of birth with either two or three more doses given after that. This includes
those with poor immune function such as from HIV/AIDS and those born premature. It is
also recommended for health-care workers to be vaccinated. In healthy people routine
immunization results in more than 95% of people being protected.
Blood testing to verify that the vaccine has worked is recommended in those at high risk.
Additional doses may be needed in people with poor immune function but are not necessary
for most people. In those who have been exposed to the hepatitis B virus but not immunized,
hepatitis B immune globulin should be given in addition to the vaccine.The vaccine is given
by injection into a muscle.
n 1963, the American physician/geneticist Baruch Blumberg discovered what he called the
“Australia Antigen” (now called HBsAg) in the serum of an Australian Aboriginal person. In
1968, this protein was found to be part of the virus that causes “serum hepatitis” (hepatitis B)
by virologist Alfred Prince. The American microbiologist/vaccinologist Maurice Hilleman at
Merck used three treatments (pepsin, urea and formaldehyde) of blood serum together with
rigorous filtration to yield a product that could be used as a safe vaccine. Hilleman
hypothesized that he could make an HBV vaccine by injecting patients with hepatitis B
surface protein. In theory, this would be very safe, as these excess surface proteins lacked
infectious viral DNA. The immune system, recognizing the surface proteins as foreign, would
manufacture specially shaped antibodies, custom-made to bind to, and destroy, these proteins.
Then, in the future, if the patient were infected with HBV, the immune system could
promptly deploy protective antibodies, destroying the viruses before they could do any harm.
The first large-scale trials for the blood-derived vaccine were performed on gay men, in
accordance with their high-risk status. Later, Hilleman’s vaccine was falsely blamed for
igniting the AIDS epidemic. But, although the purified blood vaccine seemed questionable, it
was determined to have indeed been free of HIV. The purification process had destroyed all
viruses—including HIV. The vaccine was approved in 1981.
The blood-derived hepatitis B vaccine was withdrawn from the marketplace in 1986 when
Pablo DT Valenzuela, Research Director of Chiron Corporation, succeeded in making the
antigen in yeast and invented the world’s first recombinant vaccine. The recombinant vaccine
was developed by inserting the HBV gene that codes for the surface protein into the yeast
Saccharomyces cerevisiae. This allows the yeast to produce only the noninfectious surface
protein, without any danger of introducing actual viral DNA into the final product. This is the
vaccine still in use today.