Erbil Polytechnic University

Erbil technical Engineering college

Highway Engineering Department.

Foundation on difficult soils:

Expansive soil

Prepared by: Helan Adnan.

Supervised by: Ali Barznji

Submission Date: 23/11/2022

Table of Content:
Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……….3

Foundation …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…4

Why Do These Soils Expand............................................................................................................4

What are the Signs of Soil Expansion and Shrinkage......................................................................4

What are the Problems with Expansive Soils………………………………………………………………………........5

Does Soil Expand When Wet………………………………………………………………………………………………………6

BEHAVIOUR & DAMAGES OF EXPANSIVE SOILS …………………………..……………………………………………..6

How to identify……………………………………………………………………………..……………………………………………7

Foundation on expansive soil :………………………………………………………………….…………………………….…8

Methods of Foundation Practices……………………………………………………………………………………………..10

Footing with special cushions……………………………………………………………………………………………10

CNS-MSM Technologies……………………………………………………………………………………………………11
Strip footing……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..12
Granular pile anchor…………………………………………………………………………………………………………12
Stiffened mat foundation………………………………………………………………………………………………….13
Chemical stabilization…………………………………………………………………………………….…………………13
Moisture control…………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………14
Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……....15

Reference……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..16

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Introduction:

Soils can be divided into four main types: clays, sands, chalk soils and loams. Loams come midway
between clays and sands. They are usually easy to work and provide ideal conditions for plants.
Clay, sand and chalk each have special characteristics that can make them difficult soils and it may
take several years to turn them into easily-managed growing mediums. ‘Difficult’ means those
that may be hard to work with or those that, because of their poor structure, are either too wet
or too dry for good plant growth, or lacking in essential humus or organic matter.

Expansive soil or swelling soil are those soil that has the tendency to increase in volume when
water is available and decrease in volume if the water is removed. Expansive soil is common in
Africa, Australia, India, South America, Indonesia, Burma, and some countries of Europe. In India,
nearly 20% of the total area is covered by expansive soil. The characteristic feature of swelling
and shrinkage of the soil with respect to water is due to the presence of a clay mineral
montmorillonite. Among all the clay minerals, montmorillonite has the largest specific surface.
Due to the chemical properties and the structure of the mineral, a large amount of water and
other exchangeable ions can easily enter between the layers causing the layers to be separated.
Because of the affinity for water, clay soil containing montmorillonite minerals are susceptible to
substantial volume change. They swell as soon as the water gains entry into the lattice structure
and shrink if the water is removed. In moist state montmorillonite is highly plastic and has little
internal friction. Its excessive swelling capacity may seriously endanger the stability of overlaying
structures and road pavements.

Fig 1: expansive soil

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Foundation: The basic strategies for building on expansive soils: Design a foundation system
that is strong and rigid enough to withstand the anticipated soil movement, or isolate the
structure from the expansive soils environment. It swells excessively when wet and shrinks
excessively when dry resulting terrible cracks in soil without any warning. It has a great affinity to
water. This tendency of soil is on account of the presence of fine clay particles. Cracks are formed
due to movement of the ground on account of alternate swelling and shrinkage. The cracks thus
formed are sometimes 15 to 20 cm wide and 2.5 to 4 m deep.

Why Do These Soils Expand?

While soils with larger particles, like gravels or even sands, have voids large enough to allow water
to drain, expansive soils contain small particles that can retain high amounts of water content.
Some minerals actually have chemical compositions that attract and bond to water molecules.
When large amounts of water is held by a soil it can lead to an increase in volume which can
produce expansive forces. This water retention is further compounded by the typical edge-to-
edge orientation of the particles found in clay minerals. Cracks that develop after expanded soil
has dried allow more water to penetrate deeper into the soil causing more damage as time goes
on.

What are the Signs of Soil Expansion and Shrinkage?

Cracks are a telling sign that expansive soils are present. Expansive soils can shrink so much after
swelling that deep, wide cracks are able to develop after drying and contracting. Asphalt and
concrete roads, pads or driveways will crack and shift with expansion and contraction. Buildings
that have been built on expansive soils without extensive reinforcements may have cracks in
foundations, walls, floors or ceilings. Doors and windows may not function like they once did while
furnace or plumbing piping could even be bent as a result of soils expanding and contracting. A
sagging or uneven roof can also be the result of soil expansion and shrinkage.

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 Fig 2: crack caused by expansive soil

Fig 3: structural damage caused by expansive soil

What are the Problems with Expansive Soils?

As the name implies, expansive soils are… expansive. Certain soils can absorb a high amount of
water resulting in an increase in volume and swell. On the other hand, when expansive soils dry
out, they decrease in volume and shrink. Previously expanded soils that have since contracted
contain cracks or voids left behind by the loss of moisture. Both shrinking and swelling are
structurally unstable soil characteristics. The result of expansive soils could be settling, cracked,

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sloped or deflected foundations, displaced bricks, cracked asphalt or concrete roads, driveways
and sidewalks or cracks in floors, walls or ceilings. When treating soils with a lime-based reagent,
the potential of the shrink / swell cycle is reduced, extending the life span of your pavement or
building structure.

Does Soil Expand When Wet?

Not all soils expand when wet but a number of fine grained clay minerals possess expansive
qualities. The amount of expansive minerals such as montmorillonite, vermiculite and some
sulfate salts also affect how much a soil can expand. The more of these minerals that are present,
the greater the possibility of expansion when moisture is introduced

BEHAVIOUR & DAMAGES OF EXPANSIVE SOILS

Expansive soils are having inherent property of shrinking when it is dried and swelling when water
is absorbed. When water is absorbed by a clayey soil which had shrunk by evaporation of pore
water, the compression forces between soil particles reduces considerably and elastic expansion
occurs and this cause swelling. Following damages may be caused by expansive soils:

 Horizontal cracks in interior corner of main walls due to sinking of foundation

 Diagonal cracks in exterior arched walls supported by piers and from footings because of
swelling and shrinkage.

 Vertical cracks in the wall bottoms occur due to the lateral moments.

 The hearting of the earthen dam made of clay core exhibits even a small swelling pressure, due
to change in water content may initiate shear cracks and these may cause instability to earthen
dam.

 When the side slopes at the canal are subjected to change in water content, these slopes are
likely to get damaged if they are made up of the expansive soils.

 The roads that pass through expansive sub grade are subjected to heaving and settlement of
treacherous soils. No full proof solution yet obtained and a major research effort in India has been
directed to find a solution to the roads passing through black cotton soil areas.

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 Fig 4 : VERTICAL & DIAGONAL CRACKS

How to identify?
In order to determine which soil type is expansive, some laboratory tests are available for this
purpose. The commonly used methods are thermal analysis (DTA), X-ray diffraction method, and
electron microscopy.

The DTA method is based on a certain characteristic reaction that takes place at specific
temperatures for different minerals when these minerals are heated to high temperatures. It
results in the loss of grain in heat. A soil specimen with the unknown mineral is heated
continuously heated along with an inert substance in an electric oven. The record of change in
temperature is plotted against oven temperature. By comparing with other available records of
several known minerals it is possible to identify the type of minerals present in the given soil and
their quantity is known.

Different minerals with different regular crystalline structures diffract X-Rays to yield different X-
Ray diffraction patterns. With the help of the patterns obtained, it is possible to tell which types
of minerals are present in what proportions. In electron microscopy, the soil is observed under
polarized light in an electron microscope. It requires both skill and experience. With the help of
certain characteristic stains, the nature of present clay minerals is known. This method is mostly
used to supplement other test data.

When it come to importance of pile testing, pile load testing is an important factor for the pilling

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work that should be proper planned and factored into the project schedule as well as cost at
an early stage in order to validate the design safety factor, pile design and length, to establish
pile installation criteria and quality control of pilling works.
There are many types of pile testing method which are mentioned as follow:

1. Maintained Load (MLT) Test

2. Constant Rate of Penetration (CRP) Test
3. Bi-directional Load Cell
4. Rapid Load Test
5. Static pile load testing (axial and lateral)
6. Dynamic Load Test
7. Pile integrity testing (PIT

Foundation on expansive soil:

Before designing foundation on expansive soil, we should follow certain recommendations. This
are:

 The safe bearing capacity value should not exceed 50 kN/.

 Minimum depth of foundation should be 2 m.

 The bottom of the foundation trench should be filled with sand or murrum or broken
stones. Sand filling on sides of trench is also recommended.

 Reinforced concrete bands should be used at the foundation, plinth and lintel levels.

A low value of safe bearing capacity is recommended apparently because of poor performance of
the foundation due to poor supporting power of soil. Foundation designed for such small bearing
pressure is totally unable to counteract the swelling of the expansive soil. It is shocking that it is
seldom that heavily loaded structures have problems with swelling soil while the lightly loaded
structure with single and two storeyed building experience maximum damage.

The rational methods of foundation design which are being used now to reduce or prevent the
effects of swelling can be grouped into three categories :

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  Isolation of the structure from the swelling soil.

 Designing a structure to withstand the effects of swelling, and

 Preventing the swelling.

The important factor which influences the expansive soil is swelling pressure. It indicates the
property of the soil. From the below table of swelling potential, we can easily identify the soil as
swelling type or not.

table1:

Methods of Foundation Practices:

The following important methods are adopted while constructing foundation on expansive soils.

 Footing with special cushions.

 CNS-MSM Technologies.

 Strip footing.

 Granular pile anchor.

 Stiffened mat foundation.

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  Chemical stabilization.

 Moisture control.

Footing with special cushions

In this method, excavation is carried out up to a depth of greater than the depth of foundation.
After that freely draining soil such as mix of sand and gravel is filled up and compacted up to the
base of foundation level. Reinforced concrete footing is constructed at this level and brick wall
may be constructed over the footing. Mixture of sand and gravel is filled up loosely over the
footing. This cushion of granular soil absorbs the effect of swelling and so its effect on foundation
will considerably reduce.

Fig 5: Footing with special cushion

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CNS-MSM Technologies

CNS Technology or the concept is based on self-equilibrating phenomenon with a difference that
clay minerals present in CNS are non-expanding such as kaolinite, chlorite etc. The thickness of
CNS needed to prevent transmission of swelling pressure and heave to the foundation. CNS can
be obtained as a natural material or can be made produced by blending two or more materials.
In MSM Technology, to improve the bearing capacity of the system the layer of Mechanically
Stabilized Mix is intercepted over CNS intercepting layer. Normally MSM consists of graded
aggregate, sand and fines with more plasticity, similar to that allowed in water bounded macadam
mix.

Fig 6 : CNS-MSM Technology used in foundation

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Strip footing

It was found that conventional strip foundations with sand cushions were inadequate reinforcing
the shallow strip footings was tried and inverted “T” foundation is commonly used. The common
types of strip footings that have been used for light buildings are-
 Unreinforced with plinth band.

 Nominally reinforced with plinth band.

 Nominally reinforced inverted T.

Fig 7 : Strip Footing

Granular pile anchor

Granular anchor pile is one which the foundation is anchored at the bottom of Granular pile, to a
mild steel plate through a mild steel rod. It helps in holding the particulate granular medium and
prevents the granular pile from swelling and uplifting.

Fig 8: Pull out behavior of

Granular anchor Pile

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Stiffened mat foundation

The common method of stiffening consists of a slab cast beams 3-4 meters apart both
longitudinally and laterally. The rigidity of mat minimizes distortion of the superstructure from
both horizontal and vertical movements of the foundation soil. Differential heave also reduced
when stiffness of slab and superstructure is increased.

Fig 9 : Mat foundation

Chemical stabilization
Phosphoric acid combined with wetting agent can be used for stabilization of expansive soils.
Because it reacts with clay minerals and forms insoluble aluminum sulphate which serves as a
moisture proof. Some chemicals such as sodium silicate, alkyl chloro silanes, siliconate amines,
chrome lignin can be used for the water proofing of soils. The soils treated with calcium carbide
do not easily pickup water as it is deliquescent and hygroscopic. When sodium chloride is added
to the soil crystallization occurs in the pores of the soil and it forms a dense hard mat. So
absorption of moisture is prevented.

Fig 10 : Chemical stabilization of soil

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Moisture control

Swell and shrinkage can be reduced if water is prevented from moving into soil under and near
the building post construction. For this purpose, moisture barriers are placed around the
perimeter of the building. They efficiently reduce the variations in water content and differential
heave.

Fig 11 : Moisture barrier for moisture control

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Conclusion:
Deeper foundations are much safer than shallow foundations as they offer more frictional
resistance. Providing cushions under the foundations can reduce effect of swelling potential on
foundation. Granular Pile concept is a new concept which is more effective and economically
viable than the existing foundation practices, particularly under light structures. As moisture
changes are responsible for the swelling of expansive soils, it is better to provide moisture barriers
around the building area to prevent the percolation of moisture. Some chemicals form water
proofing agents, when they are mixed with the soil and prevents the access of moisture. Swelling
soils are considered one of the problematic types of soils. They swell upon wetting, and shrink
due to drying. Civil engineering projects constructed over or within them may be subject to
distress, ranging from negligible cracks to very sever structural damages. In order to measure the
magnitude of the detrimental effects of expansive soils on the foundations, it is necessary to
determine their swelling potentials. Swell potential may be found by careful analysis of various
tests. In general as the particle sizes that are less than 0.002 mm (clay and colloid) and their plastic
index are increased in a soil, the swelling potential of that particular soil is increased as well. There
are a number of remedial methods to overcome high swelling potential of expansive soils causing
structural damages. Even for a given case; however, one specific method may not be the answer,
and it might be necessary to combine several different methods. The most commonly used
techniques include:

 Elimination or reduction of swelling potential of expensive soil.

 Use of sufficiently strong stactures that will remain undamaged in spite of the swelling.
 Isolating the stracture from the swelling soil.

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References:

1- Kanwarjob singh, civil engineering portal.(online), available from:

https://www.engineeringcivil.com/foundation-in-expansive-soil.html

2- Alex N, Soil: Preparation and Improvement. (online),

Available from:
https://www.learningwithexperts.com/gardening/blog/soil-preparation-and-
improvement#:~:text='Difficult'%20means%20those%20that%20may,sands%2C%20c
halk%20soils%20and%20loams.

3- Characterization and Improvement of Difficult Soils,frontiers. (online), available from:

https://www.frontiersin.org/research-topics/34151/characterization-and-
improvement-of-difficult-soils

4- Author, Jon Traunfeld, HGIC Director and Extension Specialist,Fruits,and Vegetables.

2020, (online), available from:
https://extension.umd.edu/resource/common-soil-problems

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