Julius Carl M.

Ambohot
B.S in Civil Engineering 3P
CE325 Highway Railroad Engineering

Final Term Activity

Week 10
UNIFIED CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

• Unified soil classification is a modified version of a kasagrins airfield classification AC system

develop in 1942 for the corps of engineers

. Since 1942 the original classification has been expanded and revised in the cooperation with
the Bureau of reclamation.

• It applies not only to airfields but also to embankments, foundation and other engineering
features. This is the most adopted in 1952.

• In 1969 the American society testing and materials ASTM adopted the unified

system as a standard method for classification for engineering purposes the ASTM test
designation D2487 • USCS is the system used internationally to classify soils most commonly it
employs a two-letter symbols The first letter indicates whether the soil is
• The second letter gives additional information on the soil for dirty coarse grain soil
(with #200>12%) it can be sy indicating that the gravel or sand has a significant amount of silt or
clay particles in it.

For the clean coarse grained soil the second letter can be <clean & well-graded (W)>

meaning all the particle sizes are more or less represented. clean & poorty-graded

(P) meaning not all the particle sizes are represented. For Fine grain soll the second letter can be

And SC (clayey sands) would be a soil with the majority of its particles in the sand

size grain and the atterberg limit of the portion smaller than 0.425 millimeters

consistent with the atterberg limits of clay

The GP (poorly-graded gravel) would be the soil with the majority of its particles in

the gravel size range and poorly graded.

ML (low plasticity silt) base on its atterberg limit CH (high plasticity clay) base on its atterberg
limit

The USCS 2 letter symbols are understood throughout the world and help the

geotechnical engineers to communicate with each regardless of their native languages

CLASSIFICATION PROCESS

• The exact process of classifying a soil consists of a series of steps organized

in a decision tree. The first decision is based on the percent passing the number
#200 sleves which has an opening of 0.075 millimeters. If the soil has more than
50 particles by way larger than 0.075 millimeters sieve #200. The soil is a coarse
grained soil. If the soil has more than 50 by weight smaller than 0.075 millimeters
sieve #200 the soil is fine grain soil for coarse grain soils if the percent by weight
of gravel-sized particles is larger than the weight of the sand-sized particles the
soil is a gravel and

the first letter is (G), if not the soil is a sand and the first letter is (S).

The second letter for a coarse grained soil is W, P, M or C. if the soil has less
than 5%

passing #200 it is clean and the and second letter will be W or P depending on
the

coefficient of the uniformity CU and the Coefficient of curvature CC obtained

from the

particles size distribution curve. If the coarse grain soil has more than 12%
passing #200 the soil is dirty and the second letter will be M or C depending on
the atterberg limits of the portion smaller than 0.425 millimeters and will be
selected if the soil plots below the airline on the plasticity chart and see if it plots
above if the percent passing #200 is between 5% or 12% then the dual symbol
will be required as the soil is intermediate between clean and dirty in this
instance the classification for the less than 5% case and more than 12% case are
obtained and the soil ends up with a dual symbols for example GPGC or SWSM
for fine-grained soil the plasticity index and the liquid limit are plotted on the
plasticity chart and the dual symbol is read from the quadrant of the chart where
the point is situated.
The soils are classified based on the following criteria.
1. Coarse grain size particles - retained on the #200 sieve 0.075 millimeters

2. gravel-sized particles - retained on the #4 sieve 4.75 millimeters

3. sand-size particles - passing #4 Sieve retained on the #200

4. fine grain size particles - passing #200)

5. plastic and liquid limit

6. coefficient of uniformity (Cu)

7. coefficient of curvature (Cc)

#003 AASHTO SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

. This system was originally proposed in1928 by the I.S. Bureau of public

roads for use by highway engineers. A committee of highway engineers for the
highway research board, met in 1945 and made an extensive revision of the P.R.A.
System. This system is known as AASHTO SYSTEM or American Association of
state highway and Transportation Officials System (ASTM D-3282, AASHTO Method
M 145)

GROUP INDEX

• The GI is a means of rating the value of a soil as a subgrade materials within its
own group: It is not used in order to place a soil in a particular group, this is
done directly from the results of sieve analysis. The liquid limit and plasticity
index.

• The GI number are written in parentheses after the group or subgroup

designation • The higher the value of the GI, the poorer is the quality of the
material. So the GI should not exceed 20 for any of group A-4 through A-7

The GI is a function of the amount of material passing the #200 sieve, the liquid
limit and the plasticity index:
INTRODUCTION OF SOIL COMPACTION
c. According to AASHTO table, A-1-b (0) is excellent to good and also generally the
non-plastic material

is not affected by swelling or shrinking so this material is a good for foundation

material

Compaction is one of the construction tasks that takes place and practically every
construction project wither is densifying failed beneath the slab on the ground or
compacting the clay core of an earthen dam therefore it is important that we
understand how compaction works and the good news is that the theory and
practice is relatively simple. There are three things that we need to know:

1. what do we mean by compacting or what is its definition 2. How do we execute

and monitor the compaction process to ensure that the finished

product meets the engineers specification.

3. What is the theory behind the soil compaction > Compaction - is define as the
increase in soil density due to the expulsion of air and
this is done by mechanical means. Compaction is not to be confused with
consolidation which is increase in soil density as a result of exploitation of
moisture as we saw earlier this is a time dependent process controlled by the
permeability of the soil. There are many techniques for compacting soil.

• For coarse-grained soils such as sands and gravels smooth drum rollers are
popular and for small areas packer plates may be used for fine grained soils such
as claves sheepsfoot rollers or pneumatic rollers are more popular. This equipment
is typically effective for relative shallow lifts of soil. In the order of 250 mil loose
lifts for deeper compaction of coarse grained soils an impact rollers may be used
these are effective up to depths of approximately 1 meter and have a much higher
operating velocity than the smooth drum roller so they are much more efficient
even greater depths of compaction can be achieved by using dynamic compaction
our vibro flotation techniques although these methods have limitations when
operating close to existing structures
001 GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION

• It is Important for geotechnical engineers to understand soil particles sizes and

how they are distributed in a soil field sample, 3 characteristic grain size
distributions are used to describe the distribution of particle size in a sample of

soil or aggregates:

1. Well graded coll, in which particle sizes range from sands and gravels to silts
and clay with normal distribution. It has a good representation of all gran sizes.

2. Uniform praded all in which most of the soil particles sizes are limited to a
narrow range.

3. Gap-graded soll (also known as skip-graded soil) which lacks a specific range of
sizes.

TEST METHODS

• Two laboratory test method are used to determine the distribution of particles
sizes by dry weight in a soil or material sample: coarse-

1. Sieve analysis is used to obtain the grain size distribution of grained soil (sands
& gravel) larger than 0.075 mm (retained above No.

200 sieve)

2. Hydrometer analysis - is used to obtain the grain size distribution of fine-grained

soil (silt & clays) smaller than 0.075 mm (passing no. 200 sieve.
ATTERBERG LIMIT

• The atterberg limits of cohesive soil depend on several factors such as the
amount and type of clay minerals and the type of absorbed cation.

LIQUID LIMIT

The liquid limit of the soil is generally determined by the standard Casagrande
device. This device consists of a brass cup and a hard rubber base. The brass cup
can be dropped onto the base by a cam operated by a crank. To perform

the liquid limit test, one must place a soil paste in the cup. A groove is then cut at
the center of the soil path with the standard grooving tool. By using the cranl
operated cam, the cup is lifted and dropped from a higher of 10 millimeters. The
moisture content (in %) required to close a distance of 12.7millimeters along the
bottom of the groove after 25 blows is defined as the liquid limit. It is difficult to
adjust the moisture content in the soil to meet the required 12.7 millimiters closure
of the groove in the soil pad at 25 blows. Hence, at least three tests for the same
soil are conducted at varying moisture content, with the number of blows, N,
required to achieve closure varying between 15 & 35. The moisture content (in %)
and the corresponding number of blows are plotted on semi-logarithmic graph
paper.
The relationship between moisture content and log N is approximated as a straight
line. This line is referred to as the flow curve. The moisture content corresponding
to N=25, determined from the flow curve, gives the liquid limit of the soil

The plastic limit is defined as the moist content (in %) at which the soil

crumbles when roll into threads of 3.2 millimeters diameter. The plastic limit is

the lower limit of the plastic stage of soil. The plastic limit test is simple and is

performed by repeated rolling of an ellipsoidal size soil mass by head on a ground

glass plate

• The procedure for the plastic limit test is given by ASTM Test Designation D-

4318 The difference between the liquid limit (LL) & the plastic limit (PL) of a soil is
defined as the Plasticity Index (Pi)
PLASTICITY INDEX (PX)

• Is an indicator of the range of the moisture over which a soil remains in a plastic
state. The PI is also an indicator of the amount of clay particles in the sample. The
higher the clay particles, the higher the PI and the greater the chance of problem
related to shrink swell potential and compressibility.

the LL and PI are also used to classify fine-grained soils

LIQUIDITY INDEX

the relative consistency of a cohesive soil can be defined by a ratio called the
liquidity index (LI), it is defined as this equation.

Where: Wn - is the natural moisture content - it can be seen from the equation

that, if Wn=LL then the liquidity index

⚫ CBR test measures and compares the load bearing capacity or the strength or
cohesive materials having maximum particle size of 20 mm.

⚫ CBR test is used to evaluate the subgrade strength of road and pavements.

The subgrade CBR value change with the change of subgrade moisture content
The harder the subgrade, the higher the CBR value.

There are 3 basic components in this test:

1. Preparation of soil sample for the CBR test. 2. Determine the pressure required
to penetrate a soil sample with plunger of a standard area. The measured pressure
is then divided by the pressure required to achieve an

equal penetration on a standard crushed rock materials.

3. Determination of moisture content from the soil sample.

Week 11
D. AGREGATES

Construction aggregates - are mineral materials used in the production of construction

materials such as Portland cement concrete and hot-mix

asphalt, and as unbound base courses for pavements. primary role as filler in these materials, the
volume of

aggregates can up 90 95% of asphalt and 70 - 80% of

concrete mixtures.

Aggregates

have a direct and significant impact on the strength, workability, and durability of concrete and
asphalt materials, and even

the final

appearance of structures and pavements.

TO BE EFFECTIVE:

Aggregates must have physical properties that stand up to both EXTERNAL AND

INTERNAL FORCES,

A good aggregate must be at least hard, dense, strong, and free of soft, porous, or

friable particles.

4 Important Physical Characteristics of good aggregates

1. TOUGHNESS - how well the material can be absorb energy and resist

fracturing when force is applied. it requires a balance of strength and ductility which allows the
material to deform before fracturing.

2. DURABILITY

is the resistance to internal forces resulting from freezing and thawing or wetting and drying cycles.

3. SOUNDNESS - is when the aggregate has fewer volds, higher strength and lower

absorption to resist degradation and disintegration by weathering

and internal/external loads.

4. ABRASION RESISTANCE

is a function of aggregate hardness. - help maintain the skid resistance needed for pavement
mixtures
LOS ANGELES ABRASION TEST

✓ Is a widely used procedure that has been around for many years and produces
values that are well understood. Is relatively large, and the test procedure is known
for being "robust and noisy.

The drum has 28"(711 mm) ID

6"x18" Opening (152mm x 508mm) 1hp Electronically Controlled Motor and Chain
Drive

30-33rpm

+ ASTM C131 and C535.- small-size and large-size coarse aggregates + AASHTO T
96 method for small-size coarse aggregate is similar to C131.

HICKO-REVAL TEST//and-2000 miles devel

✓ An alternative to L.A. Abrasion

✓ Is an abrasion loss test carried out on fine or coarse aggregate samples that are
partially submerged in water.

✓ Is essentially a ball mill using stainless steel jars positioned on a roller mechanism.
✓ The results of the test are more focused on durability and abrasion resistance.
ASTM methods for testing coarse and fine aggregates are found in D6928 and D7428

+ Meets ASTM D6928/D7428 STANDARDS/ASHTO T327 STANDARDS/ONTARIO LS-618

STANDARDS/TxDOT 845-49-40 STANDARDS

✓ OPERATING 100 rpm

2-5L Stainless Steel Jar with a Locking lead

Abrasive charge magnet

✓ Can be applied into 2 stainless steel abrasive charge (5,500g each)

✓ Is a cyclical test that evaluates aggregates for durability and resistance to degradation from
freeze-thaw cycles.

Here are variations in the apparatus for sulfate soundness testing, and a number of

components are purchased as needed to carry out the test method in ASTM C88 or AASHTO I
104. AASHTO I 103 is an alternate test method utilizing a similar procedure using water or weak
ethyl-alcohol solution in actual freezing temperatures.
DURABILITY INDEX TEST

✓ Is an abrasion loss test that looks specifically at the production of clay-like fines
as an aggregate sample degrades.

✓ The test is also used to determine the suitability of aggregates for use in bases,
backfill, and riprap. + For the test method in ASTM D3744 and AASHTO T 210/CTM
227 AND 229, the sample is agitated with water in a stainless steel wash vessel on
a Durability Index

Agitator with a lateral reciprocating action.

This rugged and versatile unit run at 285 cpm

ACCELERATED FOLISHUY TEST

Simulates the action of car and truck tires on the coarse aggregates used in
asphalt pavement mixtures.

Selected aggregate pieces are embedded in a circular "road wheel" test fixture,
then

brought into contact with a loaded, rotating rubber tire.

The Accelerated Polishing Machine provides a polish value to classify the

aggregates for their skid resistance. ASTM D3319 and AASHTO T 279, as well as
some European standards.
E. AGGREGATES FOR BITUMINOUS AND PCC PAVEMENTS

Bituminous treated aggregate base is one type of cold mix Asphalt Concrete. It can consist of
processing gravels; crushed stones; or blends of gravel, sand, and crushed

✓
stone materials - each stabilized with a specified percentage of asphalt. The coarse and fine
aggregates used in PCC comprise about 80 to 85 percent of the mix by mass (60 to 75 percent
of the mix by volume). Proper aggregate grading, strength, durability, toughness, shape, and
chemical properties are needed for concrete mixture strength and performance.

F. MINERAL FILLER

✓ Mineral fillers consist of finely divided mineral matter such as rock dust, slag dust, hydrated
lime, hydraulic cement, fly ash, loess (fragments of pre-existing minerals and rock forming a
predominantly silt-sized sediment that is formed by the accumulation of wind-blown dust), or
other suitable mineral matter. The mineral filler consists of very fine, inert mineral matter that
is added to the asphalt mix to improve the density and strength of the mixture. Mineral fillers
make up less than 6% (w/w) of the asphalt mix concrete by mass, and generally less than
about 3% (w/w). A typical mineral filler completely passes a 0.060 mm (No. 30) sieve, with at
least 65% of the particles passing the 0.075 mm (No. 200) sieve.

G. BITUMINOUS MATERIAL AND BINDERS

✓ Bituminous materials are dark brown or black, semi-solid or liquid, thermoplastic

mixtures of hydrocarbons derived from natural or synthetic processes in which hydrocarbon
mixtures have lost their volatile components leaving a denser residue. Natural bitumens come
from exposed and weathered petroleum and rock deposits. Bituminous binders can be
classified into three general groups: asphalt cement, asphalt cutbacks, and emulsified asphalt.
Blown asphalt and road tars are also other types of bituminous material that now are not used
commonly in highway construction.

H. BITUMINOUS AND ASPHALT CONCRETE PAVEMENT

✓ Bituminous concrete is a type of construction material used for paving roads, driveways,
and parking lots. It's made from a blend of stone and other forms of aggregate materials joined
together by a binding agent. This binding agent is called "bitumen" and is a by-product of
petroleum refining. It has a thick, sticky texture like tar when heated, then forms a dense solid
surface once it dries.

✓ Asphalt concrete pavements consist of a combination of layers, which include an

asphalt concrete surface constructed over a granular or asphalt concrete base and a

subbase. The entire pavement structure, which is constructed over the subgrade, is designed
to support the traffic load and distribute the load over the roadbed. Pavements can be
constructed using hot mix or cold mix asphalt. Surface treatments are sometimes used during
pavement construction. Surface treatment acts as a waterproof cover for the existing
pavement surface and also provides resistance to abrasion by traffic.

I. BITUMINOUS PAVEMENT FAILURE

✓ Aging and oxidation of bituminous binder also lead to the deterioration of the bituminous
surfacing. The surface deformation occurs usually due to failure or weakness in one of the
layers of the pavement due to traffic movement after construction.
Week 12- A
Bituminous Macadam Road - is a pavement constructed by spreading two or
more layers

of crushed stone on a suitable base and pouring bituminous binder on each.

This has been used for a long while and is applied on major roads like
highways... It has a large amount of voids in the lower part of the aggregate
layers.

The road strength originates from the interlocking aggregates that hold the
individual stone together.

• The process involves applying coarse aggregate as base course, compaction

to smoothen the base, and applying of bitumen at a right temperature to coat
the base course. The process is repeated with smaller stones to interlock voids
in the base course, and then applied with asphalt binder. Finally, sealing the
surface with a seal coat.

This process involves heavy equipment, particularly the pressure distributor,

which distributes bitumen to the road; as well as rollers or vibrators for
compaction to smooth surface desired. A dump truck to carry and distribute
coarse aggregates, and other things like thermometer (to check the temperature
of bitumen). There will be personnel to help the process if it goes wrong (like
uneven surface or areas that are inaccessible by distributor) by doing it
manually.
Bituminous Prime Coat - The application of a suitable bituminous binder applied to a non-

bituminous granular base as a preliminary treatment before the

application of a bituminous surfacing. This is applied on the

leveling course.
Bituminous material is either Rapid Curing (RC) or medium Curing (MC) Cutback asphalt,
whichever specified. Prime coat is applied only to dry or slightly moist

surface. No prime coat will be applied during foggy or rainy days.

Bituminous Tack Coat

- A sprayed application of an asphalt binder upon an existing asphalt or PCCP prior to an overlay,
or between layers of new asphalt concrete. This is applied on the binder course 25
(Bitumen bond).
Week 12- B
TRANSVERSE CONTRACTION JOINTS

Shall be of weakened plane of dummy groove type.

Constructed by forming in the surface of the slab a slot not less than 3mm wide and

having a depth equal to 1/3 rd to 4 th of the pavement. Shall be placed whenever

placing of concrete is suspended for more than 30

minutes Excepting in case of emergency; construction shall always be suspended at

the

regular site of expansion or contraction joint The construction joint shall be of butt
type with dowels and placed only in the middle third of the specified contraction joint
interval.

GENERAL REQUIREMENTS OF TRANSVERSE JOINT

Shall be straight within the following tolerances ✓ Deviation of filler board in case of
expansion joints from intended line of joint not

greater than +/- 10 MM ✓The best fit straight line through the joint grooves as
constructed shall not be more

than 25mm from intended line of joint

Deviation of groove from best fit straight line of the joint shall not be greater than

10mm
TYPES OF HIGHWAY RIGID PAVEMENTS

1. Rigid Pavements are made of CONCRETE

⚫ Jointed Plain concrete pavement (JPCP)

- contain enough joints to control the location of all the expected natural cracks. All
necessary cracking occurs at joints and not elsewhere in the

slabs. JPCP does not contain any steel reinforcement.

⚫ Jointed reinforced concrete pavement (JRCP) - contain steel mesh reinforcement

(sometimes called distributed steel). In

JRCP, designers intentionally increase the joint spacing and include

reinforcing steel to hold together mid-panel cracks. The spacing between transverse
joints is typically 30 feet or more.

Continuously informed concenta naunmont (MDED). in s tunn of concent

Pre-Stressed concrete pavement (PCP)

- are designed and produced to be prestressed to bear tensile forces

caused by external loads by various live objects such as vehicles roads or aircraft
in the airports. Prestressed concrete pavements well

on the
achieve the due performance in their relatively thinner thickness design.
Steps involved in road rehabilitation:

1. Breaking up the existing seal

2. Stabilizing the lower layer

3. Adding the new materials to the pavement and prepare the surface to be
sealed

4. Sealing the surface

Rehab projects can take from 10 days to 4 weeks.

Classify the risk into three categories;

1. Critical works- are needed to restore a road safety and can include urgent
repairs after severe weather events. This type of works is the highest priority in
maintenance 2. Needed works include proactive jobs to prevent deterioration of
the road in the short

schedule.

term, such as fixing defects before they become significant problems.

3. Desirable works are also proactive to help limit damage and minimize the
lifetime cost

of the road.
Four key to characterize and define the condition of pavement:

1. Roughness (smoothness): irregularities in the pavement surface that adversely

affect the ride quality of a vehicle (related to ride comfort or serviceability).

2. Deflection- related to structural adequacy or capacity

3. Surface distress- Any indication of poor or unfavorable pavement performance

or signs of impending failure; any unsatisfactory performance of a pavement
short of failure.

4. Surface friction/ skid resistance- the force developed when a tire that is
prevented from rotating slides along the pavement surface related to safety.