260 iezede2| The drag coefficient ¢, has been shown to correlate with the Reynolds! number Flas” Wn dv where is the particle diameter (m), » is the kinematic viscosity of air or gas (n?s) For ogg <1. Gp = (26/ Read) (1+ 3° Reg/6) For 1< Ren < 10%, 04+ 26 /Re* For 1000 < Rey < 10°, ape. wg_veloci ty The non-spherical bodies generally tend to orient in a preferred di- rection during fall, and this effect is not generally predictable. For example, at high Reynolds’ numbers, a disc always falls horizon- tally with its flat face perpendicular to its direction of travel. On the other hand, a streamlined body will fa11 nose down, in its atti- tude of least resistance. At Tow Reynolds’ numbers, a particle such as disc or ellipsoid with three perpendicular symmetry planes will fall in any position. The general tendency is for the shape and sur- face of irregular particles to influence the rate of fall in such a manner that the particle will fall at a lower velocity than does a sphere of equivalent weight. The effect of particle shape is accoun- ted for by introducing the sphericity factor ¥. The sphericity factor 4 of a particle is the surface area of a sphere of equivalent volume divided by the particle surface area s,1.2.3.3 Fig 261 U6 VAS, (11.4) vel for a sphere ie effect of particle shape on the settling velocity is shown in Figure 11.8¢ Wengen ¥ 10 cr) 05 05 04 03} Trae Tec oy 4m 11.8c - Effect of particle shape on settling velocity Bip \g_velocity The equation (11.3) giving the settling velocity (w.) applies to particles falling freely in an infinite fluid medium. In the case of @ particle falling through a pipe, the displacement of the fluid due to the particle volume creates an additional retarding effect. The free fall velocity of the particle is thus reduced The pipe diameter effect on free fall velocity is given by (4/07 as) where w, is the actual settling velocity of the particle (m/s), D is the pipe diameter (m), 4, is the particle equivalent diameter (m)262 1.2.3.4 If particles gather together or even concentrate locally in clusters, they will fall much faster. It has been observed that dense powder air suspensions always collapse very quickly when flow ceases. More- over, this is at a much faster rate than the terminal velocity of a single particle would suggest. The combined effect of pipe diameter, particle shape and interference due to other particles on the sett- ling velocity is shown in figure 11.8d. et 80mm 1 experiment 0. = 40 mm TE ea enperiment 3 = 28 mm T] —p~——etreory Dis the pipe aia | | | 0.03 on 10 4, (mm) Fig. 11-84 ~ Actual settling velocity of particles at maximum load- ‘ing in horizontal conveyance. The dense ponder/air suspension falls at a much faster rate than the settling velocity of @ single particle would suggest263 1.2.3.5 The transport velocity The air velocity needed to carry the heaviest particle along is the minimum conveying velocity, this being greater in a horizontal pipe than in @ vertical pipe. The solids have to be accelerated by the air stream as quickly as possible to the minimum conveying velocity. Once this velocity is attained, further passage along a pipe only increa- ses the particle velocity due to expansion of the air stream. Opera~ tion below the minimun conveying velocity causes separation of the particles out of the air stream. Such settling out is called salta~ tion in a horizontal pipe and choking in a vertical pipe. Small pipe Hines can be operated satisfactorily somewhat below the choking velo- city in which cases the discharge emerges periodically as slugs of material. Table 11.2 gives the minimum conveying velocity for a num- ber of fine-grained materials. Table 11.2 ~ Minimum conve ng_veloci s for fluidizable onders Woeerial ‘Average bulk Winimum safe air density (kg/a?) speed (n/s) vertical | horizontal cement 1000 ~ 1400 18 15 Flour 00 1s 4s Pulverised coat 700 15 45 Pulverised ash 700 1s 45 Fullers earth 500 - 800 15 6 Bentonite 700 - 1000 1S ; 7.5 Barite 1200 ~ 2000 45 15 silica flour 00 ~ 1000 1s 6 Fluorspar 1500 3 9 Phosphate rock ve00 3 9 Tripotypnospha te 1000 1s 15 comon salt 1300 3 9 (vacuum dried) Soda ash (Tight) 500 | 3 9 Soda ash (dense) 1000 3 2 Sodiun sulphate | 1200 - 1400 3 12 Sodium perborate 00 3 9 Ground bauxite 1400 15 16 Alumina { 900 15 | 78 Kieselguhr 200 1s 18 Magnesite 1500 3 9 Uranfum dioxide 3360 6 1264 The transport velocity w is obtained from the relation b= tigi, = mlb we A} (11.6) where ri, is the mass rate of flow of solids (kg/s), ri, is the mass rate of flow of air (kg/s) Thus Fig. w= riflo- ws Ad (7) The transport velocity w must be greater than the minimum conveying velocity (table 11.3) to cater for eventualities such as momentary overloading of the conveyor or reductions of flow. Table 11.3 - Recommended transport velocities for vacuum and low pressure systems ju < 10) | Average transport velocities m/s eee Bulk Vacuum | _Low pressure Material density system system kg/m Coffee beans | 670 22 “4 Flour 640 | u Lime pebble 897 30 a oats 400 30 V7 salt cake 1442 36 25 sugar 801 33 18 Coarse sand 1 522 36 25 wheat 770 30 v7 1.2.3.6 7 The equation which governs the motion of a particle as it moves in a pipe by flying and jumping is (figures 11.9 and 11.10)266 LITTIET Gp 1.92 - Forces acting on a solid Fig. 11.9b ~ Flight motion of a single solid particle when blown by the particle in an air stream air stream in a pipeline Fig. 11.10 - Forces acting on a solid particle blown by an air stream in an inclined pipe im, dey jet = Fy — G+ sin ®~ Fy (1g) where F, is the drag force (N), F, is the retardation force caused by the collision of the particle with other particles and the pipe walls (N), G, is the weight of particle (N), © is the inclination of the pipe to the horizontal (°) Once the solid particle is accelerated to the conveying velocity: dv, fle = 0 and Fy = G, sn OFF,266 since Po ee, Gy 2 = G Hence ! 5, fll wna = sin Fy /6,f ais) ft For vertical conveying @= 90° i Thus (7 — Wig = (+ Fy GB? (17,10) since Fy, <1 thus for vertical conveying tw — wu, Figure 11.11 shows the forces acting on a single particle in verti- cal transport. For horizontal conveying @= 0° and (= Wig ~ Fg GI? The value of K is as yet uncertain. [5] gives the following equation for air and solid velocity ratio for horizontal conveying267 medin,/at 2 Fig. 11.11 = Forces acting on a single solid particle in vertical transport whe, = 1+ Wm AAM2- 9° DD} qua) where A." is the pipe friction coefficient for solids. Experimentally obtained values of 2,*are given in table 11.4. ssure_loss_in dilute phase transport of solids by air The fall in pressure in dilute phase pneumatic transport of solids is made up of three components. a) Acceleration press: OP op, 4p, 18 composed of two parts, viz. (i) the pressure drop due to the acceleration of air or gas Bog, we (11.12) (it) the pressure drop caused by the acceleration of solids ag a Bw (11.13)268 Table 11.4 - Friction coefficient »,* for various materials Transported material Friction coefficient with pipe made of | Steel (heat| Steet (not | Aluminium | Copper treated) | treated) | (hard) (soft) Glass balls 0.0025 | 0.0032 0.0051 0.0053 (4 mm dia.) | | | wheat | 0.0032 | 0.0024 0.0032 0.003 Coal 0.0023 0.0019 0.0007 | 0.0012 (3 to § mm grain dia.) Coke fragments 0.0014 0.0034 0.008 =| 9.0019 (cylindrical § am long | 4.5 mm dia.) Quartz 0.006 0.0072 | 0.0185 0.031 (3 to 5 am grain dia.) Silica carbide = = 0.036 = (approx. 3 mm grain dia.) | Crushed glass balls — 0.0123 — }-— with approx. 2.5 mm dia.| | | b) ictional pressure drop ap, The total pressure drop due to the friction can be attributed partly to the solids and partly to the gas. Thus op = 80, + 20, qa) where dp, is the pressure drop due to friction which would occur if the gas were flowing alone at the same condition, while dp, is the additional pressure drop due to the presence of solids. The total friction drop is expressed as: og = pW Lt ANZ: DD (11.15)269 \ is the pipe friction coefficient for air is the effective friction coefficient due to the presence of solids Lis the pipe length (m) The variation of the friction coefficient a, with the Froude number Fr = w/ig- 0)" and with x*, is shown in figure 11.12. 10 ra 10 3 1 3 1 3 io Transport: Vertical Fw, Horizontal Fr? + w, An, Fig. 11.12 - Friction coefficient » for vertical and horizontal pneumatic conveyance vitational_pressure drop do, Elevating the material through a vertical height # (m) causes the pressure drop which is given by:270 1.2.3.8 og = TFB pg a) Bog = 8: Begg where 8 is given by: Ratio of 8 Bend radius/pipe diameter imple wheat transport rate density of wheat grain size pipe diameter horizontal transport length vertical : : solid loading allowed pipe friction coeff. for air pipe friction coeff. for solids air density bend constant number of bends Find the pressure drop over the length of the Calculation: (11.16) q.a7) 324 ko/h = 0.09 kg/s 1400 kg/m? 3 om 40 mm len 6m 4.85 0.02 0.002 1.23 kg/m? 0.5 pipelinean Transport velocity 9 = ri A sp) © 009+ 4/[m- (0.04)* - 485° 1.23) w= 12 m/s From figure 11-8; w= 8 m/s, eo — (9/40)*) m/s Friction coeff Wr =f age BAAD: 9° DIP » fr+a-joooe/2-2.81-0.08)'%} 07-12 = 84 m/s FF = wg: D) = 148/19.81- 0.04) » 367 (w,/wg) FP = (8.4/8)> 967 = 385 From figure 11.12, 0.007 Acceleration pressure loss 23-1272 = 88 Pa ogg ~ 0 WW? wf = 123° AB5- 144-0.7 = 601 Pa Pressure loss du ¢ to elevation 0g = (1+ Bp gH = 585° 1.23- 981-6 = 423 Pa og = [0° W? ML + MIDI) (A+ wD,) = [1.28- 144+ 22/2 0.04)} (0.02 + 4.85- 0.007) = 2627 Pa Pressure loss due to bends Ag = 9 w* (05) 2/2 = 1.23: 144-05 = 88 Pa Total pressure loss: Ap = 88+ 601 + 423-+ 2627 + 88 = 3827 Pa272 13 Dense phase conveying In dense phase conveying, the material moves as a compact mass under air pressure. In high pressure blow tank systems, the flow of material through the larger part of the pipeline is in dense phase. The low ve~ locity of conveyed stream makes the dense phase systems ideal for con- veying pondered abrasive or friable material. The air pressure requi- red to move a plug of compact mass, however, is roughly proportional to the square of the length of the plug. Hence, in practice, only short plugs can be transported over long distances. A recent semi- continuous device designed to reduce the specific air consumption is known as jet-pulse system (figure 11.13). The principle of the system is to arrange the solid material in the form of a series of short plugs. The system uses pulsed air injection at the inlet of the pipe- Tine. Very small volunes of air are used to produce a velocity of about 6 m/s. The system was originally designed specifically for very cohesive materials but it is also capable of conveying some free flon- jing materials over a distance of up to 200 m. Solid loadings # range fron 25 to 200, and the specific energy consumption is about 20% of that of a low pressure conventional system. storage hopper powder valve air flow control Fig. 11.13 - Jet-pulse system. Dense phase conveyorn 273 Another device for packed bed or dense phase conveying of material is Shown in figure 11.14. High pressure air is intruduced at various sta- tions along the pipe length. An optimum is sought between the segment of pipe length and the pressure required. Tests on such systems of 500m Tength and up to 40 ton/h capacity involving various materials, nave shown that the specific power consumption can be reduced to one fifth of that of a conventional system if air pressures are kept high and the transport speed is kept low. The operation range is in the re- gion u = 30 to 150 Fig. 11.14 - A dense phase system for “plug” transport AL 4 = Dawn tM Fig. 11.15 - Forces acting on a “plug” of solid material in dense phase transport Method of calculation for conveyance as “plugs” In order to obtain a simple formula for calculations, it is assumed that the pressure drop is proportional to the wall friction caused by the body forces. If the plug occupies the whole cross-section of the pipe and moves with a steady velocity w, along the pipe, the equation governing the motion (figure 11.15) is 4p A= 6-8 (11.18)274 where g is the sliding friction coefficient Now im, = tiydin, Put then d= ws Be pgs wean, sp = pith: 7) then Alp = Beg: usw: deft T-w,) If p, and p, are the initial and final pressures then Dy = i, €xD- [Peg L wR Tw J) (11.19) It was found experimentally that for most loose materials, the co- efficient of friction # = 0.4 to 0.8, with a mean value of about 0.6. The operational data from actual conveyor pipelines shows thet slip ratio ww depends on the product uf and on ¢ (figure 11.16). where ris the mean air density/bulk density of solids = = 05: to, +0410, (11.20) and SN BRI Pe BY q.2iy Experience has shown that M075, soe and = 10711.3.2 275 and thus 616108 FS TEE Large values of the parameter $ occur for the transport of fine dust with grain sizes between about 10 and 100 mat normal pressure and at air velocities of 10 to 15 m/s. Small values are encountered for the same dusts and corresponding pipe diameters at higher pressures (several atmospheres) and velocities from 3 to 6 m/s 10 os Fig. 11.16 - Relation between w,v and wT Illustrative example Transport rate of powder = 1.2 t/h Horizontal pipe length e+ 150m Available flow rate of air at 0.1 MPa and +20 °C =19 n/n Maximum pipe size b= 36 nm Grain diameter 4, = 75 um Bulk density of powder 2, = 800 kg/m? Solid density 8, = 1190 kg/m? Air density p= 1.2 kg/m276 Solution The free fall velocity we = 0.14 m/s Fe = waJlg: D)'? = 0.14/9.81- 0.096)" = 0.236 = riyflo Gy) = 1200/11.2- 19) = 63 w = q,/A = 4° 19/\n- (0.036F - 9600) = § m/s Fr = 5981-0.095)"" = 84 T= by ht, = 06: 1p, (p,1/500 = 1.2 109-11 +p,/o,) ke = 0.068: (1 +p, /0,) $= 16-10 (84) 1.2: 10 (1+ 9, fo,VO296 or 034° (1+p,/o,) lB, ~ &P [59 .6- 150/129.27 - 283° w,/w)| = exp [O.6/w,/w)} 0.20 | 0.21 | 0.22 1.09 | 1.12 | 1.16 0.68 | 0.68 | 0.69 exp: [ .6/f, fu) 2.42 | 2.2 | 2.42 | 2.39 Thus fe, = 24 or 4p = 0.18 MPa 2.6 0.23 1.22 0.70 2.36 « " u rfComparison of results = —srs Theory 0.14 5 53 Experiment | 0.14 | 3.99 | 83 Table 11.5 gives the data for pneumatic conveyo materials and high loadings Table 11.5 - Data for pneumatic conveyor: 217 0.59 rs obtained for fine obtained for, I Je blale [= Material jm m m {tn | win | kee ‘cement raw meal ve [= | val 11.5] 200 | 3.15] 0.25 0.25] 102 | 0.88 | 2690 frooo 14 Fluidised gravity feed systems The simplest types of pneumatic conveyors are fluidised gravity con- veyors often called “Air slides" or Fluidors" in providing the low pressure compressed air through a porous medium for fluidisation of the material (figure 11.17) Power is expended only The fluidised material then flows down the inclined chute. Typical278 gradient is 2 to 30 . The air consumption is normally between 0.3 and 5 m/min per square metre of aeration area. The systems are not suitable for granular products. material inlets = thuidised raviity iL B-8 conveyer Bh 8 outlet ig. 11.17 ~ Design of a fluidised gravity conveyor for road vehicles 1.5, Pneumatic capsule systems The lowest specific energy consumption of 0.3 to 0.75 kilh/ton, km may be achieved by transporting the material in capsules. The capsules run on rubber wheels in pipes and the throughput is limited only by the maximum r/min of the wheels. A one-metre diameter experimental conmercial pneumatic capsule line 2.2 km long has been operating since 1971 in the USSR for carrying gravel from a quarry to a build- ing yard. 11.6 System components A pneumatic conveying system consists of (a) a pick-up system, (b) a conveying pipeline and (c} a separator. 11.6.1 Pick-up On basis of pick-up arrangements commercially available pneunatic conveying systems nay be classified as (1) Material into air systems: In these systems material is induced into the stream of air by vacuum, created either by suction (figure 11.184} or by using an ejector (figure 11.18b). Several pick-up ar-Vacuum ket SE, EY cierto ine b bint. pine. 2 | N sir tock Ef sate Irom vehicle ieee sev erd Fig 11.182 - Negative-pressure (vacuum), material-into-air system aun Lin se sus collector ae rotary air-lock feeder tues thet aa ea ve check injector vane conveying ig. 11.18 - Positive-pressure, material-into-air system rangements for vacuum systems are shown in figure 11.19. The pick-up nozzles of vacuum systems should be designed as a bell-mouth and pro- vided with a screen to prevent the entrance of foreign material280 blower 11.6.2 vont fier level indicator vent fan tangential air filter entry f ic activated T0"enE Soa vita a conveyor iter) compressor silencer mixing chamber to process compressor Fig. 11.18 - Air-mixing system (2) Air-mixing system: The air and material are intermixed in a speci- al type of feeder at the entrance to the conveying line. The result is an air stream with high solid loading (figure 11.18c) (3) Blow-tank or air-into material system: The air enters the blow- tank, a cylindrical pressure vessel with a conical bottom filled with material. The air fluidises the material to cause flow (figure 11.20). Pipeline The pneumatic pipeline should be laid out as far as possible in a straight line between the supply and delivery points. The changes n direction should be kept as few as possible. Inclined piping should always be avoided. The material in an inclined pipe tends to roll down the slope as air passes over it creating congestion at the bottom of the slope. This can cause pulsating or sluggish flow and excessive pressure loss The material is metered into or out of the conveying pipeline by means of rotary airlock feeder, abrasive resistant gate or valve or a screw feeder (figure 11.18) The flow of materials in a pipeline builds up an electrostatic charge on the piping. It is not generally possible to calculate the magnitude281 conveying line vows f \ air adjustment ring coupling sie inlet unloading hoss VLE wooed \\ayf sue ‘7 wo (TLFT ©) heel as ra Fig. 11.19 - Pick-up arrangements for vacuum systems feed in $Y roy otua cock feed in sirmanifotd eee ‘luidisation pads Sarin Fig. 11.20 - Air-into-material systems Blow-tank: left - high pressure right - low pressure282 6 3 of electrostatic charge generation from the properties of powder and the details of the process in which it is involved. The magnitude of electrification has to be determined by measurement. A typical value of surface charge density at which sparking will occur is 10° c/n? The charge levels on polymeric powders dispersed in a cloud can be estimated by multiplying the total surface area involved by this va~ lue of surface charge density. In pneumatic transport the charge den- sity is of the order of 10° crs. The charge must be dissipated by earthing the pipeline. Blowers and compressors The type of blower or compressor selected for pneumatic conveying sy- stems is determined by the pressure and airflow required for the sy- stem plus proper allowance for leakage into or out of the system and a factor for the lack of knowledge and experience. The centrifugal blowers are used for small solid loading systems. For high solid load~ jing systems such as blow-tanks or dense phase conveyors, @ screw or piston compressor is the usual choice. The sliding vane compressor is generally used on systems in which air and material are mixed in a chamber at the entrance to the conveying Tine. For suction and vacuum systems an ejector can be used if compressed air supply is available. The characteristic curves of various pressure sources are shown in figure 11.21. The system characteristics are shown by the curves A, Band C. As material is drawn into the conveying line, the system resistance increases. The pressure source tends to operate at another point on its head curve viz. one with a higher head and lower volume flow. If too much material is drawn into the conveying line, the Flow will decrease in case of centrifugal blowers to the point where material starts settling down in the pipeline. The centrifugal blowers and exhausters (ejectors or vacuum pumps) with drooping head curves are therefore not suitable for pneumatic conveyance. Those with steep characteristics such as positive displacement blowers where volume flow changes are relatively small for a given change in pressure are preferred for pneumatic conveying application.11.6.4 283, rate of flow of ait A ~ system resistance with air only 8 - system resistance with initial solid loading C = system resistance with higher solid loading D - centrifugal blowers, characteristic curve E = ejectors, characteristic curve F = positive displacement blowers, characteristic curve Fig. 11.21 - Effect of system characteristics on airflow from blowers and ejectors Separators At the delivery point the material is separated from the air stream. Dustless material may be separated by all-wing it to fall into hoppers under gravity. The conveying air is allowed to escape to the atmosphere through a vent. Granular material may be recovered in a cyclone separator (figure 11.22). Simple cyclones are conical in shape. The air stream is directed tan- gentially into a conical vessel to produce the whirling. The stream dis- charges axially at the wide end. The centrifugal force flings particles to the walls of the container down which they slide to the outlet. Having separated the coarse particles the conveying air is freed from dust by means of bag filters (figure 11.23). The sizing and selection of dust filters is based on past experience and on actual tests using specific materials at specific solid loadings. | : ! | a284 rotary ook saiclmateriat tangentiat inte =—C™ Fig. 11.22 - Schematic of a simple cyclone a filter bag Fig. 11.23 - Bagfilter receiver 11.6.5 ‘System design The design of pneumatic conveying systems is largely empirical. The solutions are dependent on the nature of the material to be handled ‘and they do not Tend themselves to general analysis. Most designers have experimental facilities and this is still the only way to obtain optimum operating design data such as pipe diameter, air pressure and air flow rate. It is always better to have power in hand, both as re- gards pressure and capacity of the compressor, rather than work to minimum requirementsa (2) re} oy 51 Stoess, H.A., Pneumatic conveying, John Wiley and Sons, 1970 Muschelknautz, E. and Krambrock, W., Simplified calculation. for horizontal pneumatic conveyor pipelines with high material load~ ing of fine grained products, Chemie-Ing.-Techn. (41), 1969, 21, pp. 1164 - 1172 Flatt, W. and Allensprach, W., Capacity and efficiency increase of pneumatic conveying systems through the use of Buhler-Fluid- stat systems, Chemie-Ing.-Techn. (41), 1969, 21, pp. 1173 - 1176 Pheumotransport 1 (1971) and Pneunotransport 2 (1973), BHRA Cranfield, Bedford, England Weber, M., Strémungsftrdertechnik, Krausskopf-Verlag, 1974 :287 Compressors S.B. Andersson The two basic groups are displacement and dynamic compressors. n the former, the pressure rise is obtained by enclosing a volume of in a confined space, following which the volume is reduced by mechanical action. Well-known members of this family are the recipro- cating piston compressor and the rotary screw compressor. The capacity is not affected by the working pressure, except for changes in internal leakage and volumetric efficiency (figure 12.1). Some positive displacement compressors (screw compressors, vane compressors, etc.) have a fixed (built-in) pressure ratio. When the actual working pressure does not correspond with the built-in pressure ratio, the compression process will be.in accordance with one of the graphs shown in figure 12.2. For small deviations, the loss incurred may be neglected. Compressors are available in which the built-in pressure ratio may be varied In a dynamic compressor, the pressure rise is obtained by imparting kinetic energy to a continuously flowing gas and converting the ener- sy to pressure energy in sone form of diffuser. The group of dynamic compressors includes ejectors, centrifugal compressors and axial compressors. The capacity of a dynamic compressor varies with the working pressure (fiqure 12.1). pressure 129] 109] 0 60 40] 20} ol le 020-40 6080 100 720% capacity Fig. 12.1 - Constant speed compressor characteristics: a) positive displacement compressor b) centrifugal compressor c) axial compressor288 pressure operation at ‘operation above operation below design pressure design pressure design pressure Tada pear] = \__ (discharge) discharge pressure design pressure design pressure jischarge pressure pressure voume volume volume Fiq. 12.2 - Operation at pressures deviating from the built-in pressure ratio 12.0.1 Ejectors form a very special group which is mainly used for vacuum applications. They are treated in section 22. Compressors not working with atmospheric intake pressures are called booster compressors or vacuum pumps as the case may be. Vacuum pumps are described in section 12.3. Booster compressors A booster is a compressor which draws in air or gas that has already been compressed and delivers this gas at a certain higher pressure. Booster compressor applications are numerous, especially in the oil and gas fields and related industries. They are often used on long pipelines to compensate for pressure drop. Compression may be either single-stage or multi-stage. For a given delivery pressure the mass flow of gas increases with the intake pressure and thereby also the power consumption, but only up to a certain value from which the influence of the decreased pressure ratio will dominate (figure 12.3). Different compressor designs The more common compressor types are shown in figure 12.4. Their main characteristics are described below. (For a summary see table 12.1.)289 le L 67 8:10? kPa absolute inlet pressure Fig. 12.3 - Theoretical isentropic power consumption of a single stage booster compressor working at an absolute discharge pressure of 800 kPa. Capa- city 16.7 1/s at intake pressure compressors dynamic [___deplaernent ejector axial c= J ie rotary reciprocating Roots trunk OQ © & @ Fig. 12.4 - Basic compressor types290 Table 12.1 - Characteristics of air compressors (Typical but not limiting) ispcement ype wees Sromcing | evthacing | Rows vam | a | | | fee 1 Inne of rer ce ows oc _ soca et eh pt = = Tepe of ta weed a od oil injected: a cine rne | tier % ona | aeoom rt | soon | at -3-10 ‘capacity regulation ‘valve unload. 7 a oars eee oe ie te roti oti ‘bypass and Needing | ockets ‘adjustable outlet port. inlet throttling, eaten Barton aie sae ne tow ype sale | Sa oon vera patonsot | sbleshowse int pasting | pore | Sens Wid teaver in om ate oni otnmm | 1-4 fame t= 12a eww | a1-s0 9.1-100 "] tinea i presage | Yaugeio07 | faogeto045 | tsugeroo1 |reaetoo4 | oeebe i Zio to30 | 2augeww St | Supiwoss |2aegiete | os o-2 foes Biagio | Saigeioss To too : (Sep e a _ | siege na | | liquid injection | air-cooled or coating | scoot | satrcoted ercosed | hq waterconn bt cag iret | reste | sone Seiwcmed” | hal jeion| “Sorsicans ro indo Sere” | keene see haretonot | temic onsen Set | soe commen sne | ae" | et e Sateen 7 Satay | Solu | rome | Se tom sunt ocd one [tea tea faa satoond now | a 10-1800 | 300-1000 | 6003600 | 400-2600 | 1000-2000 | soon emo | 6000-20000 Bion rin ator anin rot cont | rotor ain eae ge aby ssi ot a Sewer | Starrs Settee | Since | Se sat atoning rich _| pstonsings | ein | ing . speed of moving parts | ‘mean piston speed: ‘rotor tip speed: | ‘peripheral speed: 7 [= [2-2 | x-10 180-270 fry te tod vwrtionin | gents on rr of beg | Sides and th arangement | racer) | one ] seen or woke diner dict e ie tom tino me | ve 8 sour lat Radial (Centrifugal) compressors Figure 12.5 shows a centrifugal compressor. This compressor type is characterized by radial flow. The a rotating wheel with radial vanes, known as the impeller, which ejects gas is admitted into the centre of291 inlet flange discharge flange a guide vane thrust bearing casing Fig. 12.5 - Sectional drawing of a typical five-stage, horizontally split, centrifugal compressor the gas towards the periphery by centrifugal force. Before being guided to the centre of the next impeller, the gas passes a diffuser, where the kinetic energy is converted to pressure. The stage pressure ratio is determined by the amount of velocity change, and the density of the gas. Centrifugal compressors are well suited for intercooling between stages or stage groups, which makes the compression more isothermal and im- proves the efficiency. In order to minimize pressure losses, the coolers are fairly bulky, as dynamic compressors are sensitive to pressure drops. Centrifugal compressors for effective pressures below 0.4 MPa are usually not cooled. Operating speeds are high compared to other com- Pressors, 50 000 to 100 000 r/min being common in the aircraft and aerospace industries, where weight is a major factor. Most commercial centrifugal units operate at around 20 000 r/min, with a distinct upward trend. Centrifugal compressors are built with horizontally split casings for inlet pressures from vacuum and discharge pressures up to 6 MPa, and292 capacities up to 7 m/s. The casings are vertically split (barrel type) for pressures up to 14 MPa (smaller types up to 35 MPa) and capa cities up to 4 m3/s. The barrel type has two casings, one inside the other. The minimum capacity of a centrifugal compressor is mainly limited by the flow through the last stage. A practical limit is 160 1/s at the outlet of a horizontally split compressor and about 90 1/s for a high pressure centrifugal compressors of the barrel type. The efficiency of dynamic compressors, at a normal working pressure of 0.7 MPa, is not as high as that of the displacement compressors, except for at very high capacities. Axial compressors Figure 12.6 shows a typical axial compressor. This compressor type is characterized by the gas flowing in an axial direction. The gas passes axially along the compressor through alternate rows of rotating blades which impart velocity to the gas and stationary blades which convert the yelocity to pressure. The minimum capacity of this type is around 14 w/s. Cooling between the stages is difficult to arrange on axial compres- sors. This is one of the factors that limit the pressure ratio over each casing. Fig. 12.6 - Section through a 9-stage axial compressor with adjustable stationary blades12a) 293 Due to their smaller diameter, axial compressors operate at higher speeds than centrifugals for a given duty, usually about 25% higher Axial compressors are mostly used for constant flow applications and for moderate pressures. With the exception of the compressors used in the aircraft jet engines, the maximum pressure ratio is normally Timi ted to 6 for each casing. The axial compressor is best suited for plants requiring large but constant quantities of air. A typical application is blast furnace blowing. Axial compressors are normally used for capacities above 65 m/s and at effective pressures up to 1.4 MPa. Vane compressors The rotary vane compressor is a single-shaft, positive displacement compressor with a built-in pressure ratio. It has also found appli- cations as a vacuum pump and booster compressor. Figure 12.7 shows the working cycle of a vane compressor. Uuo|ssaiduioo rotor with sliding vanes, 928 is gradually compressed a pockets get smaller discharge as rotor turns, gas is trapped compressed gas is pushed out in pockets formed by vanes ‘through discharge port Fig. 12.7 - A rotary vane compressor