Tuninetti, Ana

Cultura y Civilización de los Pueblos de Habla Inglesa II

CULTURA Y CIVILIZACIÓN DE LOS PUEBLOS

DE HABLA INGLESA II
THE RISE OF LABOUR

THE EMERGENCE OF THE LABOUR PARTY

The Labor Party grew out of two main branches/organizations: ​trade unionism and ​socialism​.
Within ​trade unionism​ we find:

1. old unionism
2. the amalgamated societies, and
3. new unions.
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All of them are organizations that are made up of trade unions. Each of them was very important in
different periods, but they co-existed: the dates in the chart do not mean that when one finished the
other started; those dates simply mark their climax period.

Within ​socialism​ we find:

1. the Fabian societies,

2. Robert Owen (whose ideas inspired the Labor Party), and
3. the Social Democratic Federation.

The Labor Party was a new force in England tainted with the ideas of liberalism and socialism. In
England, that Socialism was of a very special kind, because it was tainted with the ideas of Liberalism ​
LIBERAL SOCIALISM.

This Liberal Socialism was typical of the movements of workers. It would eventually lead to the creation
of a new political party: ​the Labour Party.

The Labour Party as such, with that name, emerged in ​1906.

TRADE UNIONISM: ​The Labour Party as such was historically associated with trade unions.
Nowadays, the new Labour Party is not so closely associated with trade unions as the old Labour Party
was.

It covers ​three periods​:

1. EARLY VICTORIAN PERIOD​: Old Unionism (1830s)

2. MID VICTORIAN PERIOD​: Amalgamated Societies (1850s – 1870s)
3. LATE VICTORIAN PERIOD​: New Unions (1880s – 1890s)

Later on, the unions organized themselves in a ​TRADES UNION CONGRESS (started in 1868). This
Congress is very important: this organization gathered together trade unions of different trades. The
trade unions gathered force in this way.

SOCIALISM: ​Robert Owen and the Fabian Society (1880s). Emergence of the S.D.F. (1880s)

All the forces contributed to the emergence of an ​INDEPENDENT LABOUR PARTY (1893). It was
not actually a political party, as it was quite disorganized.

In the 1870s, the alliance between the Liberals and the Labour representatives started. It lasted until the
1990s. Already in the 1880s, the different labour organizations, together with some labour leaders, such
as Kier Hardie, started speaking about organizing an independent Labour Party in Parliament. This was
not very much supported by trade unions at the beginning.

Then, more representation came with the ​LABOUR REPRESENTATION COMMITTEE (1900).
This represented a more serious attempt at the organization of a Labour Party. The leader was ​Ramsey
McDonald​ ​ ​ first labour prime minister in 1924.

The landmark was the ​LABOUR REPRESENTATION COMMITTEE

Why do we speak about the rise of labour/the emergence of the workers? At the very
beginning of the 19​th C, the Combination Laws prohibited the gathering of the workers and their
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organization in trade unions. That is why we speak about the rise of labour after the Combination Laws
were repealed.

2​nd half of the 17​th C: Tories vs. Whigs. In this period, these ideas started emerging. When they fought
this election, they called themselves Tories and Whigs.

● The antecedents of the Tories were the Cavaliers and the Court Party.
● The antecedents of the Whigs were the Country Party and the Roundheads.

In the 19​th​ C, the Tory party changed its name to the Conservative Party. There has been a Conservative
Party ever since in England.

After the Whig Oligarchy of the 18​th C, the Whig Party changed its name to Liberal Party. Then, the
party started weakening. After 1906-1914, the Liberal Party was never again empowered. They tried to
change the name to Liberal Democrats, but eventually the Party died away.

1. Independent Labour Party (19​th​ C)

2. Labour Representation Committee (19​th​ C)
3. Labour Party (20​th​ C)
4. New Labour Party (20​th​ C)

CONDITION OF ENGLAND QUESTION

It seems likely to be true, as many historians have contended, that the English working classes of the
industrial revolution were relatively better off than their ancestors: their degree of material
improvement served… only to increase and broaden their discontent. The essence of the “condition of
England question” was that Englishmen were at last seeking, primitively and impatiently, for the
reason why their condition was not better still.

Though the workers’ situation had improved, it had not improved as much as the country’s situation
had.

The Artisan Reformers

Origin of answers ​ ​ lower-middle or working classes

Emphasis on self-help

FRANCIS PLACE AND WILLIAM LOVETT

Self-help and free-association principle

1836 ​ London Working Men’s Association + People’s Charter ​ Chartism (A movement that was not
successful. The movement was not important at the time of its existence. It was important because of its
legacy, because of the ideas that it put forward, which eventually would be achieved).

Both campaigned for the Repeal of the Combination Laws.

How could these people associate? By this time, the Combination Laws had been repealed.
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Chartism, r​ outed in 1848, left a deep and permanent mark on English history. It was the first
widespread and sustained effort of working-class self-help; it was directed to the cause of
parliamentary democracy and constitutional reform; and the impetus it gave to eventual political
​ homson
reform on one hand and to trade union organization on the other was never wasted. T

​ They wanted representation in Parliament.

Aims of the Labour movement​: ​it directed trade union energies and hopes into constitutional and
parliamentary channels, and offered some definite promise that in time the social welfare and
security of the masses would be made matters of specific and systematic legislation ​ They advocated
more state intervention

What happened during the time the Combination Laws were enforced​? There weren’t trade
​ hich operated under the concept of self-help.
unions, but workers still gathered in ​Friendly Societies, w
As the workers could not organize themselves in trade unions, many of them found a way to express
themselves through the friendly societies.

TRADE UNIONISM

FRIENDLY SOCIETIES​ ​ ​ 17​th​ to end of 19​th​ C

An evolution of the guilds from the Anglo Saxon period. The ​purpose ​of this organization was SOCIAL,
not political. This was the only association that workers had through which they could improve their
condition. Friendly Societies became important when trade unions were banned.

Affiliated Societies ​ ​ began to operate in the middle of the 17​th​ C

Heyday ​ ​ second half of the 19​th​ C

Aims​: mutual help. The aims had to do more with the ​social field.

When the state started intervening to set up the social scheme, the Friendly Societies started to
disappear.

Combination Laws​ (1799 – 1800) ​ ​ forbade:

1. All combinations for increase in wages and decrease in number of hours

2. Any attempt to influence a man in this direction
3. Collecting money for that purpose
4. State regulated industry

Trade unions were considered criminal organizations

1824 ​ ​ Combination Laws ​REPEALED​ ​ ​ trade unions now legal ​ ​ workers could bargain collectively

This led to a ​RISE IN THE NUMBER OF TRADE UNIONS. ​The trade unions that emerged as a
consequence of the repeal of the Combination Laws were called the ​Old Unions.

OLD TRADE UNIONS

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Revival of trade union movement in 1830s

Aims:

● to raise wages
● to reduce hours

Membership​: unskilled workers

Method​: strike action ​ ​ this was a new thing

Businessmen’s response​:

● blacklegs were hired (carneros)

● trade unionists were not employed

Government’s response​ ​ ​ punishment for molestation, obstruction and intimidation

Robert Owen ​ ​ ​GRAND NATIONAL CONSOLIDATED TRADES UNION​ (1834)​ ​ failed

Because the government had reacted so negatively to trade unions, Robert Owen organized the Grand
National Consolidated Trades Union. In 1832, the Industrialists had been enfranchised. The workers
had also fought for enfranchisement, but they did not get it, so they felt betrayed. They were boycotted
by the employers, they were persecuted by the government, and they did not have the right to vote.

The Grand National Consolidated Trades Union failed because it was impossible for the workers to
organize themselves. 1834 was called the BLACK YEAR.

Worker’s action gradually died away ​ BUT the Old Unions did not cease to exist completely, the
movement itself was very much weakened.

IMPORTANCE​: emergence of strike action, fighting against the employers ​ first seed that would
eventually bear fruit

CHARTISM

It was a movement for political and social reform in the UK during the mid-19th century.

● Parliamentary inclusion
● Constitutional reform

They wanted ​enfranchisement

Origin ​ ​ 1838

Aims​:

● political equality
● social justice

Reasons for emergence:

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● Great Betrayal (1832)

● Black Year (1834)

Chartists elaborated a document called the People’s Charter of 1838 which presented the six main
objectives of the movement and embodied the demands that the group was making to Congress.

Six points of the People’s Charter:

1. Universal adult male suffrage

2. Secret ballot
3. Abolition of property qualification for MPs
4. Equal electorate districts
5. Payment of MPs
6. Annual elections

Presented to Parliament in three different occasions ​ ​ it was rejected ​ ​ the movement failed

POINT 1: Now, everybody over the age of 18 has the right to vote.

POINT 2: Secret ballot was important to stop coercion, forcing people or bribing them to vote for a
certain candidate.

POINT 3 contributes to the idea of universal suffrage. People have to vote because they are citizens, not
because they have property.

POINT 4 also has been achieved.

POINT 5 ​ ​ Payment of workers ​ ​ It benefitted the workers that became members of Parliament.

POINT 6 ​ ​ There are no general elections every year. This would impossible to organize.

The first five points have already been achieved. They are part of the British Constitutional Law. This is
why the legacy of the movement is very important, as these aims were eventually achieved.

AMALGAMATED SOCIETIES – MODERN UNIONS – NEW MODERN UNIONS

AMALGAMATED SOCIETIES

The new unions grew up on a firmer basis than the old. They were stronger financially and more open in
their discussions and activities. They were still hampered by legal restriction and prohibitions, but they
were not driven into behaving like secret societies. Insurance and social benefits were a large part of
their work, as well as collective bargaining with employers. Members had to pay a fee to be part of trade
unions. It gathered skilled workers. It was in favor of ​conciliation and against strike action because it
was considered violent. They had a different methodology to achieve the same aims.

Revival of trade union movement in 1840s and 1850s to 1870s

Aims:

● friendly society functions (mutual help and education)

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● husbanding of funds

Membership​: They recruited skilled workers – trade unions of professionals. The first one was the
engineer’s union (Amalgamated Society of Engineers 1850-1870).

There was a rate of subscription that not all the workers were able to pay

Method​: Conciliation and arbitration ​ “More negotiation, more conciliation”. They were not in favor
of strike action.

NEW UNIONS (1880-1890s)

In the late 19​th C, a new kind of union started. These New Unions differed from the older craft unions in
several respects:
a. They were generally less exclusive than craft unions and attempted to recruit a wide range of
workers. To encourage more workers to join, the New Unions kept their entrances fees and
contributions at a relatively low level.
b. They recruited unskilled and semi-skilled workers: seamen, gas workers, among others.
c. They were associated with willingness to take industrial action, unlike the more conciliatory craft
unions. A notable strike associated with the New Unions was the ​London Dock Strike​ of 1889.
d. Many of the New Unions had leaders who espoused ​socialist ideas​. Such leaders included ​Tom
Mann, Ben Tillett, Will Thorne ​and ​John Burns.

Aims:

● to raise wages
● to reduce hours
● to fight casual employment

Methodology​: they were no longer that ready to accept conciliation and arbitration. The position was
not as friendly as the position of the Amalgamated societies

Membership​: skilled + unskilled workers (low rates of subscription)

Method​: ​STRIKE ACTION

Characteristics​:

Socialist outlook ​ opposition to Lib-Lab collaboration + wanted regulation of working conditions by

law

SOCIALISM

COOPERATIVE MOVEMENT

Prophet of the Cooperative Movement

Robert Owen ​ ​ father of English Socialism (associated with the Early Victorian Period)

Wanted to transform British capitalist society into a cooperative commonwealth

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Bought mills at New Lanark (Scotland, 1797)

● public health
● education
● social security

New Harmony (USA) failed

Influence

1834 ​ ​ GRAND NATIONAL TRADES UNION ORGANIZATION ​ ​ failed

Establishment of cooperative societies for trading purposes

THE FABIAN SOCIETY (1880s)

A British socialist intellectual movement whose purpose was to advance the socialist through ​gradual
reforms rather than by revolutionary means. The society laid many of the foundations of the Labor
Party; subsequently, it affected the policies of newly independent British colonies. They believed
reforms should be introduced first through local government and then move to other levels of
government until it reached the national government. They also believed that reforms should permeate
government gradually. They believed in the i​nevitability of gradualness​: by promoting gradual
changes, the change would be inevitable.

Late Victorian Period ​ ​ Fabian Society

It was in favor of a ​very socialist aim​: the collective ownership of the means of production,
distribution, and exchange. This has been translated into state ownership. In terms of methodology,
this has been translated into nationalization ​ ​ ​ABSOLUTE CONTROL OF THE STATE.

Influence of Karl Marx

Many Fabians joined trade unions

1895 ​ ​ founded London School of Economic

The association of the Fabian Society with the local governments gave rise to the association of the trade
unions with the local governments. Here starts a historical organization between the Fabian Society, the
trade unions, and the local governments.

The commonly-held notion that it was the unions that formed the Labour Party contains an important
element of truth but it is not the full truth. Without the ideas of the socialists and the ideological
struggle they conducted in earlier years, both inside and outside the unions, there would have been no
independent political party associated with the working class movement.

Supported by many workers but not by many trade unions.

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What came after this was probably the logical development of time and this desire to become
independent of other political parties in Parliament to form an independent party to defend exclusively
the rights of the workers.

After the General Election of 1906, the Labour Representation Committee decided to change its name.

SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC FEDERATION (1881)

It was established as Britain’s first organized socialist political party by H. M. Hyndman, and it had its
first meeting on June 7, 1881. To publicize the SDF, Hyndman wrote England for All (1881), which was
an attempt to explain Marx’s ideas. This was followed by Socialism Made Plain (1883), which
expounded the policies of the SDF: a demand for universal suffrage and the nationalization of the
means of production and distribution.

STEPS LEADING TO THE EMERGENCE OF THE LABOR PARTY ​ HOW TRADE UNIONS
STARTED MIXING WITH PHILOSOPHERS

The ​Amalgamated Societies ​and the​ New Unions f​ orm the​:

TRADE UNION CONGRESS (1868)

Both sent representatives that met in Manchester and workers from different unions; they got together
to discuss matters that concerned all workers such as the organization of their activities.

New Unions together with the philosophers of the Fabian Society decided to form a political party:

THE INDEPENDENT LABOR PARTY (1893)

1880s and 1890s ​ ​ Lib-Lab collaboration continued

1888 ​ ​ James Kier Hardie ​ ​ Independent LABOUR CANDIDATE

1888 ​ ​ Scottish Parliamentary Labour Party was formed

1887 ​ Fabian Society ​ “chief aim of our plan is the formation of a distinct Labour Party in
Parliament”

● A party not explicitly Socialist but ready to pass Socialist resolutions

● A party not avowedly trade-unionists, though many of its members belonged to trade unions

The party was formed as a consequence of the Manningham Mill strike in Bradford in 1893, making it
one of the earliest democratic socialist political parties operating in the UK. Its founder chairman was
James Keir Hardie who had been elected as independent labor MP for West Ham South in the previous
year’s general election. Others involved in the formation included ​Robet Smillie, Tom Mann, John
Glasier, Henry Champion, Ben Tillett, Philip Snowden, a ​ nd ​Edward Carpenter​. The first years of the
ILP were characterized by a number of amalgamations with small socialist and leftist groups. The ILP
played a central role in the formation of the ​Labor Representation Committee and when the Labor
Party was formed in 1906, the ILP affiliated to it. This affiliation allowed the ILP to continue to hold its
own conferences and devise its own policies which ILP members were expected to argue for within the
Labor Party.
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In 1900, the members of the Trade Union Congress, the Independent Labor Party, the Fabian Society
and the Social Democratic Federation decided to form the:

LABOR REPRESENTATION COMMITTEE (1900):

● Although TUs and Socialism had given birth to it, the LRC was neither a Socialist nor a TU party
● No financial assistance from the TUC
● Members were drawn from any sympathetic group or party

1906 ​ ​ General Election ​ ​ 29 out of 51 LRC candidates got it

The main idea behind the committee was to promote candidates that would
protect the interests of workers. ​Keir Hardie ​was chosen to head up the LRC
and ​Ramsay MacDonald ​was chosen as its secretary. In 1906, they changed
their name to the Labor Party.

THE LABOR PARTY (1906)

In the 1906 election, the Labor Representation Committee won 29 seats (helped by the secret 1903 pact
between Ramsay MacDonald and Liberal Chief Whip Herbert Gladstone, which aimed at avoiding
Labor/Liberal contests in the interest of removing the Conservatives from office). In their first meeting
after the election, the group’s MPs decided to adopt the name Labor Party. James Keir Hardie, who had
taken a leading role in getting the party established, was elected as Chairman of the Parliamentary
Labor Party. In the party’s early years, the ILP provided much of its activist base as the party did not
have an individual membership until 1918 and operated as a conglomerate of affiliated bodies until that
date. The Fabian Society provided much of the intellectual stimulus for the party.

The Labor Party had a Constitution: its most important clause was ​CLAUSE 4​, which shows the
influence of socialism. Clause 4 promotes the state-ownership of the means of production, distribution
and exchange. This was the way to achieve an egalitarian society. This clause makes the Labor Party a
socialist party.

Later on, Tony Blair removes Clause 4: that is why the New Labor Party is not a socialist party.

SUMMARY OF THE STEPS

At the same time, the AMALGAMATED SOCIETIES + NEW UNIONS gathered in the

TRADES UNIONS CONGRESS

As trade unions were outside the pale of law

Manchester (1868)

Government’s response:

TRADE UNION ACT (1871) ​ ​ in favor

CRIMINAL LAW AMENDMENT ACT (1871) ​ ​ against

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Trade unions, which had formed the Labour Representation League in 1869, wanted the Criminal Law
Amendment Act repealed

REFORM ACT (1867)

SECRET BALLOT ACT

1874 ​ General Elections ​ 2 Labour candidates were returned. Both were miner’s officials and both
were elected with Liberal support.

Lib-Lab collaboration until 1890s: they would support each other in the event of legislation that would
benefit them in general

1875 ​ ​ Criminal Law Amendment Act was repealed

1875 ​ ​ CONSPIRACY AND PROTECTION OF PROPERTY ACT ​ ​ legalized peaceful picketing

1876 ​ ​ TRADE UNION AMENDMENT ACT ​ ​ rounded off the legal rights of trade unions

LABOUR PARTY ​ ​ it existed until the 1990s.

It was transformed in the 1990s by a small but influential group. They were working under the
banner “New Labour, New Party.” They believe that Labour’s traditional values of nationalization,
Keynesian economics and an ever closer relationship with the trade unions were the very values that
stopped Labour coming into power in a modern age. In addition, they felt that Clause IV was now an
anachronism. The Labour Party was at its lowest ebb. Having endured 18 years of Conservative
government, Labour Party members voted through the changes –including the removal of Clause IV.
Tony Blair was elected Prime Minister in 1997 with a landslide victory. Hopes for reform following
the Thatcher years had never been higher.

WORLD WAR I
1. GENERAL CAUSES

The general cause can be summarized under the heading ​self-interest ​of the powerful European
countries.

a. Nationalism ​ ​ ethnicity (key role in the war)

b. Imperialism ​ ​ expansion
c. Economic interests
d. Decline of empires: Austro-Hungarian Empire, Ottoman Empire (Turkish Empire), China
e. System of alliances

IMMEDIATE CAUSE​: Ferdinand’s assassination

NATIONALISM
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The ​Austro-Hungarian Empire was a multiracial empire made of Germans, Hungarians, Austrians,
Czechs, Slovaks, Italians, Serbs, Croats, Poles, and Slavs. The different peoples were constantly in
conflict, which made the empire very difficult to rule.

For example, there were some Serbs living in the Austro-Hungarian Empire who wanted to belong to
their country Serbia and be independent. Their only chance to get that independence was with the help
of the Russians because they shared the same origin (Slavs).

The Serbs that had been living under the Austrio-Hungarian Empire wanted independence. In this
group, the champion of the race was Russia.

IMPERIALISM & ECONOMIC INTERESTS

All power countries were fighting for colonies.

Great Britain had interests in Africa and Asia, especially in Egypt, India, and Afghanistan. ​France
also had great interests in her colonies, especially in Morocco, which was a gate to the Atlantic and to
the Mediterranean. ​Germany was united and wanted to create the German Empire by force of arms. It
was finding a way for expansion and for colonization. ​Russia had interest in the Balkans, as Bosnia and
Serbia were from the same origin (Slavs) and shared the same religion (Orthodox Christians).

Back in 1884, Colonial Congress took place in order to look for raw materials, territories. It was stated
that if a power occupies a territory, it automatically belongs to the power. This is knows as

EFFECTIVE OCCUPATION A title of Possession.

They were starting the process of industrialization, so they needed raw material. They wanted to expand
in order to acquire sources of raw material.

19th C​ ​ tremendous competition for acquiring new territories, especially, Africa

In 1884, there was an International Colonial Conference. They agreed on the idea that occupation of the
territory was enough as a title of possession. This gave birth to what is known as the ​scramble for
Africa​.

DECLINE OF EMPIRES

Many of these empires, by the 20​th C, began to experience decline. Nationalism and ethnicity can be
related to that. As they were lots of different peoples living together, this resulted in conflict.

a. The ​Turkish Empire (Ottoman Empire) in 1912. Greece, Serbia, Romania and Bulgaria together
attacked Turkey and drove the Turks out of most of the Balkans.
b. The ​Austro-Hungarian Empire was weakening too with the advance and the will of the Balkan
countries to get their independence.

SYSTEM OF ALLIANCES

There was ​rivalry between some European countries which caused friction among them and which
lead them into making a system of alliances.
System of alliances​: Triple Alliance / Central Powers, Triple Entente (They were formed by the end
of the 19​th​)
Countries grouped according to their economic interests. Within the members of each group, the Triple
Alliance and the Triple Entente, there were rivalries and conflicts.
BRITAIN vs. GERMANY
NAVAL RIVALRY
Germany and Britain began a race
to expand their navies as fast as
possible. Germany was a country of
great industrial strength and had
taken over the industrial system
from Britain. By 1900, it had
surpassed Britain as an industrial
nation.
The first German Navy Law was
passed in 1898 and behind it came
the popular propaganda of the Navy
League, but the German Navy
didn’t present a serious threat to
Britain. Germany had a very strong
military tradition and wanted to
produce warships to compete with
Britain.
In 1906, Britain launched the
Dreadnought: this battleship had
heavier guns and thicker
armor-plating and was faster than
any other battleship in the world.
Immediately, the Kaiser ordered his
shipyards to produce a German
version. Then they realized that if
they quickly built a small number of
the new ships, Germany could
threaten Britain’s naval power. But
Britain reacted and started building
warships and was still well ahead.
In the next two years, Britain built
18 ships to Germany’s 9. Germany
had gained nothing – save the
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FRANCE vs. GERMANY
The oldest and most important
antagonism was the rivalry between
France and Germany.
The defeat of France in the
Franco-Prussian War in 1870 had
taken the form of a quarrel over
Alsace and Lorraine. These
provinces had been taken from
France by the Treaty of Frankfurt.
Ever since, France was waiting for
revenge. ​Bismarck knew this and he
built the Triple Alliance to
guarantee the security of Germany.
CRISIS IN MOROCCO (1905):
Morocco, due to its weak sultan,
was a French colony under French
influence. Germany wanted to
interfere because it saw Morocco as
an outlet to the Atlantic. The Kaiser
proclaimed that the Sultan of
Morocco was a free and
independent sovereign and that
Germany had great and growing
interest to safeguard Morocco.
At a Conference, all countries
backed up France’s claims. In 1911,
the Kaiser sent a gunboat, the
Panther, to Morocco to protect
German interests. This brusque
show of force alarmed France and
also led Britain to fear that
Germany might intend to establish
a west-Atlantic German base.
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RUSSIA vs.
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY &
BALKAN COUNTRIES
ETHNIC RIVALRY
The empire of Austria-Hungary was
a multiracial empire of Germans,
Hungarians and Slavs. Many
peoples of the Balkans had links
with Russia. The Serbs and Bulgars
were Slavs. Therefore, they looked
to Russia for help.
ECONOMIC RIVALRY
Russia, for its part, wanted to be
sure that the Dardanelles (the
channel which gave it a sea route to
the Mediterranean) did not fall into
enemy hands. Russia supported
independence and expansion for
the Balkan states. But,
Austria-Hungary would not allow
Slav countries to become
independent or Russia to have an
outlet to the Mediterranean.
CRISIS IN
BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA
(1908)
A revolution in Turkey made it
possible for Austria to annex the
territory of Bosnia-Herzegovina
which she had been allowed to
occupy since the Congress of Berlin
in 1878. The inhabitants of these
provinces were Slavs and Serbia
had been dreaming of their joining
in a Slav State. The Serbs urged
Russia to resist by arms the loss of
the Bosnian Slavs to Austria and the

exacerbation of her relations with
Britain. In fact, Germany hardly
needed a navy. The British fleet was
a necessity; the German, a luxury.
2. POSITION OF GREAT BRITAIN
From ISOLATION
ISOLATION
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The result was a compromise:
Germany finally abandoned
Morocco to France and France
ceded territory in the Congo to
Germany in compensation.
to COMMITMENT
Tuninetti, Ana
armies of Serbia and Montenegro
were on a war footing. But when
Russia gave way on this, Serbia had
to do so also (a great
disappointment to the Serbs and a
heavy diplomatic defeat for Russia).
The Serbs could see that Russia
would not afford to disappoint
Serbia a second time.
THE BALKAN WARS
(1912-1913)
Two wars in the Balkans caused
further alarms.
The Balkan League (Serbs, Bulgars,
Greeks, and Montenegrins) was
formed against Turkey to fling the
Turks out of Europe. But Austria
was determined to prevent Serbia
from maintaining a route to the
Adriatic sea. The great powers
agreed and also left Constantinople
to the Turks.
A second Balkan war broke out
when the victors quarrelled over the
spoils and Bulgaria attacked Serbia.
The Serbs routed the Bulgars and
Greeks and Rumanian also attacked
Bulgaria. But Austria saved
Bulgaria from complete destruction
and compelled the Serbs to
evacuate Albania (a new state which
the great powers had created to
keep the Serbs off the sea). The
Serbs remained a land-locked state.
Turkey came to look more to
Germany and Austria for support
against the Slavs. A
Turco-Bulgarian alliance with
Austria was accepted as Bulgaria
was likely to side with the Triple
Alliance for the sake of revenge on
Serbia​.
to INVOLVEMENT
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19​th​ ​ ​ Splendid isolation ​ ​ Crimean War and Boer Wars

England was the leading country. The pillars were the naval supremacy, industrialization and the
colonies

“A period of conspicuous peace”- Thomson

When the wars came to an end, England realized that she was alone and that she needed friends,
especially when her position of leadership began to be challenged by Germany.

Before the Boers War, the British thought of their country as standing securely alone, untangled by
alliances abroad and protected by an invincible navy. This was the attitude know as ​SPLENDID
ISOLATION​. Splendid it might have been, but it had its dangers too. The Boer War had made them
apparent: when this time of testing came, Britain found herself ​without a friend ​in Europe.

Europe itself was divided into two armed camps:

● The ​Triple Alliance​ of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy (dating from 1882).

● The ​Dual Alliance​ of France and Russia (dating from 1891).

By the end of the 19​th​ C, Britain stood outside the two armed camps in Europe:

She had her differences of opinion with Germany over colonial matter.
France was the traditional enemy and there had been dangerous rivalry in Africa.
Russia was feared as a threat to the Indian Empire.

Britain had been surprised and shocked by the way in which almost the whole of Europe had been on
the Boers’ side against Britain during the South African War. It was a sharp reminder that friendship in
Europe did matter and that Britain was no longer able to tell other countries how to behave. The
gradual change of policy from isolation to finding allies appears clearly in the difference of attitudes
between ​Lord Salisbury (who had previously been Foreign Secretary and Prime Minister) and ​Lord
Lansdowne (​ Foreign Secretary in 1900). ​Salisbury believed that from a position of independence,
Britain could speak more easily to either side in any disagreement, and could maintain a ​balance​.
Lansdowne w ​ as more impressed by the dangers of a general jealousy of Britain uniting her enemies
against her and turned for support. ​Lansdowne ​turned for support, first to Japan, then to France.

COMMITMENT

Gradually England began to seek alliances:

1902 ​ ​ ​Alliance with Japan

An agreement stating that in case any of the two went into war against more than one enemy, the other
country would automatically enter and support that country.

Britain’s alliance with Japan ​broke the long tradition​ of British independence or ​isolation​.
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Britain felt that the Japanese navy could play a useful part in maintaining the status quo. Japan, like
Britain, disliked the expansion of Russia at the expense of China, where Japan had her own interests
involved.

Britain or Japan would come to the aid of the other if it were to be at war with two powers in defence of
the status quo. In 1904-5 the Russo-Japanese War resulted in the defeat of Russia and the further rise
of Japan. It resulted also in a strengthening of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance.

1904 ​ ​ ​Entente with France

An entente is less binding than an alliance; it is a friendlier understanding. With this Entente, France
and England put an end to a long period of rivalry.

Meanwhile, British relations with Germany were growing worse and relations with France
better.

Delcassé​, the French Foreign Minister, saw an entente with Britain rather than colonial rivalry would be
more profitable because he knew about Britain’s power. The Anglo-French agreements kwon as the
ENTENTE CORDIALE were reached in April 1904 between ​Lansdowne​ and D ​ elcassé.​

The most important agreement was that France recognised Britain’s special position in ​Egypt and
Britain recognized France’s in ​Morocco and each promised the other’s support in case of any change of
status in either of the two overseas territories.

Germans felt that Britain had abandoned isolation at last and was taking sides in the European struggle.

The Dual Alliance became the TRIPLE ALLIANCE​: France, Great Britain and Russia.

1907 ​ ​ ​Entente with Russia​.

It was related to positions in the Middle East and Africa.

In August 1907, Britain signed an Anglo-Russian Convention: Britain and Russia agreed to
settle their difference in Persia, Afghanistan and Tibet. ​Persia was for Russia; in
Afghanistan​, Russia agreed to leave the control of foreign policy to Britain; and in ​Tibet they agreed
not to interfere and only to negotiate with her through China. All these matters were of Anglo-Russian
significance.

What was of a wider significance was the fact of the new Entente itself: the Triple Entente could be
regarded as a grouping standing over against the Triple Alliance.

​THE TRIPLE ENTENTE​: France- Russia- Britain

TRIPLE ALLIANCE TRIPLE ENTENTE

France
Germany Great Britain
Austria-Hungary Russia
Italy
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There was a conflict between Russia and Austria-Hungary, a conflict between France and Germany, and
a conflict between Britain and Germany.

​ Franco-Prussian War (1870) – France lost two important provinces to Germany: Alsace and Lorraine

Competition for control in South-east Europe. Russia wanted the people of slave origin to be part of
another country. They were always competing for dominating that area. Russian wanted an outlet to the
Mediterranean for trade.

Competition for naval power (Dreadnoughts). The Germans wanted to produce a powerful navy. A
competition started between Britain and Germany for who produce more and better battleships.

3. ANTECEDENTS: THE CRISES THAT THREATENED PEACE IN EUROPE

It was evident that these conflicts would end in an armed conflict. These showed that the systems of
Alliances was beginning to operate.

1905 / 1911 ​ ​ Morocco ​ ​ France vs. Germany

1908 ​ ​ Bosnia-Herzegovina ​ ​ Austria vs. Russia

1912 / 1913 ​ ​ Balkan wars ​ ​ Balkan countries vs. Turkey

​ Bulgaria vs. Serbia

ON WHAT WAY DID THESE CRISES PAVE THE WAY FOR THE OUTBREAK OF THE
WWI​?

4. IMMEDIATE CAUSE

Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife, Sophie, are murdered at Sarajevo by Bosnian Serbs, on 28
June, 1914. He was the heir to the Austrian throne.

With the countries of Europe divided into two power blocks, war could have come at any time in the
early years of the century. Tension and rivalry increased. Armies were drilled and war plans prepared.
Any small incident between rival countries was likely to drag the whole of Europe into war.

An event, remote and apparently unconnected with British interests and policy, was the occasion for the
outbreak of the Great War: the archduke Franz Ferdinand was assassinated in Sarajevo, the capital of
Bosnia, which belonged to Austria-Hungary. The Archduke was the heir to the throne of the
Austro-Hungarian Empire. The responsible for the assassination was a member of the Black Hand
Organization (Serbian pan-Slav organization).

In short, Austria-Hungary blamed the Serbians for the assassination of Franz Ferdinand and his wife.
Austria-Hungary sent an ultimatum to Serbia through which Austria-Hungary put forward 10 demands.
The Serbian government accepted most of the points of the ultimatum, except for two: the right to
participate in the prosecution for the murder and the conspirators (they wanted to prosecute them in
their own territory). The ultimatum was rejected. Therefore, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia.
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Austria-Hungary ​ ​ Serbia

Germany Russia
France
Belgium

Turkey Great Britain

Japan + Portugal + Dominions + India

Bulgaria Italy
Romania
Greece + China + Siam
Neutral: Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Holland, Spain, Switzerland

From then on, the countries of Europe, one by one slid into war

AUSTRIA supposed that this murder could indirectly be connected with the S ​ erbian
government and saw in it an opportunity to punish Serbia and curtail her pan-Slav activities
which were so dangerous to the multi-racial Austrian Empire.

✔ First, Austria got a promise of full support from ​GERMANY​.

✔ Austria sent an ​ultimatum to Serbia on July 23​rd​, which demanded that Serbia should accept
Austrian control in running Serbia or Austria would declare war. Serbia agreed to ​almost all of the
demands which Austria had made. When Austria saw that ​RUSSIA began to mobilize to support
the Serbs, ​Austria went ahead and declared war on SERBIA ​on July 28​th​, 1914.

✔ On July 30​th​, there was a general mobilization in Russia to support the Serbs (Russia remembering
the Bosnian crisis of 1908-9 felt that she could not fail Serbia a second time). ​FRANCE​, after
making an effort to get Russia to avoid open mobilization, mobilised her own forces in accordance
with her military agreement with Russia.

✔ The French mobilization was only just ahead of the German.

GERMANY declared war on RUSSIA on August 1​st​.

✔ France was pledged to follow Russia, but actually…

GERMANY declared war on FRANCE on August 3​rd​.

✔ Germany was now surrounded by two enemies: on the east side by Russia and on the west side
by France. Germany thought that it was easier to attack France first because Russia was
slower, but to attack France fast Germany had to take a ​short-cut through BELGIUM.

✔ By August 3​rd​ the Germans demanded the passage of the German armies through Belgium but
Belgium ​refused​.

On August 4​th​ the GERMAN troops invaded BELGIUM​. Britain’s part was still uncertain.
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With the Triple Entente there was no obligation on Britain to go to war. The turning point came
with the German invasion of Belgium, which made Britain worried because of Britain’s allies at war
and German troops across the Channel, at a very short distance.

✔ Belgium’s neutrality was guaranteed by a treaty of 1839, and Britain was one of the
guarantors. On August 4​th​, a British demand was sent to Germany for assurance that
Belgian neutrality would be respected.

✔ When the time-limit run out at 11 p.m.…

BRITAIN declared war on the CENTRAL POWERS (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy).

SCHLIEFFEN PLAN ​ The Germans said: first we are going to fight against the western front. In the
meantime, we can take control of France. The idea was to take quick control of Paris: if Paris fell, the
whole of France fell. In order to achieve this enterprise as soon as possible, they decided to invade
Belgium, which was a neutral country. By the Treaty of London of 1839, Belgium’s neutrality was
recognized. The most important European nations had promised to respect Begium’s neutrality. Britain
and France had assumed the role of guarantors of Belgium’s neutrality. When Germany invaded
Belgium, England intervened and sent an ultimatum. The German speculated that the British would not
enter the war to support Belgium.

England entered the war due to Germany’s invasion of Begium.

The different countries entered the war at different periods.

Italy was a central power, but when Austria-Hungary invaded Serbia, Italians complained that it was a
unilateral decision, so they decided to remain neutral. Then, the allies convinced Italy that it was
convenient to fight on their side. They had promised land to Italy. This country speculated that it would
be able to recuperate the areas in Serbia if the allies won.

5. AMERICAN ENTRY

● Wilson’s idealism

● Overseas trade

● Preparedness programme

● Submarine warfare

● Zimmermann’s note

● Wilson’s idealism

NEUTRALITY PREPAREDNESS INVOLVEMENT

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NEUTRALITY

As soon as the war broke out, the US had not entered it and there was no reason for the country to
participate. The Americans profited from the war. At the very beginning of the war (1914), the president
of the US was Wilson. The position under Wilson was a position of neutrality and isolation; this is
referred to as Wilson’s idealism. He encouraged the country to remain the country in thought and
action. The argument was that on the one hand, America was a moral force, and, on the other hand,
when you are right there is no need to resort to war and violence.

In relation to this neutrality, if the US had important trading connections with Europe, especially Great
Britain and France. The US provided especially the allies, full supplies and weapons.

Wilsonianism consisted of traditional American principles. Wilson’s ideal world was to be open in every
sense: no barriers to commerce, no secret diplomatic deals. ​Wilson ​envisioned a free market,
non-exploitative capitalism and political constitutionalism for all nations to ensure a good society and
world peace. He believed that America had a ​mission to reform international relations and other
societies:

“We created this nation not to serve ourselves but to serve mankind.”

President ​Wilson was an ​idealist and sought at first to distance America from the conflagration by
proclaiming neutrality. He also asked the Americans to refrain from taking sides. The USA was neutral
because it had other interests, especially in ​trade. England had long been one of USA’s best customers.
When WWI began, the British flooded the US with new orders for products, including arms; and
American exports to France and England increased in this period. This contributed to both farmers and
industrialists that were making really a lot of profits out of the war in Europe. However, the trade with
Germany had dropped.

At first, the ​Wilson Administration came to see the sales to the Allies and the loans that made them
possible as being ​necessary to the economic health​ of the USA.

But, from ​Germany’s perspective​, the links between the American economy and the Allies meant
that the US had become quite an ​unneutral Allied arsenal and bank​.

Under ​International Laws​, Britain (had control of the seas) could buy contraband and non-contraband
from neutrals. The British declared a ​blockade of waters ​to Germany, defined a broad list of
contraband which was not supposed to be shipped to Germany by neutrals, mined the North Sea, and
harassed neutral shipping by seizing cargoes. ​SO​, Germany’s responsibility was to stop the trade by an
effective ​blockade of the enemy’s territory or the seizure of all goods from belligerent ships (British)
and contraband from neural ships (American).

Germany struggled to ​lift the blockade and to ​end American-Allied commerce​: German leaders
looked for victory at sea by using ​submarines​. Berlin announced that it was creating ​a WAR ZONE
around the British Isles in 1915:

▪ All enemy ships in the area would be sunk.

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▪ Neutral vessels were warned to stay out so as not to be attacked by mistake.

▪ Passengers from neutral nations were warned to stay off enemy ships.

Wilson ​interpreted international law in the strictest sense: an attacker had to warn a passenger or
merchant ship before attacking, so that passengers and crew could disembark safely into life boats.

PREPAREDNESS

When the US began to see that the whole of Europe would be under German control, Wilson decided to
produce arms in case the US had to intervene. He put forward before Congress the so-called
Preparedness program: American began to arm itself. An important portion of the American budget
was destined to the production of weapons. Nevertheless, the US remained neutral. Wilson spoke of an
“armed neutrality.” (They began to prepare themselves just in case). The idea of the plan had been put
forward by Wilson’s opponent in the presidential campaign: Teddy Roosevelt.

The situation became worse. The Germans declared the water around the British Isles a war zone.
Germany began to sink all the ships that crossed that area. Then, the warzone was extended to the
Atlantic. Passenger liners were coming from the US to Britain and the other way round. The Lusitanian
was sunk and many passengers died.

The submarine warfare against the American and British liners increased. Several liners were sunk by
the Germans.

1917 ​ ​ America entered the war

ISOLATION

INVOLVEMENT

America now had a reason to enter the war: to preserve democracy and freedom. There was a
reformulation of Wilson’s idealism.

Propaganda ​ ​ Uncle Sam

FACTORS THAT LEAD TO THE US INVOLVEMENT IN WWI

Zimmerman’s note ​ ​ immediate cause for the American entry

Zimmerman, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Germany, sent an offer to Mexico. The offer stated that,
if Mexico entered the war in the side of Germany, in exchange, Germany would help Mexico recover the
territories lost during the Westward Expansion: Texas, California, and New Mexico. The note was
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intercepted by Britain. Wilson, the president of the US, who at this point was looking for an excuse to
enter the war, made the note public in order to ask for American support.

1. U-Boat campaign

The German U-boats sank ship after ship causing American losses in commerce and in lives.

- The ​Lusitania was sunk by the torpedoes unleashed by a German submarine. Many American
passengers died.

Wilson sent a note to Berlin insisting on the right of Americans to sail on belligerent ships and
demanding that Germany cease its inhumane submarine warfare.
Seeking to avoid war with America, Germany ordered its U-boats commanders to halt attacks on
passenger lines. But the advantage of submarine was the SURPRISE FACTOR of the attack.

- Another British vessel, ​Arabic​, was sunk and two Americans lost their lives.

- An attack on the ​Sussex​, a French vessel crossing the English Channel took the US closer to the war. 4
Americans on that ship were injured. Germany once more backed off pledging not to attack merchant
vessels without warning.

2. Unrestricted Submarine Warfare

Germany startled the ​Wilson Administration by launching unrestricted submarine warfare. ​All
vessels, belligerent or neutral, warship or merchant, would be attacked if sighted in the
declared war zone​.

This represented a risk that submarines could impede munitions shipments form America to
England and thus defeat the Allies before Americans could be mobilized and ferried across the
Atlantic to enter the fights.
Wilson​ broke diplomatic relations with Berlin.
The German challenged American neutral rights and economic interests by extending the
U-boat campaign to the Atlantic.

3. Zimmerman Telegram

After the unrestricted submarine warfare came a ​German threat​ to the American ​security​.

The British intercepted, decoded and handed to the American government a telegram addressed to the
German minister in Mexico from the German foreign secretary, ​Arthur Zimmerman​. He instructed the
minister to tell the Mexican government that, if it joined a military alliance against the USA, Germany
would help Mexico recover the territories it had been forced to give up to its northern neighbour.

Mexico was the chosen one by Germany because of its proximity and because the Mexican-American
relations were extremely tense. The Mexican Revolution raised a strong anti-American feeling.

Reaction of the ​Wilson’s ​Administration

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Wilson asked Congress for ​“armed neutrality” to defend American lives and commerce. He
requested the specific authority to arm American merchant ships and more general power to employ
any other methods that may be necessary.

President ​Wilson​ released the telegram to the press; Americans expressed outrage.

Germany’s violation of the principle of freedom of the seas, disruption of American commerce, the
attempt to stir up trouble in Mexico and the violation of human rights by killing innocent Americans led
Wilson ​to redefine his idealism ​to justify America’s intervention in the war: he stated that ​America
should make the world free to keep democracy.

“The world must be made safe for democracy.”

Congress quickly declared WAR against ​Germany on April 1917. America joined the battle not just to
win the war, but to reform the postwar world.

To ​raise an army after the declaration of war, Congress in May 1917 passed a ​SELECTIVE
SERVICE ACT​, requiring the registration of all males between the ages of 20 and 30. It would not
only prepare the country for battle but also promote efficiency, order, democracy, personal
sacrifice, and nationalism.

An attack on Civil Liberties

Dissenters who questioned ​Wilson’​s war decision and the draft faced a campaign to silence them
because the ​Wilson ​administration passed:

The Espionage Act (1917): forbade “false statements” designed to impede the draft or promote
military insubordination and banned from the mails materials considered treasonous.

The Sedition Act (1918): made it unlawful to obstruct the sale of war bonds and to use “disloyal,
profane, scurrilous, or abusive” language against the government, the Constitution, the flag, and
the military uniform.

More than 2.000 people were prosecuted under the acts, and many others were intimidated into
silence. And that was the point: ​Wilson ​and his officers tried to crush what they did not like to hear.

Another reason for entering the war was that there was a Revolution in Russia in 1917, ​The
Bolshevik Revolution​. Civil War brought to power a Communist government. As ​RUSSIA could
not fight two wars at the same time, she ​pulled out of WWI and ​signed peace in a separated
treaty ​with Germany​ in 1918, through which Russia lost a lot of territories.

With the withdrawal of Russia, the Germans could move all their troops to the western front and attack
the allied trenches.
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The influx of American men and material decided the outcome of the First Wold War. With both
sides virtually exhausted, the ​Americans in France tipped the balance toward the Allies​.
Tanks ​were used in large number by the Allies, and the fact that Germans were not successful in
developing a tank of their own contributed to the success of the Allies. Germany, abandoned by
1
Turkey and Austria, sued for peace. The armistice was signed on November 11, 1918.
The Germans were pulled back all along the western front so the German commanders asked for an
armistice before the fighting reached Germany itself. The fighting stopped on November, 11th, 1918.

6. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE WAR

● Trench war

It was a ​DEFENSIVE WAR​ because they fought from trenches. It was a trench warfare:

Zigzag trenches, fronted barbed wire and mines, stretched across France. Beyond the muddy trenches
laid “no man’s land”. When ordered out, soldiers would charge the German lines, also a maze of
trenches. Machine guns mowed them down, Chlorine gas poisoned them.

● Stalemate

All countries expected the War to last only a few months, but it stretched to four years (1914-1918)

● Technological and scientific advances

During the war, very important technological and Medical discoveries and inventions were made:

Plastic surgery, for the soldiers with destroyed faces

The invention of the tank to break through the lines of the enemies, which brought the end of
the war.

The trench system didn’t allow to over bunk the enemy. It made the war lag in time. This was solved by
the appearance of tanks. The British were the firsts to use them.

In times of war, there’s always great improvement in the fields of science and technology. Plastic
surgery began to develop as a result of the injuries in the soldier’s faces.

THE REASONS WHY GERMANY LOST THE WAR:

a. The effects that the long war had on the German economy: Germany had to fight two fronts at the
same time.
b. The arrival of the Americans, this tipped the scales of economic and industrial strengthen decisively
against Germany.
c. The naval blockade: the shortage of raw material weakened German industries and lack of food
broke the morale of the German people.
d. On the battle field, the development of the tank made trench warfare out-of-date

1
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Winners: the Triple Entente. Losers: the Triple Alliance.

7. POST-WAR SETTLEMENTS

When studying WWI and WWII, study the position in which the countries started. Isolation ​
Commitment ​ ​ Involvement

Peacemaking and Peacekeeping

● Wilson’s Fourteen Points

● The Paris Peace Conference ​ ​ 1919 ​ ​ Aims of the Big Three

● The Treaty of Versailles

● The new map of Europe

● The other treaties signed during the Paris Peace Conference

How was it possible for the US to enter the war on the side of the allies when Russia was one of them?
The government in Russia was an autocratic regime. The position of the US would be rather
contradictory. How was the issue solved? In 1917, the bolshevist revolution took place against the tsar
and the regime in war. Because of this domestic revolution, it was not possible for Russia to continue
participating in the war. It was impossible to cope with the expenses and demands of the war. Germany
was getting nearer Russia. Then, Russia left the war. This meant that the support to the allies came to
an end too.

Russia signed a treaty with Germany. It was called the ​Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (Byelorussia). Russia
lost much territory to the Germans. For example, the Russian states around the Baltic (what is today
Lithonia, Lithuania, etc.)

The war eventually came to an end on November 11​th​, 1918. The Germans surrendered to the allies. An
armistice was signed between Germany and the allies. An armistice is an agreement between the
warring parties to cease hostilities for a period of time until the peace terms are negotiated (a sort of
cease fire). Then, the negotiation between the allies and Germany and Austro-Hungary started.

Finally, the “Big Three” (The US, Britain, France, and Italy) met in Versailles to negotiate and decide on
the terms of the peace treaty. Also referred as the “Big Four”, but Italy just wanted to recover her
territories, so historians agree on the Big Three.

Wilson’s Fourteen Points ​ a series of ideas that reflected Wilson’s idealism ​ a proposal for the
future of the world

This document was prepared in January in the US.

In relation to the consequences of the war, the most important treaty was the Treaty of Versailles. It
dealt exclusively with Germany. The other losers were dealt with in separate treaties. Germany was not
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invited to negotiate the peace terms, which were imposed on Germany. The peace achieved by the treaty
was referred to A DICTATED PEACE, not a negotiated peace. A new map of Europe emerged.

THE FOURTEEN POINTS

Summary of Wilson’s Fourteen Points

1. No more secret treaties

2. Countries must seek to reduce their weapons and their armed forces ​ ​ disarmament

3. National self-determination should allow people of the same nationality to govern themselves
and one nationality should not have the power to govern another ​ free government –
democracy and freedom

4. All countries should belong of the League of Nations.

League of Nations (1920) ​ international organization with the aim of keeping peace in the world (point
14). It was the mechanism to put into practice the previous points.

A general association of nations for the purposes of guaranteeing political independence and
territorial integrity to great and small states alike.

This concept is very important in Wilsonian idealism. Wilson advocated equality of status. Countries
should participate in an equal standing. His idealism is reflected in his phrase ​“victory without
losers or winners” ​ ​ “PEACE WITHOUT VICTORY”

THE TREATY OF VERSAILLES

Wilson welcomed the armistice, which was signed on his terms. The representatives of the victors met
at Versailles to work out the terms which would be presented to the defeated powers to sign.

When the Big Four met in Versailles to discuss the peace terms, there was no agreement among them.
What were the different positions of the leaders? Clemenceau, Wilson and Lloyd George in relation to
Germany.

The positions were in relation, specifically, to the German armed forces and territories. There were
three positions:

1. WILSON – USA: ​Wilson’s and his idealism ​ soft position. Moral idealism. THE SOFT
POSITION.

2. CLEMENCEAU – FRANCE​: On the other extreme, Clemenceau wanted to punish German as

much as possible. Squeeze Germany to the limit. France had been one of the most affected
countries by the war. Clemenceau was nicknamed “the tiger.” THE EXTREME POSITION

3. LLOYD GEORGE – GREAT BRITAIN​: Lloyd-George wanted to punish Germany, but at the
same time, not in such a hard way. He thought that in the future this might bring about
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problems and once again, present a threat to the peace of the world. THE IN-BETWEEN
POSITION

4. ORLANDO – ITALY: He was only concerned with seeing his country benefit as well as
possible out of the Treaty.

France and Great Britain did not agree that much on the idea of self-determination for the new nations
that were created. They had colonies, so this meant that eventually they would have to grant
self-determination to their territories.

An obstacle in ​Wilson’​s way was the Allies’ determination to impose a harsh, vengeful peace on the
Germans. The victors demanded that Germany pay a huge reparations bill. ​Wilson ​called for a small
indemnity, fearing that a resentful and economically hobbled Germany might turn to Bolshevism or
disrupt the postwar community in some other way. Unable to moderate the Allied position, the
president reluctantly gave way, agreeing to a clause blaming the war on the Germans and to the creation
of a reparations commission to determine a figure (later set at $3 billion).

There was no one present from the defeated countries.

The Versailles Negotiations

Wilson presented his 14 points to be taken into account in the peace negotiations. These points
summarized “Wilsonianism”:

1-5: Called for diplomacy in the public view, freedom of the seas, lower tariffs, reduction in armament
and decolonization of empires.

A Treaty that left no one satisfied. None of the three leaders (except Orlando) returned to their
country satisfied with the Treaty of Versailles.

Signed: 28​th​ June, 1919

The Terms of the Treaty of Versailles

As a consequence of the treaty, the map of Europe was redrawn.

Territorial

The following land was taken away from Germany:

● Alsace-Lorraine (to France)

● Eupen and Malmedy (to Belgium)

● Northern Schleswig (to Denmark)

● Hultschin (to Czechoslovakia)

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● West Prussia, Posen and Upper Silesia (to Poland)

● The Saar, Danzing, and Memel under the control of the League of Nations until a referendum
was held.  ​The ​Saar (part of Germany) was taken away from Germany and given to France for 15
years. At the end of this period, the people of the region would vote and decide where they
wanted to belong to, Germany or France.

● The left bank of the Rhine in Germany was to be occupied by the Allies to be demilitarized. It
was declared a demilitarized land. France was permitted occupation rights.

● Poland was made an independent country and was given a corridor to the Baltic Sea. This Polish
corridor cut off East Prussia from the rest of Germany.

● Finland, Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia (formerly part of Russia) were made independent
countries.

● Czechoslovakia (part of Austria-Hungary) was made an independent state

● Austria and Hungary became two separate countries.

● Yugoslavia was created out of a much enlarged Serbia

● Italy was given South Tyrol and Istria.

● Romania, Greece, Belgium and Denmark received small pieces of land from the defeated
countries.

● Wilson and his colleagues also built a cordon sanitaire of new westward-looking nations
(Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania) around Russia to quarantine the Bolshevik contagion

Colonies

Germany and Turkey had all their former colonies taken away from them. They were given to other
colonies as MANDATES​. This meant that the countries receiving them had to agree to lead them to
Independence. The League of Nations was responsible for making this sure.

The German Empire

Tanganyika​ was given to Britain

Cameroon​ to France

South-West​ to South-Africa

Pacific Island​ to Japan

The Turkish Empire

Palestine​, ​Jordan​ and ​Iraq​ were given to Britain.

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Syria​ and ​Lebanon​ to France.

Military

● Germany was forced to reduce its arm forces.

o The German navy was to be cut down to 36 ships. Germany was not allowed to have any
submarines in the future.

o Germany was not allowed to have an air force.

o Germany was forbidden ever to make an alliance with Austria again.

● Rhineland demilitarized, the Allies were to keep an army occupation ​ ​ very important

● All wartime guns and weapons were to be melted down as scrap metal.

Financial

● Germany lost vital industrial territory.

● Financial penalties linked to reparations.

● Germany forbidden to united with Austria in order to keep her economic potential to a
minimum.

General

● Germany had to accept total blame of the war.

● Germany should pay reparations to the allies to compensate them for their losses.

Three vital clauses

1. Clause 231: “War Guilt Clause” ​ This clause stated that Germany was to blame for the
outbreak of the war and for all the damage caused to the allies. It put the blame exclusively on
Germany.

2. Germany therefore had to pay reparations. Payment in kind or cash. The figure was
eventually put at 6,600 million euros. According to historians, this payment was excessive.

3. A League of Nations was set up to keep world peace​.

France, Great Britain signed the Treaty. Wilson came back to the states because Congress had to ratify
the Treaty. When Wilson came back, the senate rejected the terms of the Treaty. It did not ratify the
Treaty. This means that the US did not sign the Treaty of Versailles.

What were the reasons why the US refused to sign the Treaty​? The US did not want to commit
itself with an association (League of Nations) that meant that in case of war of any of its members it
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would have to enter. They also did not want to help the British and French keep their colonial
possessions.

The US signed a bilateral treatment with Germany in 1981 to end the hostilities ​ ​ The Treaty of Berlin

The other treaties signed during the Paris Peace Conference

Saint Germain ​ 1919 ​ Austria-Hungary was divided into several states: Austria, Hungary, Yugoslavia,
Czechoslovakia and Poland

This is a direct result of the dismantling of the Empires (The Austro-Hungarian and the Ottoman
Empire)

Neuilly ​ ​ 1919 ​ ​ Bulgaria ceded territory to Greece and Rumania

Trianon ​ ​ 1920 ​ ​ Hungary became an independent country

Sevres ​ 1929 ​ Turkey was restricted to Asia Minor and only kept Constantinople in Europe (revised
by the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923, by which Turkey regained some areas that had been granted to
Greece).

Arabia became an independent kingdom.

Irak, Palestine and Transjordan were mandated to Great Britain.

Syria became a French mandate.

MANDATE ​ ​ neither a state nor a colony

German reaction to the Treaty

From now on, Germany wanted to take revenge. The Treaty of Versailles gave rise to a giant. It is one of
the reasons leading to WWII, because of the hard impositions on Germany.

The German people and their government were angry and bitter about the terms of the treaty. They had
lost a big portion of land, manufacturing industries, agricultural land, and coal and iron sources. The
loss of their armed forces deeply wounded their national pride. The victorious countries did not cut
down their armed forces to anywhere near the same levels. A mood of bitter and resentment grew in
Germany.

The treaty failed to keep peace as the treaty ignored some minority groups and set up small weak
countries from others. The old Austria-Hungary was split up according, where possible, to the wishes of
its many peoples.

But, it had been built up as a single economic unit: now roads, rail and river links were broken and
industries cut off from their suppliers or their markets. This contributed to the economic weakness of
the new countries.
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Czechoslovakia had large minorities of other peoples inside their borders (Germans, Poles, Hungarians,
Ruthenians, Czechs and Slovaks)

This showed that German minorities were ignored in the aim of self-determination. Some new countries
had little experience of democracy and soon fell under the rule of dictators.

THE END OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR

The peace settlement (Versailles and the other treaties taken collectively) had established the liberal
idea of self-determination on the basis of nationality – more Europeans than ever before were now
under governments which they willingly accepted; they had, too, some direct control over these
governments for they were democratic in form and subject to popular elections. The greatest triumph
of liberal idealism, however, was to be seen in the creation of the League of Nations.​ Jarman, Short
History XXth Century Britain: 159

How successful was the Treaty of Versailles? Not very much ​ WWII broke out. Germany could not
forgive this treaty for its humiliating terms.

THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS

THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS
ORIGIN/PERIOD MEMBERSHIP STRUCTURE AIMS PERFORMANCE: SUCCESSES AND
FAILURES
1920 (officially opened). The leading General Aim 1920s 1930s
The creation took place countries were: Specific Aims
after WWI. 1. Great Britain SOCIAL
It existed during the 2. France ECONOMIC
1920s and the 1930s. POLITICAL
It lasted from 1920 to
3. Italy
1946. 4. Japan
Between 1935 and
1945, in practice, the There were
League of Nations had important absences:
ceased to operate. In the US did not join
the 1930s, the invasion the League of
of Manchuria and Nations. As the US
Abizzin (no me acuerdo had not ratified the
cómo se escribe) the Treaty of Versailles,
League of Nations was it did not join the
not performing its job in League of Nations.
an efficient way. This was a
With the invasion of weakness. The US
Manchuria in 1931 by did not agree with
Japan, it was proved the principle of
that the League of collective security.
Nations was weakening The US did not want
its performance. to be dragged by
force into a conflict
that would not
benefit the
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economic interests
of the US.
The League of Nations the mechanism through which Wilson’s 14 points would be achieved

Preventing future conflict

Preventing the outbreak of a future war

The League of Nations was created in 1920

Horrified by the suffering of WWI, many people in Europe wanted a lasting peace. The League of
Nations was supposed to keep the peace. In the 1920s it had some successes. But by 1937 it had become
irrelevant, ignored even by its main members, Britain and France. In 1939, despite the efforts of the
League, the world was once again plunged into war.

President ​Woodrow Wilson a ​ ppealed for American membership in this new international organization
which would mean a vehicle for reforming world politics. But the Senate did not agree, fearing that it
might entangle Americans once again in Europe’s problems, impede the growth of the American
empire, and compromise the country’s traditional unilateralism in international affairs. America did not
support the entry of the US into the League of Nations mainly because they preferred their traditional
nonalignment and freedom of choice over commitments to collective action.

President ​Wilson ​wanted the League of Nations to be like a ​world parliament ​where representatives
of all nations could meet together regularly to decide on any matters which affected them all. He had a
very ambitious plan:

All the major nations would join the League.

They would disarm.

If they had a dispute with another country they would take it to the League and accept the
decision made by it.

They promise to protect one another if they were invaded.

If any member broke the Covenant, and went to war, the other members promised to stop
trading with it.
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People in Europe were prepared to give ​Wilson’​s plan a try. They hoped that no country would dare
invade another if they knew the US and other powerful nations would stop trading with them or send
their armies to stop them.

But, when Wilson returned to the USA, ​Congress didn’t approve of the USA entering the
League of Nations​. Americans did not like the idea either because:

● Some were recent immigrants, many of which were Germans. They did not want the US against
their natal Germany.

● The economic cost of joining the League was worrying. The US would promise to solve all
international problems regardless of the cost. After all, America had become a powerful country
by ​isolationalism​; people believed America should continue to mind its own business.

● Joining the League suggested that America was promising to send its troops to settle every little
conflict around the world.

● Many Americans opposed the League because they were anti-British or anti-French, and the
League would be under their control. America believed in freedom, so they opposed the idea of
colonies and empires, and surely America could not agree to safeguard all the colonial
possessions of Britain and France.

​ ecame seriously ill after a stroke and could not run for President. The Republican
In 1920, ​Wilson b
candidate campaigned for America to be ​isolationalist​. His slogan was to ​“return to normalcy”​,
that is, life as it was before the war with America isolating itself from European affairs. The
Republicans ​won a landslide victory. So, when the League opened for business in January 1920, the
American chair was empty.

The Covenant set out the aims of the League of Nations:

- To discourage aggression from any nation

- To encourage countries to cooperate, especially in business and trade

- To encourage nations to disarm

- To improve living and working conditions of people

SOME FACTS ABOUT THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS

● The League’s home was in ​Geneva, Switzerland.

● The most important article as ​Article 10: ​“The members of the League undertake to preserve
against external aggression the territory and existing independence of all members of the League. In
case of threat of danger the Council shall advise upon the means by which this obligation shall be
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fulfilled.” It meant ​collective security​, that is, by acting together, the members could prevent war
by defending the lands and interests of all nations.

● One of the jobs of the League was to uphold and enforce the ​Treaty of Versailles.

● 42 countries​ joined the League at a start. By the 1930s, it had ​59 members.

LEADERSHIP OF THE LEAGUE

In the absence of the USA, Britain and France were the most powerful countries in the League. Italy and
Japan were also permanent members of the Council, but it was mainly Britain and France who usually
guided policy. Any actions by the League needed their support.

However, both countries were poorly placed to take on this role. Both had been weakened by WWI;
neither was the major power it had once been. They felt that the Americans were the only nation with
the resources or influence to make the League work. Both countries had other priorities:

British ​politicians were more interested in rebuilding British trade and looking after the British
Empire than in being an international police force.

France​’s main concern was still Germany. It was worried that without an army of its own the
League was too weak to protect France from its powerful neighbour.

CARTOON: THE GAP IN THE BRIDGE​. A British cartoon published in ​Punch Magazine​, 10
December 1919. A keystone is missing, so the bridge cannot be crossed the US. Uncle Sam is
smoking, relaxed. The US did not care about the conflicts that were going on in Europe. The US was
isolated. The main concern was international/overseas trade.

If the US did not become a member, it was impossible to cross a bridge the bridge will fall down.

The presence of the US was essential for the League of Nations.

Negative message the cartoonist is foretelling the ending of the League of Nations. From the very
beginning, the cartoonists view was that the League of Nations would not be able to achieve its aims.

League Bridge designed by the president of the USA, Woodrow Wilson

There’s a bit of the bridge missing

Uncle Sam is leaning on the missing bit, he looks like he does not care US

The League of Nations was the most ambitious and idealistic outcome of the peace treaties. It set for h
a new vision of international co-operation and collective security to ensure the peaceful settlement of
disputes. It had little chance of success, as many of the major powers were not members and the
concept of collective security was too abstract and idealistic for countries raised in a tradition of
self-interest and traditional diplomacy. It did have a few successes in resolving disputed involving
small powers but at no time did it intervene successful in a dispute involving a major country – it did
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not have any power of its own or the support of the international community in such circumstances.
Cannon

THE STRUCTURE OF THE LEAGUE

1. COUNCIL OF THE LEAGUE

The most important body. A committee that took major decisions. It met 5 times a year and in case of
emergencies. Most major nations were members. Made up of:

a. Permanent members: Great Britain, France, Italy and Japan.

b. Temporary members: elected by the Assembly.

Each of the permanent members had the ​veto power decisions had to be taken unanimously. If one
of the countries vetoed the decision, the decision could not be taken.

The council could use a range of powers in case matters went out of hand:

1- Moral condemnation​: They could decide which country was the aggressor and condemn the
aggressor’s action and tell it to stop what it was doing.

2- Economic and financial Sanctions: members of the League could refuse to trade with the
aggressor.

3- Military Force:​ The armed forces of member countries could be used against an aggressor.

2. SECRETARIAT

An administrative division.

The permanent civil service of the League. It carried out decisions taken by the Council.

It kept ​records of the League meetings and prepared ​reports for the different agencies of the League.
It had specialists sections covering areas such as health, disarmament and economic matters.

3. ASSEMBLY

It gathered together all the member countries.

All member nations of the League had one vote here.

It was the League’s ​Parliament​. It met once a year and it could recommend action to the Council and
could vote on:

● Admitting new members to the league

● Appointing temporary members of the council

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● The budget of the league

● Other ideas put forward by the Council

The decisions made by the Assembly had to be ​unanimous.

4. THE INTERNATIONAL LABOUR ORGANIZATION

The ILO brought together employers, governments and workers’ representatives once a year. Its aim
was to improve the conditions of ​working​ people throughout the world.

5. THE PERMANENT COURT OF JUSTICE

It was meant to be a key part of the League’s job of settling disputes between countries peacefully. The
court was based at the Hague in the Netherlands and was made up of 15 judges from the member
countries.

If asked, it would give a decision on a ​border disputes ​between countries.

6. SPECIAL COMMISIONS

a. Drug addiction
b. Health
It attempted to deal with the problem of dangerous diseases and to educate people in health and
sanitation.
c. Slavery
This worked to abolish slavery around the world.
d. Help for undeveloped nations
e. Refugees
This helped to return refugees to their original homes after the end of WWI.
f. Minorities
g. Mandates
WWI had led to many former colonies of Germany and her allies ending up as League of Nations
mandates ruled by Britain and France on behalf of the League. It made sure both acted in the
interests of the people of that territory, not in its own.
h. Women

AIMS OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS: SUCCESSES AND FAILURES

GENERAL AIM​: peacekeeping

Specific aims:

SOCIAL ​ to improve the living and social conditions of people around the world

POLITICAL ​ to solve border disputes among countries and disarmament

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ECONOMIC ​ to foster cooperation among countries in the area of trade and business

The WSC (1929) turning point. The US was not able to keep helping European countries, especially
Germany.

1939 outbreak of WWII

1920s/1930s SOCIAL AIMS OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS

Refugees + prisoners of war

Working conditions child-labor, 48-hour week, 8-hour day

Health cholera, smallpox, dysentery, leprosy, malaria, yellow fever

Transport shipping lanes, international Highway Code

Social problems drug trade, slavery, forced labour, prostitution

As regards social aims, the League of Nations was very successful in both decades.

Many of the commissions dealing with these problems were then recreated by the UN.

THE LEAGUE IN THE 1920s

BORDER DISPUTES

The ​Treaty of Versailles had created some new states and changed the borders of other existing states.
These boundaries might split a community, putting some people in one state and the rest in another. It
was the job of the League to sort out border disputes, some of which were handled by the ​Conference
of Ambassadors​, a body of the League of Nations made up of leading politicians from the main
members of the League: Britain, France, and Italy.

Vilna 1920 Poland ​and ​Lithuania ​were two states created by the post-war treaties. Vilna, now
Vilnius, was made the capital of Lithuania, but its population was largely Polish. In 1920, the Polish
simply took control of it. Lithuania appealed for help; it was a crucial first test case for the League.
The League protested to Poland, but Poland did not withdraw. The League could have sent British
or French troops to force the Polish out, but they did not: The French didn’t want to because they
saw Poland as a possible ally in the future; the British didn’t want to act alone and send their troops
right to the other side of Europe. In the end the League did nothing. ​The Poles kept Vilna.

Upper Silesia 1921

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Upper Silesia was an industrial region on the border between ​Germany ​and ​Poland​. It was inhabited
by both Germans and Poles. Both countries wanted control over it because of its rich iron and steel
industry. In 1920 a ​plebiscite ​was organized for Silesians to vote on which country they wished to
join. The industrial areas voted mainly for Germany, the rural areas mainly for Poland. The League
divided the region along these lines. ​Both countries accepted the decision.

Aaland Islands 1921

Sweden ​and ​Finland ​wanted control of the Aaland Islands which were midway between the two
countries. The League, after studying the matter closely, said the islands should go to ​Finland.
Sweden accepted and a ​war was avoided.

Corfu 1923
One of the boundaries which had to be sorted out after the war was the border between ​Greece ​and
Albania. ​The Conference of Ambassadors was given this job and was appointed an Italian general
called ​Tellini ​to supervise it. While surveying the Greek side, Tellini and his team were killed. The
Italian leader ​Mussolini ​blamed Greece for the murder, so he bombarded and occupied the Greek
island of Corfu. Greece appealed to the League; it condemned Mussolini’s actions and suggested
that Greece pay compensation, but that money would be held by the League and given to Italy once
the killers were found. Officially, Mussolini accepted the decision, but behind the scenes he
persuaded the Conference of Ambassadors to change the League’s ruling. The Greeks had to
apologize and pay compensation directly to Italy. Then, ​Mussolini withdrew from Corfu
boasting his triumph.

The Geneva Protocol

It was drawn up by ​Britain ​and ​France ​to avoid another incident like the one in Corfu, which
demonstrated how the League could be undermined by its own members. The Protocol stated that if
two members were in dispute they would have to ask the League to sort out the disagreement and
they would have to accept the Council’s decision. Meanwhile, there was a General Election in
Britain and the new government ​opposed to sign the Protocol ​because Britain would be forced
to agree to something that was not in its own interest. This weakened the League.

Bulgaria 1925
Greek ​troops invaded ​Bulgaria ​after an incident on the border in which some Greek soldiers were
killed. Bulgaria appealed for help and the League condemned the Greek action. ​Greece obeyed
although they did complain that there seemed to be one rule for the large states, such as Italy, and
another for the smaller ones, such as themselves.

SOCIAL AIMS

The League aimed to fight poverty, disease and injustice.

Refugees​: the league did tremendous work in getting refugees and former prisoners of war back to
their homeland.
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Working conditions​: the International Labor Organization, ILO, was successful in banning
poisonous white lead from paint and in limiting the hours that small children were allowed to work.
It introduced a resolution for a maximum 48-hou week and an 8-hour day.

Health​: the Health Committee (which later became the World Health Organization) worked hard to
defeat the dreaded disease leprosy. It started a global campaign to exterminate mosquitoes which
reduced cases of Malaria and yellow fever.

Transport​: the League made recommendations on marking shipping lanes and produced an
international highway code for road users.

Social Problems​: the League fought against the illegal drug trade. It also organized raids against slave
owners and traders.

DISARMAMENT

In the 1920s the League largely failed in bringing about disarmament, which damaged the League’s
reputation in Germany. Germany had disarmed because it had been forced to, but no other countries
had disarmed to the same extent.
Even so, the failure over disarmament did not seem too serious because of a series of international
agreements which seemed to promise a more peaceful world:

THE LOCARNO PACT – 1925

In 1925, representatives of France, Britain, Germany, Italy, Belgium, Poland and Czechoslovakia
met in Locarno, Switzerland and reached important agreements:
▪ Germany accepted the borders with France and Belgium which were laid out in the ​Treaty
of Versailles​. Britain and Italy guaranteed to protect France if Germany violated these borders.
▪ Germany accepted that the Rhineland​ should remain a ​demilitarized zone.
▪ France and Germany agreed to settle any future dispute through the League of Nations.
Germany was accepted as a ​member of the League of Nations in 1926. Now the Soviet Union was the
only major power not in the League.

THE KELLOGG-BRIAND PACT – 1928

It stated that the parties ​condemn war as a means of solving international disputes and
rejected it as an instrument of policy. The settlement or solution of all disputes would only be
sought through ​peaceful means​. But, all countries would keep their armed forces for self-defence:
a blow for the political aim of disarmament.

ECONOMIC RECOVERY
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After the difficult days of the early 1920s, the economies of the European countries were once again
recovering. The ​Dawes Plan ​helped Germany, Britain, and France to recover. The ​recovery of
trading relationships ​between these countries helped reduce tension: when countries were trading
with one another they were much less likely to go to war with each other.
 
American loans helped Europe to recover from economic crisis after the war. 
 
Europe had more money available. 
 
European countries rebuilt their industries. 
 
In order to put those industries into work, more workers were needed. 
 
More jobs were available for people and employment increased, which lead to more production. 
 
Products were sold in internal and international markets. International trade increased. 
 
Countries’ profits increased and more money was available to continue recovering their economies. 
 
  
With the profits obtained, Germany paid for reparation to Britain and France and also paid back the 
loan to the US. As consequence, there was an economic reactivation. 

1920s POLITICAL AIMS

Border disputes:

The Ruhr Crisis 1923 ​ failure (the League of Nations did not solve the problem)

The Ruhr was a German territory. A highly productive industrial area (iron, steel). Germany was
supposed to pay reparations money would come from productions the Ruhr. Germany complained
that the reparations the country had to pay for the war. By 1922, Germany could not comply with the
compromise of paying. France wanted the money: the country had to pay back the US. Therefore,
France and Belgium invaded the Ruhr and were ready to take everything in kind and products. Since
Germany was not able to pay them, they wanted to take their production.

The government of Germany gave the order to the workers to resist in a passive way and to go on strike.
If workers stopped working, there would be no production from the French and Belgians to take home.
German workers were killed, which increased tensions between Germany and France. In the end, Burt
(Germany’s president) was displaced from the presidency and (new president) started negotiations with
the US ​origin of the Dawes Plan

Through the Dawes Plan, the US would lend money to Germany. German industries would produce, be
sources of employment, that production would serve for international trade, this would bring about
profits.
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The Dawes plan was very successful. It also helped Britain and France to reactivate their own
economies.

Locarno Treaties 1925​ success

As a consequence of the Ruhr crisis, Germany was showing a better behavior.

It dealt mainly with the relation between France and Germany.

It was a restatement of the Treaty of Versailles.

Germany promised to respect the borders between France and Germany as they had been laid out in the
Treaty of Versailles. The Rhineland would remain a demilitarized area (by Germany). Both countries
promised to solve problems resorting to the League of Nations.

The Locarno Treaties were very well received. The period is referred to as the “Locarno Honeymoon”
there was a positive view for the future.

These treaties would be the key that opened the door for Germany to enter the League of Nations.

CARTOON “The Locarno Spirit”. The Girl who Took the Right Turning (1925). The British
Commissionaire The League of Nations is welcoming the entrance of Germany. Germany had shown
goodwill by accepting the restatement of the provisions of the Treaty of Versailles.

In the 1920s, especially after the implementation of the Dawes Plan (1924), there was a period of
honeymoon in the world: there was money and prosperity. Everybody was happy because the US, with
its loans, was helping the Germans, and the European economies to reactivate.

The Ruhr crisis and the Locarno Treaties represent the lowest and highest points of international
relations in the 1920s. The French invasion of the Ruhr plunged Germany into political and economic
chaos with a real threat of anarchy or revolution. The French were portrayed as bullies and lost
considerable international support. The crisis dit however have a positive outcome as it caused the
United States to become involved in the financial rebuilding of Germany through the Dawes Plan. The
Locarno Treaties which emerged partially from the Ruhr crisis promised permanent solution to
Franco-German tensions and as such set the tone for a general wave of optimism in the 1920s.

The Kellog-Briand Pact (1929): 62 countries signed. They compromised not to resort to war to
resolve future conflicts.

Disarmament:

One of the aims of the Treaty of Versailles and of Wilson’s 14 points. Through the Treaty of Versailles,
Germany had been forced to resign. Germany could never forgive the responsible for the Treaty of
Versailles for this humiliation.

In the 20s, there were attempts to disarm.

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The Washington Naval Agreements – 1921-2

Japan, Italy, France, and even the US attended the conference (the Washington Conference)

Main provision agreed upon: the countries decided to put a ceiling to the production of battleships. It
established a limit for the production of battleships Limits for the navy. This does not mean actual
disarmament. It means reduction.

London Naval Treaty 1930

This treaty did not achieve disarmament as such.

Main provision through this treaty, the roof for the production of battleships was made higher. It
increased the number of battleship that could be produced.

In 1933, Hitler raised to power. There was pressure put on the League to achieve the aim of
disarmament. All the member country should attend a disarmament conference to deal with this issue.

In 1932, the disarmament conference took place in Geneva. The Geneva Conference (1932-1934). The
central issue that could not be agreed upon was the principle of equality. Hitler put forward this idea:
Germany had been forced to disarm by the Treaty of Versailles. The other countries should disarm to
the same extent of the other countries or the other countries should disarm to the level of Germany.
There was no agreement upon this. Attitude and spirit of the powerful countries they were not ready
to disarm. As a result, the conference resulted in a failure without agreement on the issue of
disarmament.

The political aim of disarmament in the 1930s was a failure.

As a result of the failure of the Disarmament Conference, Germany left the League of Nations in 1933.
Germany began to rearm secretly. The other countries did the same.

CARTOON​: A cartoon by David Low, published in London’s ​Evening Standard o ​ n 1 July, 1932. The
man that stands for civilization is digging a grave for the woman that stands for disarmament. The
woman addresses the main and says “Better make it wide enough to hold yourself too, Big Boy.” the
grave would be for disarmament and civilization. If disarmament vanishes, civilization will also vanish.
There is a threat for civilization is disarmament fails. There are snakes that have human faces the
countries that attended the Disarmament Conference.

1920s ECONOMIC AIMS OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS

Aims: international cooperation among countries in the areas of trade and business.

In the 20s, this aim was very successful friendly relationships

There was money through the Dawes plan: Americans helped Germany and Europe to recover from the
war by granting money; the countries would invest that money in the industries; industries rebuilt;
sources of employment; more production; international trade; profits; the profits that Germany
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received were reinvested and were used to repay the reparations to Britain and France. With that
money, Britain and France would do the same: repay the US.

It was a perfect circle.

BUT in the 1930s 1929 WSC ​THE GREAT DEPRESSION THE COLLAPSE OF
INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC COOPERATION AND THE BREAKDOWN OF INTERNATIONAL
TRADE

The circle was no longer perfect.

THE LEAGUE IN THE 1930s

Different factors during the 1930s led to the ​failure ​of the League of Nations:

WALL STREET CRASH – 1929

In the late 1920s, there had been a boom in world trade. The USA was the richest nation in the world
and American businesses were like the engine driving the world economy. However, it was predicted
that political disaster might follow if countries did not co-operate economically: it turned out to be an
accurate prediction.

In 1929 economic disaster did strike. The Wall Street Crash took place in the USA, but it affected the
whole world. It had a domino effect and brought about serious economic damage to trade and
industries all over the world:

The Wall Street Crash resulted in fewer American loans to Europe. 

 
Europe had less money available. 
 
Industries had to close down, so industrial activity shrank. 
 
Workers were fired and the rate of unemployment went up. 
 
Countries had to activate their own industries, so they took protectionist policies: high tariffs were set 
up to protect internal industries. 
 
International trade decreased. 
 
As Consequence, profits decreased, there was less money available and countries were desperate to 
find new ways of wealth. 

● Britain ​suffered unemployment.

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● In ​Germany ​unemployment and poverty led people to elect the Nazis, who promised to solve
economic and social problems. Adolf Hitler and the Nazis made no secret of their ​plan to
overturn the ​Treaty of Versailles​ and regain lost German territory.

● In ​Japan the Depression threatened a complete collapse of the country’s industry. It led the
Japanese to take over Manchuria (part of China).

● In ​Italy ​economic problems encouraged Mussolini to try to build an overseas empire to distract
people’s attention away from the difficulties the government faced.

● Worried about the changing situation in Germany, ​France ​began building a series of frontier
defences on its border with Germany.

● The ​USA ​was unwilling to support economic sanctions when its own trade was in such a mess.

MANCHURIAN CRISIS – 1933

The ​Manchurian Railway ​was built by the Japanese and was

controlled by their army. It carried Japanese goods into Manchuria
and the rest of China and brought food and raw materials such as
iron, coal and timber back to Japan.

Since 1900, Japan’s economy and population had been growing

rapidly. By the 1920s Japan was a major power in the world:

● It had a powerful navy and army.

● It had a strong industry, exporting goods to the USA and

China.

● It had a growing empire which included the Korean

peninsular.

The depression hit Japan due to the high tariffs that the Americans
put up. The collapse of the American market put the Japanese
economy in crisis; without trade, Japan could not feed its people. So
they wanted to build up a Japanese Empire by force to solve their problems.

In 1931 an incident in Manchuria gave the opportunity they had been looking for to expand Japanese
Empire. They claimed that Chinese soldiers had ​sabotaged the railway​, so they overran Manchuria
and threw out all the Chinese forces. In February 1932 they set up a ​puppet government in
Manchuria. Later, Japanese aeroplanes and gunships bombed ​Shanghai​.

China appealed to the League. Japan claimed that it was not invading as an aggressor but simply
settling a local difficulty and said that China was in such a state of anarchy that they had to invade in
self-defence to keep peace in the area.
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There was a long and ​frustrating delay because the League leaders didn’t want Japan as their enemy
so they were afraid of making a decision against such a powerful country. ​One year after the appeal,
the League decided that Japan was in the wrong and had acted unlawfully and that Manchuria should
be returned to the Chinese (moral condemnation, the 1​st​ step).

BUT: ​Instead of withdrawing from Manchuria the Japanese announced that they
intended to invade more of China.

The report was finally approved; only Japan voted against it. ​Japan resigned from the League. The
following week they invaded ​Jehol​.

The League was powerless, they discussed economic sanctions ((which was the 2​nd step) but without the
USA​, Japan’s main trading partner, it would be meaningless. Besides, ​Britain seemed more interested
in keeping good relationships with Japan than in agreeing with the sanctions. The League also
discussed ​banning arms sales to ​Japan, but they feared that Japan would retaliate and the war
would escalate.

Neither Britain nor France wanted to risk their navies or armies in a war with Japan. Only the USA or
the USSR would have had the resources to remove the Japanese from Manchuria, but they were not
even members of the League.
2
As China had an ​Open Door policy , the invasion of Japan affected the economic relationship with the
US. ​This marked the beginning of the problems in the relations between Japan and the
US​, which would then turn into war.

DISARMAMENT CONFERENCE – 1932-1934

The next failure of the League was over disarmament. The Germans had long been angry about the fact
that they had been forced to disarm after WWI while other nations had not done the same. Many
countries were actually spending more on their armaments.

In 1932 the Disarmament Conference took place: the bigger problem was the one over what to do about
Germany. The question was whether everyone else should disarm to the level that Germany had been
forced to or whether the Germans should be allowed to rearm to the level closer to other nations.

Germany demanded military equality with France and France would only accept this demand if Britain
would rearm and guarantee to come to her aid if she was attacked. But most of Britain was against such
commitment. ​Mac Donald h​ ad hopes of peace; he was prepared to stake everything on his efforts to
reconcile France and Germany, to avoid any action which committed Britain to military intervention on
the continent.

Eventually, the French offered Germany equality in armaments at the end of 4 years. Many Germans
considered this insulting, and it gave ​Hitler ​a clear excuse for withdrawing from the League of Nations.

2
A concept in foreign affairs, which usually refers to the policy around 1900 allowing multiple Imperial powers access to
China, with none of them in control of that country
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- Germany proposed for all countries to disarm to their level. When the Conference failed to agree the
principle of equality, the ​Germans walked out​.

- An agreement was finally reached to treat the Germans equally and the Germans announced ​they
were coming back.

- Hitler became Chancellor of Germany and started to ​rearm Germany secretly​.

- Hitler promised not to rearm Germany if in 5 years all other nations destroyed their arms.

- Hitler withdrew from the Disarmament Conference and soon after ​took Germany out of the
League​.

As the power countries knew that Germany was rearming again, they also began to rebuild their own
armament.

The Disarmament Conference ended in 1934.

ABYSSINIAN CRISIS – 1934-1936

Mussolini was the leader of Italy and wanted to expand its empire by
invading another country (like Japan did in Manchuria). But unlike
Manchuria, this dispute was on the League’s doorstep: they could not
claim that this problem was in an inaccessible part of the world.

50 years earlier, Italian troops tried to invade Abyssinia but they were
defeated because of their poorly equipped army of tribesmen. Mussolini
wanted revenge for this humiliating defeat. He also wanted Abyssinia’s
fertile lands and mineral wealth.

In 1934, there was a dispute between soldiers at ​Wal-Wal, ​Abyssinia, and Mussolini took this as his
cue and claimed this was actually Italian territory and prepared to invade Abyssinia. The Abyssinia
Emperor appealed to the League for help.

Phase 1: The League plays for time

The League failed to take the situation seriously. ​They played for time​. ​They were desperate to
keep good relations with Mussolini who seemed to be their strongest ally against Hitler​.

The British Government published an important ​White Paper ​entitled “Statement Relating to
Defence”, stating that Britain could no longer rely on collective security through the League and that her
own armed forces must be her main protection. ​Hitler’s r​ esponse was to restore their army in Germany,
again in defiance of the ​Treaty of Versailles​. In answer to this move, ​MacDonald ​met ​Mussolini a
​ nd the
French Foreign Minister, ​Laval​, at Stresa in 1935, and signed the ​Stresa Pact​, a pact of non-aggression
between countries. Italy was favoured by this pact as it had free way to keep on with its ambitious plan,
as Britain and France were endorsing to its idea of invasion. Then, the British were against the Italian
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invasion, so they put forward a plan which would give Mussolini some of Abyssinia but Mussolini
rejected it.

Phase 2: Sanctions or not ?

In October 1935, Mussolini’s army was ready. He launched a

full-scale invasion of Abyssinia​. The Covenant gave the
League an answer as to what to do: ​sanctions must be
introduced against the aggressor.

* The League imposed immediate ban on arms sales to Italy

while allowing them to Abyssinia.

* They banned loans to Italy.

* They banned imports from Italy.

* The banned export to Italy of rubber, tin and metals.

But​, the league ​delayed a decision for 2 months over

whether to ban oil exports to Italy, which was essential for the
invasion. They feared that their own economic interests would be further damaged.

The ​Suez Canal, which was owned by Britain and France, was not closed to Mussolini’s supply ships
although the canal was the Italians’ main supply route to Abyssinia and closing it could have ended the
Abyssinian campaign very quickly. The British and French were afraid that closing the canal could have
resulted in war with Italy. Equally damaging to the League was the ​secret dealing between the
British and the French ​Foreign Ministers, ​Hoare ​and ​Laval, w ​ ho were planning to give Mussolini
two thirds of Abyssinia in return for him calling off his invasion. Details of the plan were ​leaked to the
French press​. It proved quite disastrous for the League. The countries actions were seen as a ​blatant
act of treachery against the League. ​Both Foreign Ministers were sacked. But the real damage was
to the sanctions discussions because they lost all momentum and the question about whether to ban oil
sales was further delayed.

​ arched his troops into the ​Rhineland​, an act prohibited by the ​Treaty of Versailles​.
In March, ​Hitler m
The French were desperate to gain the support of Italy and were now prepared to pay the price of giving
Abyssinia to Mussolini.

​ nd ​Hitler ​signed an agreement called ​the Rome-Berlin Axis​.

In November 1936, ​Mussolini a

Italy continued to defy the League’s orders and by May 1936 had taken the capital of Abyssinia, ​Addis
Ababa. ​Haie Selassie ​resigned as emperor ​and left the country. On May 9 ​Mussolini f​ ormally
annexed the entire country.

The League watched helplessly: it had failed once again.

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WHY DID THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS FAIL?

1. The self-interest of leading members

The League depended on Britain and France to provide firm support in time of crisis. However, neither
Britain nor France was prepared to abandon their own self-interest to support the League.

2. America and other important countries were absent

Germany was not a member until 1926 and left in 1933. The ​USSR did not join until 1934 while ​Japan
left in 1933 and ​Italy in 1937. Most important, the ​USA was never a member. Without such major
powers the League lacked authority and sanctions were not effective.

3. Economic sanctions did not work

They were supposed to be the League’s main weapon, but members of the League did not willingly impose
them because they worried that without America’s support they would not work. When they did
impose them they were easily broken.

4. Lack of troops

If economic sanctions failed, military force was the next option. Yet the League had no armed forces of its
own and relied upon the co-operation of its members, Britain and France, who were not willing to
commit troops.

5. The treaties it had to uphold were seen as unfair

It became apparent that some of the terms of those peace treaties were harsh and unjust and needed
amending.

6. Decisions were slow

When a crisis occurred, the League was supposed to act quickly and with determination. In many cases,
however, the League met too infrequently and took too long to make decisions.

THE EFFECTS OF THE WSC AND THE GREAT DEPRESSION

The WSC less money available industry contracts decreased employment some countries
charge tariffs to protect the industries decreased international trade decreased profits

TARIFF protectionist measures. When tariffs are imposed, what you import is more expensive than
what you produce at home. Taxes imposed on imports.

The economic aim of the League was not perfect in the 30s due to the WSC and the GD that followed.

1930s Political Failure in the League of Nations

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Invasion of Manchuria by Japan (1931): A consequence of the Great Depression. Japan was one of the
main trading partners of the US. They wanted to expand. Manchuria China. China was a member of
the League, so the country applied to the League for a solution. Japan was one of the leading members
of the league. Several excuses: the problem is taking place too far away; Britain and France were not
ready to risk their armies. RESULT The League delayed in taking de decision. When the decision was
taken, it was too late. When it was declared that Japan was the aggressor, Japan ignored the order. The
country was offended, so it left the League of Nations.

FAILURE IN ACTION ON THE PART OF THE LEAGUE: ​It was supposed to act quickly and with
determination. This is one of the weaknesses that accounts for the failure of the League of Nations to
take action as regards international borders.

Punishments that the League could impose on the leading countries:

1. Moral condemnation: declare who is the aggressor and tell the aggressor to stop
2. Economic sanctions: the prospects were not very good. The US was not a member Japan
could continue trading with the US.

Neither punishment was successful.

3. Sending of troops: The League lacked troops of its own. It depended on the provision of troops
by the different member countries, who were not ready to commit their armies.

THE INTERWAR PERIOD IN THE UNITED STATES

​ 1921 1929 1941

New government Wall Street US enters

Crash WWII

The period contained between WWI and WWII. It comprises two decades: the 1920s and the 1930s.

One decade is characterized by the spirit after a war, people were eager to change, live life to the fullest,
and to continue to reorder the world.

The decade previous to WWII, people were telling the different governments that something was going
on. Despite people wanting to deter another war, serious things were happening that deteriorated the
relationship between different countries.

THE RED SCARE

In the last few months of the war, guardians of Americanism began to label dissenters as
pro-Germans ​and ​pro-Bolshevik​. After the Bolshevik revolution in 1917, American hatred for
Germany was transferred to communist Russia. When the new Russian government made peace with
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Germany in 1918, America grew angry that the closing of the eastern front would give the Germans the
chance to move west.

The term ​RED was applied to people of varying beliefs, such as anarchist, Socialist, pacifists,
communists, union leaders, and reformers.

A sign of the ​Wilson ​administration’s anti-Bolshevism was the president’s ordering of American troops
to northern Russia and to Siberia in 1918. This was done in order to guard Allied supplies and Russian
railroads from German seizure and to rescue a group of Czechs who wished to return to their homeland
to fight the Germans. ​Wilson a ​ lso worried that the Japanese were building influence in Siberia and
closing the ​Open Door​.

Wilson ​placed a blockade of Russia and then blocked Russian participation in the Paris Peace
Conference. These interventions embittered Washington-Moscow relations, a legacy that would persist
deep into the 20​th​ century.

At home, too, the ​Wilson a ​ dministration moved against radicals and communists. After the war,
Americans were edgy because it had disrupted race relations, the workplace, and the family; postwar
unemployment loomed; and in 1919, the Russians established the Comintern (communist organization
to establish a communist republic across European nations) to promote world revolution.

A rash of labor strikes in 1919 helped spark the Red Scare, such as the Seattle general strike, the Boston
police strike and the September walkout.

Attorney General ​Mitchell Palmer created a new Bureau of Investigation and appointed ​Edgar Hoover
to run it. ​Hoover ​organized a file of thousands of index cards bearing the names of alleged radical
individuals and organizations. During 1919, agents jailed IWW members, deported others to Soviet
Russia, and expelled many elected Socialist members of the New York State legislature.

The Red Scare reached a climax in January 1920, when the attorney general staged his Palmer Raids.
Using information gathered by ​Hoover, g ​ overnment agents in 33 cities broke into meeting halls,
poolrooms, and homes without search warrants and sent thousands to jails and many were deported.
Palmer’s​ disregard for elementary civil liberties soon drew criticism.

The government’s war on its critics and disrespect for the Bill of Rights left an indelible blot on ​Wilson’​s
political record. During the 1918 congressional elections, ​Wilson ​had urged a vote for the Democrats as
a sign of support for his peace goals. But the American people did just the opposite. The Republicans
gained control of both houses, signalling trouble for ​Wilson ​in 2 ways:

Any peace treaty would have to be submitted for approval to a potentially hostile Senate.

Wilson’​s stature had been diminished in the eyes of foreign leaders.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TWO PERIODS

The Roaring 20s/The Jazz Age

​ The flappers: the most liberal women in American society in the 1920s
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Necklines went down; the length of the skirts went up; women started to smoke in public. This was a
small group of people. Women were still very conservative. Nevertheless, in the cities, many women
started to experience more freedom. Many had started working during the war; however, when men
came back, some women were laid off. The best job that a woman could expect to take up was that of a
teacher or a nurse. In general, women were hired to be waitresses.

The flappers show the mood of the 1920s.

Working hours were shorter and wages were higher. With fewer working hours and higher wages,
people had more time to devote to entertainment.

What do we mean by the roaring 20s?

● Very positive mood.

● We see an incipient consumerist society BUT the American consumer society is identified with
the 30s. People started to consume more because more was produced. Second industrial
revolution in the US ​ mass production meant that many more items were manufactured at
lower prices. There was, industrially speaking, a device introduced, which made mass
production possible: the assembly line. The costs went down, so people could afford to buy more
products. This happened with the model T Ford: mass-produced, black. Many more people
could afford to buy a car, but not the working classes, which were very much below this
accessibility. Lower-middle classes could afford to buy a car. Most people had the feeling that
they were making progress because they could buy a car. The car was not only a privilege for the
rich. This also accounted for the spirit of optimism of the period.

● The 20s roared ​ ​ buoyant spirit of the decade in the US

1920s: ​BOOM ​ WSC: 1929 ​ ​ ​THE GREAT DEPRESSION​ 1930s: ​BUST ​ 1941-1945: ​WWII​ (participation of the US)

1920s: America could produce a lot. WWI had given the US the exercise of producing a lot. The US
could sell the products because after the war the European countries were devastated. It continued until
the Dorse Plan (?) was implemented. This plan was administered from the League of Nations. It was a
plan of loans from the US to the European countries, mainly Germany. With the money, Germany
would reactive its industry. In that way, the international trade would be reactivated. To a very large
extent, the plan helped a lot. When European countries reactivated their industries, they were not so
willing to buy products from the US ​ ​ ONE OF THE CAUSES OF THE WSC

There was now a shift in importance: at the end of the 19​th C, beginnings of the 20​th C, Great Britain was
the leading country of the world; after WWI, the country that became more important was the US (even
on the international stage, even when the US had refused to participate of the League of Nations). The
US became one of the most important leading countries of the world, as an anticipation of what
happened after WWII, when the US became one of the bigger superpowers.
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Boom​ ​ ​ very rich natural resources ​ ​ mass production ​ ​ government policies

In 1929, the WSC ​ ​ financial crisis that led to an economic recession

Bust ​ allusion to a chant that people would use against the president of the US at that time, who many
people blamed for the crisis. People would say “In Hoover we trusted (Prosperity is round the corner),
and now we’re busted.”

Cities went upward. They expanded horizontally and vertically. Associate the Empire State Building
with this period. Although it was inaugurated in 1931, the process of building skyscrapers had already
started.

Movies, sports, Louis Armstrong, jazz.

A new state of mind ​ ​ The right to prosperity

1919-1929

There was another America that also existed in the 1920s.

The US started the 20th ​ C as a country with enormous potential, and finished the century as the
world’s only superpower. Yet there are two ways of looking at this powerful nation in the 1920s – as a
wealthy country with a high standard of living, big cars, and large houses, or as a country with many
people living in poverty and some enduring terrible racism.

​ ​THE OTHER AMERICA

According to the people, made up of black people and poor people. There were other people covered by
this umbrella of poverty: immigrants, the native Americans, and women.

For many Americans, the 1920s was a decade of poverty. Generally, groups such as
African-Americans, women, and farmers did not enjoy the prosperity of the Roaring Twenties. More
than 60% of American lived just below the poverty line. Life was particularly hard for
African-Americans. In the Deep South States where the majority of black people endured a
combination of poverty and racism. Although some women were able to enjoy more independence
and wear the latest fashions, the reality was that most women were poorly paid and were employed
in rules such as cleaners and waitresses.

Exodus of farmers from the countryside to the cities ​ dust storms, lack of money to buy the machines
to work the land. Similar process to the Agrarian Revolution in Great Britain. They thought that in the
cities they would be able to find jobs because the industries were prospering.

Case of the Italians executed: Sacco-Vanzetti.

In the 1920s, the Ku Klux Klan opened: they would also recruit women as members. They also opened
the scope of their objectives.

In the Deep South, lynching was still legal.

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CAUSES OF THE WSC OF 1929

1. Speculation on the stock market​: Everyone wanted to buy and sell shares. A lot of
speculation not done by professionals. The banks were ready to support this system: they were
ready to grant the margin loans. To some extent, they protected the system.

2. Overproduction and underconsumption​: There were people who bought a car in 1922, but
they would not buy new models. Once they bought a car, they kept it for years, especially people
of lower income. The people who consumed in the early 20s would not consume in the second
half of the 20s, but the industries continued to produce. When industries produced well, their
shares quote bettered on the stock market. The problem was that they were not selling what they
produced ​ Artificial situation. The banks realized this and they decided to withdraw their
support. Once this was done, the prices of shares on the stock market went down.

3. International economic troubles

4. Failure of federal policies

Also take into account…

Oligopolies (industry field)

▪ Industries dominated by big trusts

▪ Pyramid-like empires: if one part falls, all the industry crumbles
▪ Business-minded presidency
▪ Unequal distribution of wealth
▪ Presidents in charge of the country throughout the decade helped the big trusts. They didn’t
impose income taxes, so there was an unequal distribution of wealth.

Agricultural recession (agricultural field)

▪ Struggle to maintain profitability:

▪ Declining crop prices
▪ Mounting debt
▪ The money for the goods didn’t increase as fast as the production of goods. People asked for
loans to buy more seeds and new machinery. However, people didn’t buy all the goods, so they
ended up with a huge debt because they couldn’t pay their loans.

Tariffs

After WWI, America started having a more isolationist policy. They wanted to separate themselves from
the countries in Europe. They raised tariffs on imported goods so that people would buy products
produced in the country. The problem was that the countries in Europe also had economic problems, so
they raised their own tariffs. When America wanted to sell its goods outside, they struggled because
people could not pay the prices. In the end, they could not sell their products nationally nor
internationally.

● “Live now, pay later”

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● Easy credit
● Weak banking system

IMMEDIATE CAUSES

1. The new gold rush

2. Buying on the margin: Easy credit allowed people to buy on the margin (buying a share, you pay
10% and ask the bank for a loan for the rest).
3. Speculative bubble
4. Failure of federal policies

October 24​th​ ​ ​ first panicked sale of shares ​ ​ ​Black Thursday

October 29​th​ ​ ​ ​Black Tuesday ​ ​ WALL STREET CRASH

The Wall Street Crash is not the cause of the Great Depression; it’s a symptom of it. It’s the last straw of
events that had been developing after WWI.

CONSEQUENCES

Period of great depression that took place throughout the 1930s

Bankruptcy: Many industries went bankrupt because the price of shares had crumbled. Banks also
went bankrupt because they had protected the system. People had excessive confidence that the price of
the shares would permanently go up. Industries closed down, which led to…

Unemployment ​which led to the impossibility of paying off bills and to…

Poverty: ​There was an increase of shanty towns. They were called the Hoovervilles: the President was
believed to be responsible. He believed that the solution to the problem should come from the business
people, but they just protected themselves. He defended a hand-off government. When Hoover realized
this, it was already 1931. He tried to introduce some changes for the intervention of the government, but
it was too late. Elections came and people chose the Democratic Party and Franklin Roosevelt as
president.

Roosevelt’s slogan: YES WE CAN get back to work. Unemployment was a big issue. American people
did not want to live on charity.

ROOSEVELT’S NEW DEAL

Roosevelt described the situation produced by the WSC as a war situation. He said “We are going to
wage a war against this situation (disease, dishonesty, etc.).” The weapon that he used was this new
deal: ambitious program of government intervention in the economic, social, and political fields (the
packing of the Supreme Court ​ ​ read about this).

He also had a “war tactic.” This was the ​fireside chats​. These were speeches that were given on the
radio every week or every fortnight. He would address the American people as if the nation were his
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friends. He spoke in simple terms, explaining the situation, and asking the people to help. He gave a
fireside chat asking the people to take their money back to the banks, to trust the government again (he
wanted to restore trust in government). He closed all banks for four days to inspect them and after that
only those banks that were accountable (solvent). When the banks reopened after the holiday, people
were lining up to take their money back to the banks. This shows how effective the fireside chats were.
So effective were they that the President used them during the war.

What was the New Deal about?

The expression comes from “square deal”: a fair deal. What was new about the New Deal?

Government intervention ​ from hands-off to hands-on. They government would intervene by

pouring money into the system to create agencies that would provide people with jobs, grant loans to
the farmers to help them buy machines or subsidize their production, with the compromise of selling
that goods, even at a loss for the government.

READ ABOUT THE CCC, THE NRA, THE WPA, PWA. They were so many that they were called the
“alphabet agencies.” The agency that best illustrates what the New Deal was about was the TVA (The
Tennessee Valley Authority). The TVA brought jobs and prosperity to the area in which it operated.

Find out how this area became prosperous: Kentucky, Tennessee, Alabama, Mississippi, Georgia, North
Carolina, Virginia.

American cartoon (1933): Hoover is leaving. Franklin Roosevelt is taking out the trash can: prosperity is
around the corner identified with Hoover and the Republican Party, GOP policies (Grand Old Party ​
the Republican Party), car in every garage, chicken in every pot, individualism. The cartoonist is telling
us that those policies were useless, they were being thrown away because something new was being
adopted. All the old policies had proved wrong, now what comes in is the new program called the New
Deal. The umbrella in the trash represents the English saying “to save for a rainy day.” Why is it being
thrown away? The New Deal expected to make money circulate by pouring money into the system
(“priming the pump”).

​ lphabet agencies)​ made work for millions

The CC, the PWA, and similar government bodies (the a
of people. The money they earned began to bring back life to the nation’s trade and businesses. More
customers appeared in the shops… As people started to buy again, shopkeepers, farmers, and
manufacturers began to benefit from the money the government was spending on work for the
unemployed. This process was described by Roosevelt as “p ​ riming the pump”. B ​ y this he meant
that the money the Federal Government was spending was like a fuel, flowing into the nation’s
economic machinery and starting it moving again.

Where did the money come from? The heaviest burden was on the taxpayers. Roosevelt firmly believed
that this was the way to reactivate the economy. There were people who adhered and supported the
New Deal, but they were also people who criticized it.

In 1936, there was another election. Roosevelt won again ​ “Nobody likes the New Deal but the voters.”
He was President of the US between 1932 to 1944.
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John Maynard Keynes

Philosopher behind the ideas of the New Deal ​ ​ running the country on deficit

In his works, particularly his classical General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money (1936),
Keynes advocated a theory of how governments could control and manipulate the economy to avoid
the worst of slumps …​ Robertson, Penguin’s Dictionary

There were groups that could not work. Social security was needed.

1935 ​ ​ The Social Security Act was passed

Picture: US going out of the crisis. The Social Security Act was successful for some people, but not for
others. Black people could not find a job at the end of the 30s.

Towards the end of the decade, The New Deal came quietly to a close. What had it accomplished?
Many Americans were not sure. Millions were still out of work. Prosperity would not return until the
nation was forced to try the Keynesian approach in a big way by WWII. Then massive government
spending would put all the factories back to work​. Boorsting & Matthew

What brought people back to work ​ ​ WWII

The New Deal was successful to some extent. When did the rate of unemployment go back to the
historical level? WWII

THE INTERWAR PERIOD IN GREAT BRITAIN

Can we associate the Roaring Twenties with Great Britain​? Until 1922, there was some period
of prosperity. There was a tiny percentage of the British society that was identified with the Roaring
Twenties.

The 1920s, also known as the Roaring Twenties, was a decade of contrasts. The WWI had ended in
victory, peace, had returned and with it, prosperity.

For some the war had proved to be very profitable. Manufacturers and suppliers of good needed for
the war effort had prospered throughout the war years and become very rich. The Bright Young
Things from the aristocracy and wealthier classes, life had never been better. Nightclubs, jazz clubs
and cocktail bars flourished in the cities. The hedonistic lifestyle portrayed in books and films such as
“The Great Gatsby” was perhaps, from some, an escape from reality. This generation had largely
missed the war, being too young to fight, and perhaps there was a sense of guilt that they had escaped
the horrors of the war. Perhaps they felt the need to enjoy life to the full, because so many other young
lives had been lost in the battlefields of Flanders.

Attention-seeking, flamboyant, decadent, rebellious, promiscuous, irresponsible, outrages, and

glamorous; no, not the reality TV stars of today or the youth of the 1960s, but the original party
animals – the “Bright Young Things” of the 1920s. You could say they started the modern cult of
celebrity. Chased by the paparazzi who were fascinated by their outrageous behavior, the “Bright
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Young Things” were the younger sons and daughters of the aristocracy and middle-class people
seeking to advance their career through association.

---

Southampton to Newcastle, Newcastle to Norwich: memories rose like mil coming to the boil. I had
seen a lot of Englands. How many? At once three disengaged themselves from the shifting mass. There
was first, Old England, the country of cathedrals and minsters and manor house and inns, of Parson
and Squire; guidebook and quaint highways and byways England… Then there is the 19th ​ C England,
the Industrial England of coal, iron, steel, cotton, wool, railways; of thousands of rows of little houses
all alike…​ Prestley

1930s

POLITICAL PANORAMA

1931 ​ ​ National Government ​ ​ Ramsay MacDonald

When the Prime Minister resigns, the monarch asks a member of Parliament to organize the new
government. In general, it is the first follower of the Prime Minister. The problem was the crisis that the
WSC had brought about. The government asked MacDonald to organize a new government: a national
government.

Four Labourites including MacDonald

Four Conservatives, including Baldwin and Neville Chamberlain

Two Liberals

MacDonald and Baldwin got well together and reached a lot of a agreements.

In 1935, MacDonald resigned, Baldwin followed. In 1937, Chamberlain became Prime Minister.

In the middle of all this, Wally Simpson appeared. She was an American divorcee. The king had fallen in
love with her. He was made to resign. His brother succeeded him: George V (the father of Elizabeth).

ECONOMIC PANORAMA

National planning ​ ​ increased taxation + subsidies to agriculture and industry

Gold standard abandoned

Protective tariffs reinforced ​ ​ Import Duties Act (1932) ​ ​ abandonment of Free Trade

1932 ​ ​ Ottawa Imperial Conference

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Control of bank interest rates

Nationalization

Increase in taxes

SOCIAL PANORAMA

Housing boom

Subsidies to local authorities

​ he new homes of 1930s suburbia featured a bathroom, inside toilet, and third bedroom. They also
T
tended to be dry, better insulated, light and airy. The homes of this era featured a new kitchen style.

INTERNATIONAL PANORAMA

1935 ​ Anglo-German Naval Agreement ​ Through this agreement, Britain allowed Germany to rearm
to a certain percentage.

1935 ​ Stresa Pact ​ It was publicly a pact of no aggression. Britain and France expected to to have “Il
Duche” as their ally.

1935-9 ​ Policy of Appeasement ​ Britain and France were responsible for the policy. Implemented in
relation to dictators in general, especially in relation to Germany. To appease Germany, Britain and
France would make concessions to Germany.

OUTCOMES

● Fall in unemployment
● Rise in productivity
● Greater consumption
● Rise in average income
● Income tax reduced by 1934
● Cuts on unemployment benefits repealed by 1934
● Salaries of civil servants restored
● The collapse of Cooperation and Order in the 1930s
● The GD produced two important consequences ​ ​ social distress; economic rivalry
● Social distress led to disconformity of the people.
● Rise of dictators: Japan, Italy, Germany
● Economic rivalry also contributed to the collapse of international co-operation and order.

Important countries were not part of the League of Nations ​ ​ the US

Why did dictators rise in Europe? Abyssinia was a kind of distractor that Mussolini used. He told the
Italian people that the country would rise again. To a very large extent, people believed him because the
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Italians and Germans were quite resentful to the other countries of Europe. There was this resentment
which led eventually to rivalry. The origin of that was the Treaty of Versailles, which became probably
the first cause of WWII, paradoxically enough.

LEGACIES OF WWI

National debt ​ ​ 12 times its pre-war level + debt to the US

Decline of staple industries ​ ​ cotton + coal

Unemployment: wages were lowered and workers were fired.

Gold standard

ECONOMIC PANORAMA

1924 ​ ​Gold standard restored ​ value of pound higher ​ no exports ​ wages reduced -​ GENERAL
STRIKE 1926 ​ ​ unconstitutional ​ ​ unions weakened (it lasted 9 days)

In 1927, a Trades Dispute Act was passed, which made general strikes legal in Britain and it stated that
the workers would not automatically contribute to the funds of the trade unions. If they wanted to do
so, they had to declare. Many workers did not take the trouble, which weakened the unions. Funds were
resented, in the sense that there was no automatic contribution from the workers.

Central Electricity Board + British Broadcasting Company ​ ​ under public boards

Protective tariffs ​ on the import of chemicals and electrical instruments. When protective tariffs are
imposed, the market is closed and international trade is affected.

POLITICAL PANORAMA

1918 Representation of the People Act

1928 Equal Franchise Act

1924 First Labour Government ​ Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald ​ Labour in office but not in
power. The Labour Party did not have the majority in Parliament. MacDonald’s Policy of Reconciliation
with the Soviet Union weakened the Labour Party.

INTERNATIONAL PANORAMA

1920 ​League of Nations (on the basis of Wilson’s 14 points, through which he proposed the reordering
of the world on the basis of freedom and independence. All these points would be achieved through
point 14: The creation of the League of Nations ​ ​ to keep peace and make peace)

1924 Dawes Plan

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1924 Policy of Reconciliation with the Soviet government ​ vote of confidence. The members of
Parliament vote and in their vote they state if they trust the Prime Minister. The result was that they not
trusted the Prime Minister.

SOCIAL PANORAMA

1918 Education Act

1919/1924 Housing Acts

1920 National Insurance/Unemployment Insurance Act

​ Britain was hit by the WSC.

WORLD WAR II
CAUSES OF WWII

The ​Treaty of Versailles​ is regarded by many historians as one of the causes of WWII.

Other historians mention the Invasion of Manchuria (1931-1933) ​ the Japanese, by invading China,
were threatening American interests ​ Open Door Policy (Japanese-American relations). The relation
between Japan and the US worsened throughout the 30s.

Invasion of Abyssinia ​ the Suez canal was the route ​ owned by Britain and France (they did not close
the canal).

Neither Japan nor Italy were punished by the League of Nations ​ Britain’s and France’s self-interests.
The idea was to avoid another armed conflict.

GENERAL CAUSES

KEY CONCEPT: COLLAPSE OF INTERNATIONAL CO-OPERATION AND ORDER

​ Ver cuadro fotocopia.

IMMEDIATE CAUSE

The invasion of Poland in 1939

To what extent can the Treaty of Versailles be considered the main cause for WWII?

Czescholosvakia: area inhabited mainly by people of German origin.

THE ROAD TO WAR IN EUROPE

Hitler’s plans:
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1. Redress the Treaty of Versailles

2. Expand ​ ​ lebensraum

3. Defeat communism

Methods to accomplish his plan:

Appeasement ​ a policy applied mainly in relation to Germany, but also to Japan and Italy. It meant
making concessions in order to keep the other calm and satisfied, with the purpose of avoiding a
possible future world arm conflict. Britain and France were allowing these countries to go ahead with
their plans. Appeasement meant making concessions to Hitler’s demands, which took the form of
expansions: Britain and France allowing Germany to annex territory without being punished, in
particular, the Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain.

Hitler wanted to destroy the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, as they were harsh and humiliating for
Germany.

In 1933, Hitler became the Chancellor of Germany. Hitler had already planned to overthrow the
government, for which he was sent to prison. He spent about 9 months in prison, when he wrote “​My
struggle.” ​There he expressed his ideas and future plans for Germany. The three aims were: to redress
the Treaty of Versailles, to expand (expanding the German’s territory and creating the lebensraum: the
space he wanted for German speaking people. He wanted to expand to incorporate all the
German-speaking people). Hitler wanted to expand to the East so as to enlarge the German-speaking
space. In expanding to the East, there was another aim: defeating communism.

What did Britain and France allowed Germany to do?

German rearmament

1933 ​ ​ ​Germany out of the League of Nations (Failure of the Disarmament Conference)

1935 ​ ​Rearmament rallies. By this year, Hitler was rearming Germany openly. They showed the world
how powerful Germany was.

1936 ​ ​Conscription. Hitler needed soldiers, not only because from the military point of view he
needed to increase the German troops, but also because there was a need for sources of employment.

Reason for rearming: Germany allegedly did not have troops and resources to defend the country in
case of an armed conflict. Germany was allowed to rearm because the British thought that the Treaty of
Versailles in relation to Germany’s disarmament was too harsh. The evidence was the Anglo-German
Naval Agreement.

1936:

Remilitarization of Rhineland: Hitler sent troops to stand there. Reasons: It was a German territory,
troops were needed for the sake of safety and protection of the country. Britain accepted this because,
after all, it was a German territory.
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Spanish Civil War: To show the military power that Germany had, German airplanes bombed Guernica,
supporting Franco. Franco was bombing several Spanish cities. One of the most affected ones was
Guernica.

Anti-Comintern Pact: Anticommunist International Pact. Parties: Germany + Japan + Italy (1937). This
was a sort of alliance among the three countries to fight against communism.

1938: ​Anschluss with Austria. Hitler annexed Austria: Austria and Germany were politically united.
EXPAND ON THE METODOLOGY HE USED. There was a plebiscite. Most of the population of Austria
voted for union with Germany. Hitler had sent German troops to Austria, there was pressure on the
people of Austria to vote for union.

The policy of the US was isolationism and neutrality.

What are the reasons for the application of the policy of appeasement? Britain and France wanted to
avoid an armed conflict. They were playing for time to rearm.

Why did Britain and France applied appeasement? How successful did appeasement proved to be?
There are two positions.

1938​: Sudetenland (an area in Czechoslovakia). Hitler wanted to annex this area to German territory.
There were negotiations with Britain, Chamberlain went to Germany many times. The outcome was that
Britain would grant Germany some parts of the Sudetenland. But Germany wanted the whole territory.
This brought Europe to the brink of a possible war. Everybody thought that these claims on the part of
Hitler could lead to an armed conflict if Britian and France decided not to grant Germany the whole
territory.

Munich agreement: In the end, this agreement was signed between France, Great Britain, Italy and
Germany. They agreed to grant Hitler the whole of the Sudetenland. Hitler promised not to take any
actions in relation to the rest of Czechoslovakia, but he was a liar. We could say that the Munich
agreement represents the climax of the policy of appeasement. He did not comply with his word.

1939​:

Czechoslovakia ​ end of appeasement. Hitler invaded Czechoslovakia. Britain and France said: “this
is the end, if you invade Poland; we’re going to take action and support Poland.”

Nazi-Soviet non-aggression pact​: It was not a military alliance. It was a friendly agreement
promising not to attack one another. Hitler had mentioned expansion to the East. The soviets were
afraid of a possible German invasion to defeat communism. Stalin knew that the League of Nations was
weak. In case the Soviet Union was invaded, the League would not take any sort of action to prevent
acts of aggression. It was not only a pact of non-aggression: in a secret clause they agreed to invade
Poland ​ ​ Germany from the West, the Soviet Union from the East.

Cartoon: Hitler and Stalin tied ​ alliance. Behind, they were holding guns. They did not trust each
other.
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Poland

WAR IN EUROPE

Invasion of Poland: ​Germany invaded Poland from the west, the Soviet Union from the east. They
divided Poland between themselves. Britain and France had already stated that they would not accept
the invasion of Poland. As soon as Poland was invaded, Britain declared war on Germany.

After the invasion of Poland, Hitler conquered the rest of Europe: the Netherlands, Norway, Denmark,
etc. France fell to Germany in ​1940.

Hitler decides to invade the Soviet Union

For a long time Hitler’s opponents had little about which to be cheerful. The British had to put up with
a winter of bombing…

How successful was Hitler in invading the Soviet Union? ​Not very, due to harsh winter
conditions. Consequently, both Soviets and Germans suffered several defeats. Cut of supplies due to
harsh winter conditions. It proved to be a failure.

[The invasion of the Soviet Union] began on 22 June 1941, huge losses being quickly inflicted on the
Russian armies and vast tracts of territories occupied…

Meanwhile, the US ​ ​ isolation and neutrality

AMERICA’S ROAD TO WWII

1930s: USA’S isolationism + neutrality

Neutrality acts

1935: Banned the sale of “arms, ammunition, and implements of war” to either belligerent nation

1936: Banned loans and credits to belligerent nations

1937: Sale of arms, materials, supplies only on “cash-and-carry” basis

1941: Lend-Lease war supplies to any nation deemed “vital to the defense of the US. The US would not
sell arms, but lease them (to Britain and France). They would pay for having used them after the war.

Roosevelt said: “The US should be an arsenal of democracy.” After Germany had invaded Scandinavian
countries and France, the next in line was Great Britain. The US wanted to help Great Britain. The US
reformed the neutrality acts. The US would work on lend-lease.

Japanese-American relations in the 1930s

1931: Japan’s invasion of Manchuria

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1936: Japan’s full-scale invasion of China

1940: Tripartite Pact/The Berlin Pact (Germany + Japan + Italy)

1941: Japan’s invasion of French Indochina

US’s economic sanctions: Japanese assets frozen + oil embargo

7 December 1941: Japanese attack on US Pacific naval base at Pearl Harbor

8 December 1941: US war on Japan

The US entered WWII through the backdoor of Asia: the Pacific. This has to do with the deterioration in
the Japanese-American relations. The main issue was the economic interest of the US in China and
Asia. Japan invaded Manchuria, the League of Nations ordered Japan to withdraw, Japan did not
comply, in this way it threatened the interests of America. The last straw was when Japan carried a
full-scale invasion of China. The US froze the Japanese assets and imposed an oil embargo. This meant
that Japan could not buy oil and assets for the war. Japan reacted by planning the Pearl Harbor attack.
Immediately afterwards, the US declared war on Japan. Roosevelt asked Congress and they supported
his decision. The US did not expect the attack on Pearl Harbor. There are people who criticize that
Roosevelt knew about the attack; they thought that the US needed an excuse to enter the war. Churchill
begged America to enter the war, because it was the only possibility to defeat Hitler. Others say that it
was actually a surprise.

A-bomb in Hiroshima 6 August 1945: Truman was the president.

A-bomb on Nagasaki 9 August 1945

After the second bomb, the Japanese were not ready to surrender. They surrendered in the 19​th of
August. The war came to an end in the Pacific. In Europe, the end of the war came earlier: May 8​th​,
1945, when Hitler committed suicide. The Soviets advanced from the East, the American and Canadian
troops reached Berlin.

THE UNITED NATIONS ORGANIZATION

1941 ​ ​ ​Atlantic Conference

Roosevelt + Churchill

1942 ​ ​ ​The United Nations Declaration

26 countries

1943 ​ ​ Moscow Conference

USA + Great Britain + USSR + China

The Big Three + China

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1943 ​ ​ Teheran Conference

Roosevelt + Churchill + Stalin

1944 ​ ​ Dumbarton Oaks Conference(s)

USA + Great Britain + USSR + China

1945 ​ ​ ​Yalta Conference ​ (4-11 February 1945)

Roosevelt + Churchill + Stalin

We can speak of two ends of WWII​. One was the dropping of the A-bombs, which brought about
the unconditional surrender of the Japanese on August 14​th​, 1945. The end of the war in Europe had
taken place a bit before, on May 8​th​, when the west allies under Heisengalgo reached Berlin, as a
consequence of operation overlord. It stated with the deeday landings in Normandy. At the same time,
operation Barbarrosa was taking place in the Soviet Union. Paris was recovered, France was freed, the
allies continued advancing from the west.

The Soviet Union changed sides during the war.

Yalta Conference / Crimea Conference

One important gap in the Dumbarton Oaks proposals had yet to be filled: the voting procedure in the
Security Council. This was done at Yalta in the Crimea where Churchill, Roosevelt, and Stalin met in
conference. On February 11, 1945, the conference announced that this question had been resolved, and
it summoned the San Francisco Conference.

The Soviets agreed to join the UN given the secret understanding of a voting formula with a veto power
for permanent members of the Security Council, thus ensuring that each country could block unwanted
elections.

1945 ​ ​ ​San Francisco Conference

49 countries + Argentina + Poland

It formally gave origin to the UNO.

ANTECEDENTS

Declaration of St. James’s Palace​ (12 June 1941)

Emergence of the idea of freedom and cooperation

Great Britain (+ Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Union of South Africa)

Representatives of the exiled governments of: Belgium, Czechoslovakia, Greece, Luxembourg, the
Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Yugoslavia, France
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The only true basis of enduring peace is the willing cooperation of free peoples in a world in which,
relieved of the menace of aggression, all may enjoy economic and social security.

Atlantic charter​ (14 August 1941)

They believe that all the nations of the world, for realistic as well as spiritual reasons, must come to the
abandonments of the use of force, Since no future peace can be maintained if land, sea or air
armaments continue to be employed by nations which threaten, or many threaten, aggression outside of
their frontiers.

United Nations Declaration​ (1 January 1942)

Moscow Declaration​ (30 October 1943)

Clause 4 proclaimed that “they [the Foreign Ministers] recognize the necessity of establishing at the
earliest practicable date a general international organization, based on the principle of the sovereign
equality of all peace-loving states, and open to membership by all such states, large and small, for the
maintenance of peace and security.”

Can we say that the UNO is different from the League of Nations? No, they don’t consider all
nations equal.

Teheran Conference

Dumbarton Oaks Conferences

Four principal bodies were to constitute the organization to be known as the UN

1. General Assembly

2. Security Council

3. International Court of Justice

4. The Secretariat

An Economic and Social Council would also be established.

What’s important about Yalta is that negotiations were advanced here​. They decided that
some of the members would have the power of veto. That meant that the privileged ones would have the
power. Only a few members within the Security Council have this power: the permanent members.

5 permanent members with the power of veto: China, France, the US, Russia, and Great Britain

This is the reason why the negotiation about Malvinas has never been able to advance. Great Britain has
exerted her power of veto. This gives her a prerogative that Argentina does not have. Systematically,
what Britain was done was refuse to acknowledge that there is a conflict. If there’s no conflict, there’s
nothing to discuss or negotiate about.
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Preamble to the Charter of the UNO

WE THE PEOPLES OF THE UNITED NATIONS DETERMINED

to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war, which twice in our lifetime has brought
untold sorrow to mankind, and
to reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person, in
the equal rights of men and women and of nations large and small, and
to establish conditions under which justice and respect for the obligations arising from treaties
and other sources of international law can be maintained, and
to promote social progress and better standards of life in larger freedom,

AND FOR THESE ENDS

to practice tolerance and live together in peace with one another as good neighbours, and
to unite our strength to maintain international peace and security, and
to ensure, by the acceptance of principles and the institution of methods, that armed force shall
not be used, save in the common interest, and
to employ international machinery for the promotion of the economic and social advancement
of all peoples,

HAVE RESOLVED TO COMBINE OUR EFFORTS TO ACCOMPLISH THESE AIMS

Accordingly, our respective Governments, through representatives assembled in the city of San
Francisco, who have exhibited their full powers found to be in good and due form, have agreed to the
present Charter of the United Nations and do hereby establish an international organization to be
known as the United Nations.

Do you see here the aims of the League of Nations? Yes, to a very large extent.

LAS ISLAS MALVINAS

Basis of the claim for Britain ​ ​ the people. They feel that they’re British citizens.

Basis of the claim for Argentina ​ ​ the land

A CHRONOLOGY OF EVENTS

1592 ​ ​ John Davies sailed along the Estrecho de San Carlos (Falkland South). He was British.

1713 ​ ​ Treaty of Utrecht confirmed the Treaty of Tordesillas. Great Britain agreed to it.

1764 ​ ​ First settlement (Louis-Antoine de Bougainville, from Saint-Malo) ​ ​ Íles Malouines

1767 ​ France acknowledged that the Islands were territories of the Capitanía General de Buenos Aires
and returned them to Spain
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1820 ​ ​ The Provincias Unidas del Río de la Plata took possession of the islands

1829 ​ The Comandancia Político-Militar de Malvinas was created and Luis Vernet was appointed
governor

1833 ​ ​ The British settled on Isla Soledad and expelled the governor

1946 ​ With the creation of the UNO, Great Britain included the Falkland Islands under their
non-self-governing territories. Argentina protested.

1964 ​ Argentina formally presented the issue to the decolonization Committee. The Committee
requested the General Assembly to urge Argentina and Great Britain to start negotiations and solve the
problem. Both countries accepted the resolution. Great Britain refused to acknowledge the existence of
sovereignty conflict.

1982 ​ The war started, on April 2​th​. It was a terrible war. We all felt that this was a great cause, but we
disagreed with the aggression. Plan A was to occupy the islands and force Britain to start negotiations,
without having to use force. After that, plan B was implemented immediately and the fighting started.

The war was a mask. Argentina was facing harsh economic conditions.

An important consequence of the war was that “el proceso de reorganización nacional” came to an end.
Malvinas produced the downfall of the military government. There were elections. Galtieri resigned,
and Vignone became president, who announced that there would be elections.

For Great Britain it was a great distractor too. Margaret Thatcher was facing a hard time in Britain, as
she could not pass certain measures in Parliament.

The Falklands factor helped the iron lady to win another election.

BREXIT
What is it? It is the process by which the UK has started the formal process of leaving the EU. This
process started with the June 23​rd​, 2016 referendum, by which a majority of Britons decided they
wanted to leave the regional bloc. On March 29​th​, 2017, Prime Minister Theresa May formally triggered
Article 50 of the Lisbon Treaty to start the two-year process of negotiation which will end approximately
in March, 2019.

Lisbon Treaty ​ ​ the first time that it was established how a country could leave the EU.

Characteristics

Brexit will imply a complete abandonment of all of the EU institutions, as well as from the EU legal
framework.
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Britain will no longer have access as a full member to the common market, which will probably have an
impact on Britain’s economy. This is the biggest consumer market in world history. Britain will no
longer enjoy the benefits she has so far enjoyed.

Britain will also abandon the free movement of people’s principle, something that will make it harder
for EU nationals, as well as British citizens, to access the UK and the EU’s job market. There are many
British citizens currently working in the EU, and many people from country members of the EU
working in Britain.

CAUSES OF BREXIT

Economic​: The majority of Britons voted in favor of leaving the EU since they saw it as a dysfunctional
economic entity that had not been able to solve many of the problems brought about by the 2008
mortgage-financial crisis. The argument was that to stay in an organization that could not and still
cannot get Europe out of economic recession would be a barrier for the UK’s economic recovery-

Political: The rise of nationalism in the UK and in all of Europe played an important role in the
referendum vote. Right-wing political parties, like Nigel Farage’s UKIP, denounced that UK’s lax
policies on immigration was a main cause for a stagnated economy and a state that was running more
and more on deficit. Besides, mistrust of many organizations that emerged after WWII and that were
considered ineffective by the “LEAVE” side, like the EU itself with its excessive bureaucracy, the IMF,
and NATO were also important factors for voters to decide to leave the union.

Social: Another very important question that led many people to vote in favor of leaving the union was
the fact that they equated the EU with globalization. The positive effects of globalization for many
British people have not been so clear, and that is why man Britons who have lost their jobs or have not
been able to adapt to globalization decided that Britain on its own would have a better chance of going
back to economic prosperity.

CONSEQUENCES

Political: The Brexit results brought about many political consequences both for the UK and the EU.
In the UK, David Cameron resigned as Prime Minister in October last year, and he was succeeded by
Theresa May. This event was accompanied by much uncertainty in both the Conservative Party, as well
as the Labor Party. In the seek for a stronger Brexit mandate, Theresa May called for a general election
to be held in June this year. Another political consequence of Brexit inside the UK has been the unrest
produced by claims of Scotland to continue being part of the EU by calling for an independence
referendum next year. On the other hand, the most important effect of Brexit in relation to the EU has
been that of the risk of contagion, meaning that other EU members could follow the example of Britain,
as has been seen in political platforms in the Dutch and French elections.

Economic: Although experts do not completely agree on this matter, the majority of them predict a
higher level of unemployment for Britain after Brexit, a result that will be accounted for a lower foreign
direct investment and trade as a consequence of many European companies relocating outside of
Britain.
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Social: One of the most important social consequences Brexit has carried out has been an increase in
hate crimes and in xenophobic attacks against immigrants, especially, but not confined to, Eastern
European immigrants, most notably Polish, Bulgarians and Romanians. It is important to recall that a
decrease in immigration levels was one of the main proposals by the “Leave” campaigners.

FROM EMPIRE TO COMMONWEALTH

THE DECLINE OF IMPERIALISM

THE BRITISH PERSPECTIVE

Decline of the empire? End of imperialism?

Colonization started with the Stuarts ​ the first colonies were set up in North America. The first
attempt at colonization was made by Elizabeth I in the 16​th​ C.

Purposes of the colonies: sources of raw material and markets in which England could sell its goods.

1776 ​ ​ 13 colonies became independent

We can speak then of the end of one important period/one stage of the empire. Most authors speak
about the end of one British Empire. BUT the empire continued after the 18​th C, that’s why authors
speak about the end of the FIRST British Empire.

India: Hindus and Muslims. India was not considered a White Colony (Canada was). It did not hold the
same status as Canada because the population was black. A White Colony was not the same as a Black
Colony:

Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa ​ ​ White Colonies

Great Britain thought that if she did not grant some kind of self-government to Canada, Britain would
be running the risk of losing another colony. This brought about a reformulation of the relationship
between the mother country and the colonies.

After the American colonies became independent, many royalists left the US and moved to Canada,
because it was still linked to Britain. This brought about problems between the French Canadians and
the English Canadians. The problems were about language, the government, religion, and the territory
division. As a matter of fact, the French Canadians were protected by law (the Quebec Act)

LORD DURHAM’S REPORT ON CANADA

Antecedents

1763 ​ ​ End of Seven Years’ War

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1774 ​ ​ Quebec Act

1791 ​ Canada Constitutional Act: It divided Canada into Upper Canada (Ontario) + Lower Canada
(Quebec)

BUT this was not the end of the problem. Each one of the groups wanted to supersede the others. There
were conflicts inside each one of these provinces and there were rebellions of one against the other.
Therefore, Lord Durham was sent to Canada to make a report.

1839 ​ ​Lord Durham’s Report ​ ​Aim: “to settle at once and forever the national character of the
province.”

He was a British government official making a recommendation about a British colony. Logically, the
recommendations would favor Britain. Durham’s recommendation was to grant Canada
self-government/responsible government. The country would have the power to make decisions as
regards internal affairs. Foreign affairs would be decided by the British parliament.

If Canada would have the possibility of making decision about internal affairs, who in Canada would
make those decisions? Canada would have to form its own Parliament. How would the British make
sure that most people in Parliament would be of British origin? ​Systematic colonization: ​the British
would foster the migration of people of British stock into Canada, in that way, they would outnumber
the French and Britain would ensure that the Anglo-Canadians had the majority in Parliament.

Immediate consequence of the Report​ ​ ​ ​Act of Union (1841)

● A single parliament

● Banishment of the French language from official government use

● Suspension of specific French Canadian institutions relating to education and civil law

This is the way in which Britain influenced the Empire. The idea was to plant a British culture through
the British institutions. This happened not only in Canada, but in other colonies, especially the Black
Colonies. Indian people had to become British in their minds

Was self-government granted to Canada? In 1867

British North America Act (1867)

Canadian Confederation​ ​ ​ Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia

1870 Manitoba

1873 Prince Edward Island

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This process led Canada to change its status within the Empire. Canada held a status of privilege within
the Empire. The word “colony” no longer defined Canada. Canada was called a ​dominion. ​We see
Canada as a dominion and the rest of the countries as colonies. But Canada was not the only country
belonging to the White Colonies. Australia, New Zealand and South Africa followed Canada in the
process and they also became dominions.

1901 ​ ​ Federation of Australia

1907 ​ ​ New Zealand

1909-10 ​ ​ Union of South Africa

The dominion was attached to the mother country in its allegiance to the crown. It depended politically
on the parliament at Westminster and it acknowledged the British monarch as its own monarch.

Dominions ​ territories that enjoyed self-government and could make decisions as regards internal
affairs but depended on the parliament at Westminster as regards foreign affairs.

In the same way India was considered the jewel of the crown of the Black Empire, Canada was the jewel
of the White Empire.

As time went by, the colonies demanded more and more independence. They stood quite firm on the
idea of a dominion and the concept of dominion was redefined to explain what was going on and to
bring about final changes. The final change would be independence.

AUTHORITY OR AUTOMOMY?
WHITE EMPIRE COLOURED EMPIRE
Internal Affairs External Affairs Internal Affairs External Affairs
SELF-GOVERNMEN GREAT BRITAIN GREAT BRITAIN
T
1926 ​ ​ ​Balfour Declaration

Dominions : autonomous communities within the British empire, in no way subordinate one to the
other in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, united by a common allegiance to the Crown,
and freely associated as members of the British Commonwealth of Nations ​ They’re independent, but
what links them together is allegiance to the Crown

The term “British” was dropped and the term “of Nations” was dropped.

The concept was expressed in 1926. The practice had probably started before. BUT it was made law
through the Statute of Westminster (the real landmark through which the countries became
independent countries).

1931 ​ ​ ​STATUTE OF WESTMINSTER​ ​ ​ Dominions: members of the Commonwealth

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There was a huge Black Empire. Only some colonies existed before the end of the 19​th C. Many of those
Black Colonies were annexed in the 19​th C, many in the second half. For this, Britain had to get engaged
in a race. Other countries were very much interested in getting colonies, such as the US.

Berlin Conference​ (1884-85) ​ ​ The division of Africa/The scramble for Africa

Number of participants: 16 diplomats from the leading Western countries (the US, France, Germany,
among others). There were no black people present.

Aim ​ ​ to divide among themselves a whole country: Africa

What was decided: They drew lines on the map, which are still the borders of Africa today.

CARTOON. German chancellor Otto Von Bismarck.

King Leopold II (Belgium) ​ “I do not want to waste apart the chance of tasting the African cake.” (but
the man in the cartoon is Von Bismarck)

They sliced the cake, but how did they decide which part would go to each of them? It took them 6
months to reach a decision. They decided on the basis of the concept of ​effective occupation. ​It was
enough as a title of possession: the country that first settled in that area.
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The principle of effective occupation stated that powers could acquire rights over colonial lands ​only if
they actually possessed them​: in other words, if they had treaties with local leaders, if they flew
their flag there, and if they established an administration in the territory to govern it with a police force
to keep order. The colonial power could also make use of the colony economically. This principle
became important not only as a basis for the European powers to acquire territorial sovereignty in
Africa, but also for determining the limits of their respective overseas possessions, as effective
occupation served in some instances as a criterion for settling disputes over the boundaries between
colonies. However, as the Berlin Act was limited in its scope to the lands on the African coast, there
were numerous instances where European powers claimed rights over lands in the interior without
demonstrating the requirement of effective occupation articulated in Article 35 of the Final Act.

The White Man’s Burden: the United States and the Philippines Islands (1899) ​ it was the duty of
white people to send men to colonize other areas of the world

Theodore Roosevelt: “Rather poor poetry, but good sense from the expansion point of view.”

Richards & Quirk: Kipling’s conception of imperialism as the duty to improve the lot of the government
was by no means as absurd as many people make out today, but of course desire for the wealth and
trade of the colonies also lay behind the colonial movement.

In the Belgian Congo, however, King Leopold II, who had financed the expeditions that staked
Belgium’s claim in Berlin, embarked on a campaign of ruthless exploitation. His enforcers mobilized
almost the entire Congolese populations to father rubber, kill elephants for their ivory, and build
public works to improve export routes.
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TOWARDS DECOLONIZATION

WWII was the dividing line, but the problem in India had started before.

IMPOSITION OR CONSULTATION?

White Empire

1939 ​ ​ individual war declarations

Black Empire

1939 ​ unilateral war declarations. When Britain entered the war, the rest of the empire was embarked
on that war. This brought about serious conflicts with India.

THE COLOURED EMPIRE. THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT

1910s ​ ​ Mohandas Gandhi ​ ​ Indian National Congress

1920s + 1930s ​ campaign of civil disobedience (going against the law in a peaceful way) + ethnic
religious classes.

“If a man does not agree with the law, that man has the right to disobey the law.”

At the same time, there were problems in India between religious groups. These problems, and the
problems of India with Britain aggravated WWII, so much so that Lord Mountbatten was sent to India
to carry out the proceedings to grant India independence. As a matter of fact, Lord Mountbatten had
planned to grant independence to India around 1948.

1940s ​ ​ Lord Mountbatten as (last) Viceroy

1947 ​ ​ August 15 ​ ​ INDEPENDENCE of India and Pakistan

When India became independent, there was another country cut out from India: Pakistan. It was mostly
populated by Muslims. India was mostly Hindu and Pakistan was mostly Muslim. This does not mean
that the problems came to an end.

1948 ​ ​ Gandhi assassinated

After India, the rest of the Black Empire started achieving independence.

1949 ​ ​ Commonwealth Prime Ministers’ Conference: ​LONDON DECLARATION

● Allowed India to remain in the Commonwealth as a republic

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● Created the position of Head of the Commonwealth. The individual countries might not accept
the British monarch as their own, but they had to accept the monarch as Head of the
Commonwealth.

● “Commonwealth of Nations”

NOWADAYS

Total: 53 countries (including 16 monarchies)

Realms ​ ​ countries that acknowledge the British monarch as their own.

HAS THE BRITISH EMPIRE REALLY COME TO AN END? The Commonwealth is an association of
independent countries. But there are two other categories:

● British overseas territories: The Falkland islands, the British Antarctic Territory, Bermuda,
British Virgin Islands, Anguila, Monserrat, among others.

● Crown dependencies: the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands.

BRITAIN’S JUSTIFICATION ​ Britain claims that these territories do not want to become
independent.

POST-WAR BOOMS IN THE UNITED STATES

Material comfort was the hallmark of the postwar middle classes. Whether considered in terms of
income levels or life styles, more Americans were better off than ever before – and most counted on
their good fortune to continue. The baby boom was the most obvious expression of postwar optimism.

Of the ​three cornerstones​ of the postwar economic boom, two were related to the upsurge in births.

1. The first was a ​construction boom ​to provide houses and schools for all these children. Office
buildings, shopping centers, factories, airports, and stadiums also sprang up across the country.
Much of this construction took place in the suburbs.
2. The second cornerstone was ​automobile manufacturing, ​for in the sprawling new
communities a car was a necessity.
3. The third cornerstone of the postwar economic boom was ​military spending.

Postwar baby boom ​ increase in the birth rate. There was also a baby boom after WWI. But this was
probably the real baby boom, because it lasted longer, for about two decades.

There was also a baby boom in Great Britain, but the baby boom as such is associated with the US.
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Sylvia Porter, a financial columnist for the ​New York Post,​ used the term “boom” to refer to the
phenomenon of increased birth in post war America in an article called “Babies Equal Boom” (1951).

The baby boom was the mother of all booms in the US.

This period is also associated with ​economic growth ​and prosperity​. This gave an impulse to the
baby boom. The more babies they had, the more room they needed. Therefore, they needed houses.
These houses were built in the suburbs. Cities expanded horizontally at an increasing rate.

Bill passed in 1944 to grant benefits to the war veterans.

1. Construction boom

William Levitt revolutionized the way Americans live and ushered in an age of suburbia by providing
inexpensive housing outside the city.

Racial fears, affordable housing, and the desire to leave decaying cities were all factors that prompted
many Americans to flee to the suburbs. ​ People also moved to the suburbs because they wanted to
move away from contact with minorities.

Levittowns are located in rural New York and Pennsylvania. Named after developer William J. Levitt,
they were constructed with prefabricated unions and mass production techniques. They built one house
per day. 36 people were needed to build a house.

What this housing project brought about was also racism.

How were families and babies to get to the houses? With cars ​ ​ ​2.​ ​Car boom

Eisenhower’s Interstate Highway System – 1950s

Babies needed clothes, education, healthcare. There was a boom in many other industries: schools,
supermarkets, the clothing industry.

3. Defense boom

“Boom” is a word chosen by Fadda. In her analysis, there was another boom ​ a boom in the production
of weapons. This probably did not have anything to do with the internal situation, but with the
international situation, because of the context of the Cold War. One of the features of the Cold War was
the arm’s race, which meant that each one of the superpowers tried to produce state-of-the-art
weapons, starting with the atomic bomb that ended WWII. From there, they got engaged in this race to
see which one would produce the highest number and the most state-of-the-art and the most lethal
weapons.

We can find an associated between the defense boom and the internal situation. Every president in the
US ended their speeches with this phrase: “We must protect the future generations.” How did America
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protect future generations? Producing weapons to show more power to the Soviet Union and be able to
stand in a dominant position in the world.

Defense industry ​ ​ Cold War

1949 ​ ​ Department of Defense was created

1957 ​ ​ National Defense Education Act

1958 ​ ​ NASA ​ ​ National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Taking the first man to the moon meant advancement in technology, explorations, more possibilities in
the launching of satellites. But it also meant showing power.

The arms race became a space race.

Affluent America vs. The other America

In the postwar age of abundance, most Americans found it especially hard to acknowledge the presence
of poverty in their midst.

Minorities remained in the cities. They generally lived together in ghettos. There was an America of the
haves and an America of the have-nots.

The Civil Rights Movement – Free Speech – Women’s liberation

Minorities started rising and the civil rights movement emerged in the late 50s. The Rosa Park case took
place, which led to the emergence of Martin Luther King as a representative of black people.

Women wanted something more for their lives than staying in the house. Betty Friedan wrote a book
called ​The Feminine Mystique. S ​ he introduces the book by saying “There’s a problem that has no
name.” The problem that had no name was this dissatisfaction that women experienced because they
did not find fulfillment in what they were doing. After WWI, women had started working outside their
houses. Many more started working after WWII.

Decade associated with the Women’s Liberation Movement. Within the movement there were different
positions. Betty’s was a moderate one.

In universities, students started complaining against the establishment.

The best-known group among the counter-culture was the hippie movement.

Baby Boomers ​(b. 1946 – 1964)

Gen X​ (b 1965 – 1982)

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Millenials ​(b. 1983 – 2000)

The baby boom generation has included four Presidents of the US.

▪ Bill Clinton
▪ George Bush
▪ Barack Obama
▪ Donald Trump

THE WELFARE STATE IN GREAT BRITAIN

Great Britain suffered much more than the US after WWII. In general, the war was not fought on
continental America. But the German glitz had destroyed Great Britain. This meant that reconstruction
after the war in GB had to be different. There was also a desire on the part of the government to reward
people for the war efforts. The best way was by granting benefits to the people.

The benefits would grant people all benefits that had to do with welfare: insurance, for example,
unemployment benefits, housing projects, health, education.

Legislation had already been passed as regards housing, education, unemployment benefits, sickness
benefits and pensions.

In the field of health, no legislation had been passed before WWII. With the emergence of the Social
Service State, there were some Health Acts, but those acts had to do with the sanitary conditions of the
slums. They were health acts indirectly.

The government realized that the legislation was not enough. More people had to be covered by the
legislation. That’s why fresh legislation was passed in those areas.

The government had never before taken into consideration the health area. It did so because the
government appointed a commission, which was chaired by Sir William Beveridge.

BEVERIDGE REPORT

Full employment in free society

Tackling the first giant: want, ignorance, disease, squalor, and idleness. There are five giants, each one
has to be defeated.

Want is the only of the five giants on the road of reconstruction.

Aim of welfare state: attack five giants

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1. Ignorance education
2. Squalor housing
3. Want social security
4. Disease health
5. Idleness employment

The health program was about setting up a system that would grant medical services to everybody for
free. It was universal and it was comprehensive (it extended to all the country/all the people).

Universality and comprehensiveness

Each giant was countered by:

▪ 1944 The Butler Act

▪ 1946 The National Insurance Act
▪ 1946 The National Health Service Act (Universality – Comprehensiveness)
▪ 1947 Town and Country Planning

US Medicare and Medicaid find out the year and content of each one. These were extended by the
Obamacare program.

The program in Britain was a very ambitious one.

The Labor Party was committed to the belief that an egalitarian society could only be based upon the
common ownership (which came in effect to mean state ownership) of the main means of production,
distribution, and exchange.

Labor put forward its program in a manifesto called “Let Us Face the Future” demanding limited
nationalization and the maintaining of the government control.

For the first time, Labour got a majority over all other parties in the House of Commons; it could not
only forma government but actually apply distinctively Labour Policies:

▪ Bank of England
▪ Cable & Wireless
▪ Coal Mines
▪ Electricity

GREAT BRITAIN
PERIOD SOCIAL REFORM ADMINISTRATION
MID VICTORIAN PERIOD SOCIAL SERVICE BOTH LIBERALS AND
CONSERVATIVE
LATE VICTORIAN PERIOD SOCIAL SECURITY LAST LIBERAL
ADMINISTRATION IN THE
COUNTRY
SECOND HALF OF THE 40s WELFARE STATE LABOR
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THE UNITED STATES

PERIOD SOCIAL REFORM ADMINISTRATION
1900 SOCIAL SERVICE PROGRESSIVE PRESIDENTS
1930s SOCIAL SECURITY ROOSEVELT
1960s WELFARE STATE JOHNSON

MINISEMINAR: THE WATERGATE SCANDAL

1972

Important date

The plumbers

The Watergate Scandal definition

CAUSES

● Vietnam War (1955 – 1975)

● Pentagon papers (1971) pieces of information released revealing secrets. They were released
by Elseberg (?).
● Harass on Democratic Party (1972)

CHRONOLOGY OF EVENTS

1972 Break in the democratic headquarters when two phones were wiretapped. They worked for
Hunt and Liddy.

June 12, 1972 The same burglars were arrested

June 19, 1972 White House press secretary

CONSEQUENCES

Political

▪ War Powers Act (1973)

▪ Election Campaign Act (1974)
▪ Amendment to the Freedom of Information Act (1974)
▪ President Nixon was made to resign, but the democratic process was not altered.

Social

▪ Civil demonstrations and feelings of the general public.

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▪ The power of the press was augmented because they spread all the information

Linguistic

▪ Grammaticalization ​ ​ “Watergate”

McCARTHYISM

THE COLD WAR AT HOME

ANTICOMMUNISM IN THE USA

The Cold War was also reflected inside the USA by a strong anticommunist feelings: the red menace.

Hysteria among the American population in relation to the threat that communism posed to the
American model.

Man associated with this hysteria senator ​Joseph McCarthy​ (1908 – 1957)

A Wisconsin attorney, judge, politician

United States Senator from Wisconsin

Political affiliation: Republican Party

1942: US Marine Corps in WWII

1946: elected for the Senate

1952: reelected – obtained the chairmanship of the Committee on Government Operations of the Senate
and the chairmanship of its permanent subcommittee on investigations. This was in charge of
investigating communist sympathizers in America that could represent a threat to Americanism.

1850: rose to prominence with his public charge.

McCarthyism ​ a reflection of the Cold War in the USA

1. When and why did the first Red Scare take place in the USA?
A Red Scare had swept the country in 1919 after the Bolshevick Revolution (1917) brought communists
to power in Russia.
Period for the first Red Scare 1920s.
Russia had become a communist country. Why was communism a threat in the US society? They feared
the spread of communism through immigrants. Immigrants coming from Eastern Europe were
entering the USA. They were afraid that they would enter the country and spread these ideas
that go against American values.
Sacco-Vanzetti case.
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2. When and why did the second Red Scare take place in the USA?
After WWII, during the 1950s. With the fall of an “iron curtain” across the continent of Europe,
Americans of Eastern European descent had every reason to feel actively communist.
Communism’s atheist ideology offended many Americans. Its rejection of private property
appalled a post-war generation which was busily trying to get ahead, buy homes and accumulate
consumer goods.
The USA was afraid of the Soviet Union because the Cold War had begun. This is the context
internationally speaking. There was a competition between both countries because each one
wanted to impose its model on the world.
The Soviets developed the atomic bomb by 1949. Americans thought that the Soviets were falling
behind in the field. When the Soviets announced they had developed the bomb, Americans were
surprised.
By 1949, China had fallen to communism. Communism was a real threat.
The Korean War.

3. What was McCarthyism about?

McCarthyism was the peak of the Red Scare. Senator McCarthy quickly came to public attention in 1950
by claiming that there were over 200 communists working in the State Department (foreign
ministry). McCarthy may have been basing his claims on FBI information but he seldom
produced any hard evidence to back up his claims, maintaining that this information was
classified as secret. McCarthy was a demagogue who skillfully played on people’s fears. He also
appealed to many ordinary Americans’ resentment of the liberal “eastern Establishment”,
personified by Secretary of State Dean Acheson. With the Red Scare at its height and the Alger
Hiss spy case fresh in people’s minds, public opinion seemed to favor McCarthy. Riding the
anti-communist wave, Republicans supported him.
McCarthy accused members of the government in different departments, mainly on the State the
Department, of being communists. He said they were communists infiltrated in the State
Department. He said he had evidence to prove his public charges but that it was secret. It is said
that he lied a lot, evidence was doctored and there was no real evidence actually.
This had an impact on the film industry. Hollywood actors were blacklisted. This came to a peak with
McCarthy witch-hunt in Hollywood.
The most famous Charles Chaplin, who was forced to take refuge in Europe.

4. What brought about McCarthy’s downfall?

McCarthy overreached himself by investigating the army in 1954. His committee’s sessions were
televised. Viewers were disgusted by the bullying, abusive style of his cross-questioning. Later in
the year the Senate voted by a convincing majority (including half the republican senators) to
condemn McCarthy’s behavior. The era of McCarthyism was at an end.
Period called 36 days. Army-McCarthy hearings. During the hearings, McCarthy was humiliated by the
lawyer of the army. People who watched television became angry for his rude manners and the
way he questioned witnesses.
Was McCarthy able to produce a list with names? No, never.
1954: Army-McCarthy hearings. Censured by his Senate colleagues for unbecoming conduct.
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1957: Died.

THE COLD WAR

TWO WORLDS

The map shows as if communism

was not only occupying big portion
of the world, but also radiating its
power to other territories of the
world: Eastern Europe, Asia. The
picture appeared in Time
magazine in the US in 1950. Why
did the US portray the USSR as a
great power in the world? To
encourage the American people to
support the measures that the US
was taking in the world to combat
communism. America was
portraying the Soviet Union as a
big power in order to justify the
measures the US was taking against it.

Both countries emerged as the great superpowers after WWII, and were now in conflict.

LANDMARKS IN WWII

1941 Atlantic Conference

Roosevelt + Churchill

1943 Moscow Conference

Roosevelt + Churchill + Stalin: ​Grand Alliance

1943 Teheran Conference

Roosevelt + Churchill + Stalin: ​Operation Overlord

1945 Yalta Conference

Roosevelt + Churchill + Stalin

1945 Potsdam Conference

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Truman + Attlee + Stalin

The pattern was similar to the pattern followed by Germany in the Sudetenland. The same happened in
Poland and Germany continued to advance against the ally. Now, the Soviet Union shared interests
with the US. They wanted to defeat Hitler. It was that common objective that had united the US and the
Soviet Union. Once this common objective disappeared, the Grand Alliance started to crumble.

PEACE CONFERENCES AFTER WWII

1.​ Yalta​ (Feb 1945)

Roosevelt + Stalin + Churchill

2. ​Postdam​ (Jul/Aug 1945)

Truman + Stalin + Attlee

Differences emerged in these conferences. The differences were mainly about Germany and about the
Soviet troops (the “red army”) in Europe (which would be the influence of each of these superpowers).

Great Britain was not a superpower at the time. It had suffered the war in its own territory. To a great
extent, it had been destroyed.

The big ones were now to: the Soviet Union and the US.

Truman was far more anticommunist than Roosevelt.

These conflicts led to a new kind of world

WWII​ ​ a very short period of peace ​ ​ Cold War

Characteristics: They fought each other, but not directly, through other countries. It appeared that
those who were fighting the war were the Koreans or the Vietnamese. Behind them, there were the US
and the Soviet Union. In the case of Korea, it was the UN forces in theory, which were commanded by
an American (most of the forces were American, actually).

East-West relations, or, more specifically, US-Soviet relations until the collapse of the USSR, are
referred to as the Cold War. Very simply put, from 1945 to 1991 there was conflict between the United
States and the Soviet Union that never erupted into a full-blown war. Although there were numerous
proxy wars in which one power was directly involved, there was no head on confrontation between
these two powers. This was a war that remained Cold – no direct conflicts between the superpowers –
largely because they tacitly agreed to avoid open conflict. This is diplomatic history that centres on an
uneasy coexistence based on the fear of mutual destruction. This was a far cry from the Grand
Alliance that won the Second World Ward and defeated the Axis Powers.
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An acronym emerged. ​MAD ​ Mutual Assured Destruction. Competition to produce the most lethal
weapons. If the moment came, and they used the weapons, the result would be mutual assured
destruction.

WHEN DID THE COLD WAR START?

1945: ​A-bombs-, Yalta + Potsdam

The use of the bombs on the part of the US can be considered as the beginnings of the Cold War.
Because the US used the A-bomb in Asia and did not give the Soviet Union to act, this was an area of
American influence.

Yalta ​ It was decided that Poland would become an independent country and the USSR would not
invade it. Poland was the most important source of disagreement. There were promises that the Soviet
Union did not fulfill. Stalin had promised independence to Poland, but the elections were manipulated
by the Soviet Union (these were fraudulent elections). The countries were satellite countries of the
Soviet Union.

Differences already emerged in these conferences in relation to the Red Army and Germany. Germany
was already divided. The Red Army was advancing in Eastern Europe.

1947: ​Truman Doctrine + Containment of Communism

The Truman Doctrine and the Containment policy were policies the administration was applying. This
went hand in hand with the new world coined by an American diplomat in Moscow ​ containment ​ to
keep the Russian in their sphere of influence.

It was agreed that in the world there were areas of American and of Soviet influence.

1948: ​Marshall Plan + Berlin Blockade

Marshall Plan ​ ​ putting into practice the containment policy

The Cold War was described to a very much extent as a struggle of ideologies (Capitalist and democratic
model against the communist model). Each country believed that their model was the best and wanted
to impose it.

USA
Democracy
Capitalism
Equality of opportunities (=Equity; “all men are
born equal” but it is the circumstances of life
that account for the differences)
The American model is the best
The American model should be spread
USSR
One-party system
Communism
Equality (plain equality; no matter what your
walk of life, you were equal to the rest of the
members of society)
The Soviet model is the best
The Soviet model should be spread
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Power lay in the possession of weapons. Both powers entered a competition to produce the greatest
number and the most lethal questions. This was called the ​arms race. ​In the late 1950s and
throughout the 60s, this competition left this world and was taken to space, and the arms race became
the ​space race.

Each country would speak about the ​missile gap metaphor: ​the other country was becoming too
strong and they had to produce more weapons. Used to justify the production of more weapons for
defense.

THE YALTA CONFERENCE

In May 1945, Churchill ordered Montgomery to keep the German arms intact, in case they had to be
used against the Russians.

They were already thinking about a possible confrontation with the Soviet Union.

THE IRON CURTAIN

In a speech in the US, Churchill coined a metaphor to describe the division of Europe at the time ​ the
Iron Curtain.

A shadow has fallen upon the scenes so lately lighted by the Allied victory (the liberation of Europe).
From Stettin on the Baltic to Trieste on the Adriatic, an Iron Curtain has descended (you cannot go
through it). Behind that line lie all the states of central and eastern Europe. The Communist parties
have been raised to power far beyond their numbers (The Communist parties, winning a fraudulent
election ​ ​ the great majority did not agree with Communism)

THE TRUMAN DOCTRINE

The expression of the American attitude towards Greece and Turkey, actually, but then towards other
countries.

It must be the policy of the US to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by
armed minorities by outside pressures…

Truman wanted congress to grant him money to send American troops to fight in Greece and Turkey to
prevent the Soviet Union from advancing

George Kennan and the Long Telegram

Coined the word “containment”

It is clear that the main element of any US policy toward the Soviet Union must be that of a long-term,
patient but firm and vigilant ​containment ​of Russian expansive tendencies.
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​ We must prevent the Russians from expanding

THE MARSHALL PLAN

Putting the policy into practice.

The US was helping European countries to lure them into thinking that the US ideals were the best.
Also, there was an economic intention.

Our policy is directed not against any country or doctrine, but against hunger, poverty, desperation
and chaos.

GERMANY DIVIDED: THE BERLIN BLOCKADE

After WWII, Germany was divided into four zones. Berlin was divided in the same way.

The US, French and British sector would eventually unite in Berlin.

Berlin was in the middle of the Russian area. “A flashpoint of democracy in the middle of a communist
sea” (Kennedy).

The West was prospering more. Imagine the beacon of democracy in the middle of the backward
communist area.

The Soviets wanted to force West Berlin into subjection, by closing all the entrances to West Berlin so
that the US and its allies could not send any supplies. The US responded by getting there by air.

When Berlin falls, Western Germany will be next. If we withdraw our position in Berlin, Europe is
threatened.

The Soviets eventually decided to lift the blockade, as it was rather a failure.

Truman believed that the Berlin blockade had made the US appear as triumphant. ​We refused…

The Russians blamed the American for the blockade ​ “the self-blockade of the Western powers”. They
held that it was imposed by them as a sort of propaganda. It was a failure because of the conduct of the
USSR.

Neutral position/more balance point of view ​ nobody won. This showed that they were equally
stubborn.

The Berlin Wall

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The problem was the brain drain. When there was no wall, people would move to West Germany, as it
was more prosperous. In order to prevent the people from leaving East Berlin (to West Berlin, and then
to West Germany), a wall was built in August 1961.

IMPORTANT CONSEQUENCES

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

4 April 1949

Intergovernmental military alliance

12 countries: Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembour, France, UK, US, Canada, Portugal, Italy, Norway,
Denmark and Iceland (today 28 countries).

The creation of NATO led to a practice on the part of the US: signing pacts with different countries in
different parts of the world (SEATO and CENTO). They found support in those pacts for intervention.

Warsaw Treaty Organization of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance

14 May 1955 – 1 July 1991

The Korean War (1950)

1. North Korea invades South Korea, June-September 1950. The North Koreans supported by the Soviet
Union invaded South Korea and displaced them. They complained to the UN. The Soviets would not
veto the decision, as they had left the UN to support China.

2. UN forces move north.

Rolling back. North Koreans were pushed further to the North, near China.

3. The Chinese Offensive

South Koreans were pushed back to the South.

4. The UN counter-attack

North Korea and South Korea went back to their original location.

Many complained that this was not an UN war, but an American war.
Cartoon: the UN being led by Truman to fight and the League of
Nations dead by lack of exercise.

Massacre in Korea – Pablo Picasso: Women and children naked,

defenseless. The US: death machines killing innocent people. Very
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harsh criticism against the US. This picture was banned in South Korea until the 1990s.

Beginnings of the space race

The October Crisis

The world was taken to the brink of new, real direct armed confrontation between the US and the Soviet
Union.

The crisis was about Cuba. It was between Kennedy and the Soviet leader. Castro became the leader of
Cuba in 1959 when he overthrew an American supported president: Batista. He then showed that he
sympathized with communist ideas. Once Castro declared that he was a communist, the US started
devising a plan to overthrow Castro and to kill him. The plan was inherited by President Kennedy and it
was put into practice in 1961.

US armed forces tried to enter Cuba through the South. Apparently, Castro was warned, so his forces
were waiting for them. The plan to eliminate Castro was a failure.

Castro realized that the US was not willing to make friends with Cuba. He found another ally: the Soviet
Union. It set up missile base on Cuba and sent missiles plane. The US found out about this and decided
to blockade Cuba and threatened to invade.

Finally, an agreement was reached. The Soviets would dismantle the base in Cuba and take the missiles
back to their country. The US would not invade Cuba, but it would not lift the embargo.

Missile crisis 1962

FREEZE OR THAW IN THE COLD WAR?

The USA and Vietnam

Escalation (1950s) ​ ​ Americanization (1960s) ​ ​ Vietnamization (1970s)

Eisenhower – Kennedy – Johnson Nixon

Read about the French participation in Vietnam after WWII and their final defeat and the Geneva
accord.

Kennedy had already been sending groups to Vietnam. Pentagon papers revealed that it was Kennedy
the one that we should associate with the beginnings of the American war in Vietnam. However, it was
Johnson the one that sent more troops (the number of troops soared).

The American tour in Vietnam was of 6 months, but the majority of the soldiers were likely to be killed
during the first month.
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President Nixon promised that he would change the policy towards Vietnam. He would Vietnamize the
war: it would make American troops retreat gradually and teach the North Vietnamese to fight so that
they could fight in their own war.

The whole of Vietnam became communist. The policy of containment was a failure.

It was difficult for the Americans to win:

● Strong opposition at home

● Guerrilla tactics that the South Vietnamese would apply

At the same time this plan of Vietnamization was taking place, Nixon was bombarding Laos and
Cambodia. The Ho Chi Minh Trail took North Vietnam troops to South Berlin.

THAW & DÉTENTE IN THE 1970s FREEZE IN THE 1980s

End of Vietnam War
Worries about arms race ​ ​ Brezhnev + Nixon =
SALT 1 (1972)
Agreement to limit the production of weapons
(Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty). It did not mean
disarmament, but it did mean the establishment of a
ceiling in the production of weapons.
Helsinki Conference (Aug 1975)
High hand shake in space
For the first time, two astronauts, one from the US
and other from the Soviet Union shook hands in
space. This did not mean that both countries were
friends. It was trying to leave peacefully but
acknowledging that there is an atmosphere of rivalry.
USA and USSR improved relations with China
There had been a conflict between the USSR and
China. It was not that powerful industrially or
economically, but very powerful in terms of number.
That tension was eased in the 70s. While the USSR
and China were rivals, the US took advantage to
improve relations with China.
Revolution in Iran (1979)
The Shaw¿?? in Iran was overthrown by
fundamentalists. Iran self-declared an enemy of the
US. Iran got the support of the USSR.
Civil Wars in Nicaragua and El Salvador
New nuclear weapons stationed in Europe
The US used new places in Europe to set up nuclear
stations.
Collapse of SALT 2 (1979)
Afghanistan (1979)
The Russians decided to invade Afghanistan. It became
the Russian Vietnam. They wanted to support a
communist friendly government in Afghanistan, which
was under the threat of being toppled by rebel groups.
Those rebels groups were called terrorists by the
Russian. Ronald Reagan supported the rebels, and
defined them as “the freedom fighters.”
One of the rebel groups was led by Osama Bin Laden,
who the US was at the time helping.
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Because the Russians invaded Afghanistan, SALT 2

failed.
Moscow (1980) and Los Angeles (1984) Olympic
Games
Ronald Reagan ​ ​ “Evil Empire” + SDI
In the first half of the 80s, the cold war froze, because
America had a new president: Ronald Reagan, who was
a strong anticommunist. He described the Soviet
Union as the “Evil Empire”. Practice of American
presidents: to describe the world in terms of the
goodies and the badies. So anticommunist was Reagan
that he proposed the building of a shield over the US,
satellites that would defend the US as if the country
was enclosed in a shield. The purpose was not to allow
any missile reach American soil. This was a very
ambitious program that did not process (SDI: Strategic
Defense Initiative). It was very sci-fi.
THE END OF THE COLD WAR

Timeline: ​Soviet Leaders

▪ Kerensky
▪ Lenin
▪ Stalin
▪ Nikita Khrushchev
▪ Leonid Brezhnev
▪ Yuri Andropov
▪ Konstantin Cherenkov
▪ Mikhail Gorbachev

Why did the Cold War end?

THE THAWING OF THE COLD WAR

In what way did Gorbachev’s and Reagan’s actions and initiatives help bring the Cold War to an end?

What was the role of Mikhail Gorbachev in bringing the Cold War to an end?

To what extent was Gorbachev forced to end the Cold War?

How far did the economic problems within the USSR and its sphere of influence dictate the changes in
policy under Gorbachev?

How far did Gorbachev’s changes in policy contribute to the end of the Cold War and fall of the USSR?
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What role did the Reagan administration and new arms race play in the fate of the Soviet Union?

The end of the Cold War

1981 Ronald Reagan elected US president

1984 Ronald Reagan re-elected US president

Renewed tensions between USA and Soviet Union

Reagan’s hardline approach, through Anti-Soviet policy

AIM:​ to reassert USA power in the world

Actions

▪ Increase in defence spending

▪ Development of new nuclear weapons

1983: Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) (“Star Wars”)

1980s Reagan Doctrine: assistance given to anti-Communist insurgents and anti-Communist

governments (US involvement in Central America: Nicaragua, El Salvador, Grenada, Guatemala)

The Soviets: “evil empire” and “the focus of evil in the modern world”

UK Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher’s support to Reagan’s hardline approach

Role of Great Britain in the Cold War: supporting the American capital model

Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev (1931)

1982: Death of Soviet leader Brezhnev

1982 – 1984: Yuri Andropov

1984 – 1985: Konstantin Chernenko

1985 ​ ​ turning point ​ ​ Mikhail Gorbachev Premier of the Soviet Union

Radical change in the Soviet-American relationship. He’s responsible for getting closer with the US.

Gorbachev’s domestic policies: Internal reforms (1986)

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The Brezhnev government did not invest in food, roads, and transport. When Gorbachev came to
power, the USSR was in economic recession and stagnation. Workers were disappointed with the
economic situation of the country.

Domestic situation: political + economic policies in crisis

Two key reforming ideas: ​Perestroika and Glasnost

Industrially speaking, the Soviet Union was not producing. In the field of nuclear weapons, they were
falling behind.

Aim ​ ​ to make the Soviet system more productive and responsive

Gorbachev’s Reforms

Perestroika (economic reforms) “Restructuring” of the economy

▪ questioning of socialist economic policies

▪ criticism of central planning + decentralization of planning
▪ criticism and rejection of forced collectivization
▪ removal of price controls by the state
▪ some degree of self-management
▪ agricultural reform

​ opening the Soviet Union to the market

Glasnost (radical political reform) “Openness”

​ The different areas of government should be open for the participation of the people

▪ greater “democratization”
▪ more people involved in the Communist Party and in the political debate
▪ every area of the regime should be open to public scrutiny
▪ re-examination of Soviet history, open debate on past government actions: He wanted people to
debate about the different actions the Soviet leaders were taken up to them.

Gorbachev’s new style of politics + doing business with the West

​ Key to explain the breakdown of the Cold War

1985 and Gorbachev’s coming to power means the beginning of a new style of leadership in the Soviet
Union, which would result in bettering relations with the US, and, in the end, the end of the Cold War.

Glasnost and Perestroika help explain the end of the Cold War.
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THE THAWING OF THE COLD WAR: NEGOTIATIONS WITH THE WEST

Gorbachev’s Initiatives

Gorbachev’s willingness to tackle the issue of nuclear weapons

Reduction in military spending

Abandonment of the arms race

Arms control: Attempt at a negotiation reduction in arms with the USA

Reasons: economic + dangers posed by nuclear powers to humankind (Chernobyl nuclear disaster in
1986)

Reagan’s role

Reagan’s character + willingness to engage with Gorbachev in arms negotiations

For both countries, the war meant a lot of expenditure. Reagan, the US president was also willing to
start negotiations with the Soviet Union for this reason.

His interest in arms control

His views on the need to halt the nuclear arms race

Four summit meetings ​between the two leaders to discuss arms control

1985, Geneva Summit: no substantial progress but agreement on not to fight a nuclear war

1986, Reykjavik Summit: disagreement over SDI. There was no progress.

1987, Washington Summit: INF Treaty (Intermediate-Range Nuclear Force Treaty). EXPAND ON THE
PROVISIONS. This meant an important agreement on the reduction of nuclear weapon production and
the abolishment of nuclear weapons (to destroy nuclear weapons). It also provided for investigation and
control on nuclear weapons ​ ​ to check on this issue.

1988, Moscow Summit: agreement on continuation of arms reductions negotiations. Both leaders
agreed to go on negotiating and discussing the issue of arms reduction.

Other events that helped bring the war to an end

1988: Warsaw Pact troops reductions and a withdrawal of Soviet forces in Afghanistan

1989:
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Final Soviet withdrawal of forces from Afghanistan

Announcement of a plan to reform Soviet economy

Anti-Soviet movements; revolutions for independence in Eastern Bloc countries (Poland, Hungary, East
Germany).

Fall of the Berlin Wall (November 9) ​ ​ important symbol

MALTA Summit: US President George H.W. Bush + Gorbachev officially ended the Cold War

1990:

Germany’s reunification formally concluded (October 3)

End of monopoly of CPSU (Communist Party of the Soviet Union) within the USSR (Union of Soviet
Socialist Republics)

Baltic Republics’ Independence

Gorbachev awarded the Nobel Peace Prize

1991:

Collapse of the Soviet Union

Gorbachev’s resignation as general secretary of the CPSU, dissolution of the party

Independence of former republics of the USSR

Disintegration of the Soviet Union, break-up and end of the USSR

Gorbachev’s resignation as president

Boris Yeltsin elected President of Russia + formal end of the USSR

RSFSR renamed the Russian Federation of Russia

Official end of the USSR on 31 December. The Cold War was over.

Gorbachev, though very highly regarded in the world, was very much criticized in his own country
(especially by the fundamentalist communists). He became very unpopular. People wanted to see
changes immediately. He eventually had to resign.

The end of the Cold War

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Malta Summit, December 2-3, 1989. US President George H.W. Bush and Gorbachev officially ended
the Cold War.

Has the Cold War really ended? Have Russia and the West entered a “new Cold War”?

Find out about the problem in Syria.

Arab Spring ​ ​ movement asking for reforms and more democratic measures

Since 2011, there has been inside Syria a civil war. The civil war started between the rebels.
Fundamentalism began to play an important role. Inside Syria there are different Islamic groups. The
President belongs to an Islamic group that is not the same as that of the majority.

There is a civil war that has to do with political issues and religious issues.

Another issue: Islamism in relation to terrorism.

Why did the US and Russia decided to enter the conflict?

Russia supports Syria’s president. What is the particular interest of Russia in Syria? There are economic
reasons and there are also geopolitical reasons. Syria is also important for strategic reasons, mainly in
relation for the possibility of Russia having access to the Mediterranean through Syria. Russia has an
important military base there, in a region where most military bases are American. ​They are again in
a struggle for power.

While the US wants to depose Syrian President (the country wants him to renounce). Russia’s support,
instead of weakening the position of the President, has strengthened it.

In the case of Trump, he has to decide whether to support or fight this man (Grace’s opinion). He is
going against the regime, but Trump needs his support to fight fundamentalists.

In a globalized world, there is a tendency to isolate oneself.

SOME USEFUL TERMS

Proxy war A war instigated by one (or more) of the major powers who don’t participate directly in the
subsequent conflict.
Espionage
Freeze Periods of more tension in the Cold War.
Thaw Periods in which there was less tension and the relationship between both countries became
“warmer”.
Détente The easing of strained relations between the USA and the USSR in the 1970s.
Heat up The two countries got to the brink of a direct armed conflict.
Brinkmanship A strategy in which a power pushes a situation to the point of disaster in an attempt to force
the other side to back down. This was used most notably by both the USA and the USSR in the
Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962.
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Deterrence The military strategy by which a power accrues as many weapons as they possibly can – and
perhaps recruits such a large army – that no power would risk going to war against it. It is the
strategy generally used to justify the continued production and stockpiling of nuclear
weapons.
Massive Reactions against a special attack.
retaliation
Flexible To respond against the attack.
response
MAD The theory that if either side of the Cold War conflict engaged in nuclear war, the retaliation
from the other side would lead to the destruction of both powers.
Containment US foreign policy articulated by President Truman in 1947 in which the USA stated that it
policy would do what it could to prevent the spread of communism beyond its 1947 reaches.
Roll back policy Pushing the Soviets to further back down and eventually destroy communism in an area –
think of the case of Korea.
Domino theory The Domino Theory was created to justify US actions in Southeast Asia after France’s losses in
Indochina. It stated that if one power were to fall to communism then surrounding countries
would also be susceptible. According to this theory, China and North Korea had already fallen,
and Vietnam was about to fall. From there, Laos, Cambodia, Malaysia, Indonesia, Burma,
India and perhaps even Australia would be poised to fall to communist aggression.
Hawks/Doves The slang terms used in American politics and journalism to describe a person’s outlook
regarding war. Hawks are those people who believe in an aggressive foreign policy, a strong
military, and the use of force. Doves reject the use of force to achieve foreign policy objectives.
In the context of the Vietnam War, hawks advocated continued military support for South
Vietnam while doves advocated withdrawal
Escalation Increase the sending of military weapons and soldiers to an area.
Manifest An idea developed in the 19​th century which stated that it was the fate of the USA to expand
Destiny from the Atlantic to the Pacific oceans. Attached to the idea is the notion that the USA has a
moral obligation to incorporate other peoples into its institutions and government because
they are the most desirable. In the 19​th there was a missionary quality to the idea; that God
determined that it was the US destiny to spread.
Arms race
Space race

REAGAN vs. CLINTON

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Reagan​ ​ ​ very clear representative of the Republican Party

The 80s belong to Ronald Reagan in the US: he was reelected in 1984. He was president for two running
periods.

● 1962 Joined the Republican Party

● 1967-75 Served two terms as Governor of California

● 1981 Became 40​th​ President of the United States

● 1984 Won re-election by an overwhelming popular vote

The ​Teflon ​president ​ ​ “I don’t know what you are talking about”

After Reagan, Bush senior was elected president. Then came Clinton for two periods. After Clinton,
Bush junior. Then Obama.

Clinton​ ​ ​ very clear representative of the Democratic Party

The 90s belong to Clinton

● 1978 – 82 Governor of Arkansas

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● 1984 Regained the office and serves as Governor until 1992

● 1993 Became 42th President of the United States

● 1997 First Democrat to win re-election since F.D. Roosevelt

The ​MTV ​president: He was very charismatic, and a very good orator.

During Clinton’s administration, people got wealthier.

He was impeached for perjury. He lied to the nation.

Reagan Clinton

More inclusive government ​ democratization ​

more representative in terms of having more
members of minorities be part of government

In the case of the armed forces, the inclusion of

homosexuals in the army and the appointment of
minorities and women to official positions.

Cuts in taxation: benefitting the wealthy NAFTA: economic agreement whose preference was
the tariff basis

Cuts in welfare: detrimental to poor people. This
brought about a lot of opposition on the part of
minorities.
Welfare to Work: giving people equality of
opportunities in this sense. To orient and guide
people who lived on benefit to find a job. The
government had to get more committed and create
more programs in which people would be able to
find permanent jobs.

Failure to reform the Health Care System

Opposition within the Democratic Party because of

the American sort of mind (self-made man)

1​st​ term: Strong anticommunist
2​nd term: Relations improvement. Proof ​ INF Treaty.
It was very important because it had to do with
disarmament.
Ronald Reagan transferred the Cold War to central
America and got some countries involved through the
Reagan’s doctrine.
The US would intervene only in those regions were
human rights were affected. BUT the US intervened
in several countries in the world.
Iraq (1998): it was not a prolonged war. A 4-day
bombing.
The Balkans: Yugoslavia (1998) ​ ​ Kosovo
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We should know about Nicaragua and Afghanistan. He was very much criticized because he did not live
up to the promise he had made in his doctrine. There
The “Contras” in Nicaragua > Iran and Lebanon > The were massacres in Rwanda and America did not
US intervene.

Afghanistan ​ ​ Soviet invasion of Afghanistan Two most opposing leaders: leader of the PLO and
the PM of Israel. The leader of the Arab world and
freedom fighters (Reagan)/mujahidin/terrorists? the leader of the Jewish world. He brought them
together at Camp Davis, but nothing came out of
One of the groups in Afghanistan was led by Osama Bin that. The positive thing about it was that they at least
Laden. At that time, the US and Osama Bin Laden were got together.
in agreement.
Warsaw Pact organization disappeared in 1991,
when the Soviet Union was dissolved. Those
countries that belonged to the Warsaw Pact expected
to form part of NATO, but there was opposition on
the part of Russia.
President Reagan was said to be Teflon-coated. Nothing stuck to him: not revelations of wrongdoings
by aides, not occasional failures in foreign policy, not rumors that astrology may have influenced
some of his decisions. Approaching his 78​th birthdays, as his presidency drew to a close, Reagan was
seen by many as the personification of Uncle Sam or as the grandfather of the nation. He neared the
end of his second term as a remarkably untroubled man. He continued to display consistent optimism
and the jaunty self-confidence that had endeared him to millions. When tragedy struck – the death of
seven Challenger astronauts in 1986, for example – Reagan eloquently articulated the nation’s grief.
When personal danger touched him – he was wounded in an assassination attempt in 1981 and
underwent colon cancer operation in 1985 he was upbeat and reassuring.

In the mid-nineties he was diagnosed with Alzheimer’s disease. He died in 2004.

President Clinton remained popular with the public…

In 1998, as a result of issues surrounding personal indiscretions with a young woman White House
intern, Clinton was the second US president to be impeached by the House of Representatives. He was
tried in the Senate and found not guilty of the charges brought against him. He apologized to the
nation for his actions and continued to have unprecedented rating approvals.

THATCHER vs. BLAIR

Thatcher ​ ​ representative of the Conservative party

Blair ​ ​ representative of a New Labor party ​ ​ New Labor Party


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Margaret Thatcher
The 80s in GB belong to Margaret Thatcher
1979 The Conservative Party wins the election and
Thatcher becomes Britain’s first woman PM
1990 Following a challenge to her leadership,
Margaret Thatcher resigns and is succeeded by John
Mayor.
QUOTES: Against state intervention, following the
ideas of the Conservative Party.
Tuninetti, Ana
Tony Blair
Tony Blair had a career in politics, but he was also an
artist. He had a pop group called the “Ugly
Rumours.”
1994 Becomes leader of the Labour Party. Blair
initiates the era of “New” Labour.
1997 Becomes PM after a landslide victory, breaking
an 18-year Conservative rule.
2007 27, June Resigns as PM
QUOTES: The question of leadership in Europe has
to do with the fact that New Labor was more
pro-European than Old-Labor and the Conservatives
were quite Euro-skeptic. A strategy to support the
European project was to promise this leadership.

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Legislation to undermine trade unions power. The real
risk or threat didn’t come directly from the trade
unions. There was a historical associated between the
trade unions and the labor party. Traditionally, the
trade workers supported the labor party. The labor
party, at that time, was clearly socialist. If Thatcher
undermined the trade unions, she would automatically
weaken opposition.
Against Welfare System and the “dependency culture”
Privatization of social services. She was very much
market-oriented. She believed that not anybody
should enjoy the benefits of a free medical system.
Means Test: more rigorous. Tests to know who could
pay: filling forms and interviews.
Euro skeptic
Close ties with Reagan
The Falklands War: worldwide recognition. The
person admired and supported for what happened in
Malvinas was Thatcher.
There have been few Laborists presidents in the 20​th​ C.
OLD CLAUSE IV
NEW CLAUSE IV
The labor party is a democratic socialist party. It believes that by the strength f our common endeavor
we achieve more than we achieve alone, so as to create for each of us the means to realize our true
Tuninetti, Ana
Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland were granted
self-government
Tory anti-union laws were sustained: This was part
of New Labor. It was not leftist, but left-of-center ​
the third way.
Democratization through constitutional reform ​
making the House of Lords an elective chamber.
This was not achieved, but some life peerages were
eliminated
Privatization “the modern way” ​ It has to be
understood as privatization that is the result of
investment on the part of both the state and private
owners. Joint ownership between both.
Flexible markets to foster entrepreneurial
independence.
Welfare to Work – equality of opportunities.
Qualities: universal (in every part of the country)
and comprehensive (for every single person).
Acceptance of Means Test ​ he did not go back to
the ideas of the Old Labor
For European integration and monetary union (only
under the right circumstances)
Iraq War: source of great domestic
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potential and for all of us a community in which power, wealth and opportunity are in the hands of
many.

Labor Party ​ National Health Service set up in the 1940s. It was comprehensive of the people and
universal of the space. Everyone in the country was entitled to get free medical services. This was a great
innovation.

THE BLAIRIFICATION OF POLITICS

OLD LABOR NEW LABOR
Coincidences with the Conservative wing. The
Labor Party did not want to be identified with
only one social class.
Class-based politics All-inclusive politics
Strong ideological LEFT Ideology a thing of the past
THIRD WAY
Committed to public ownership Privatization of the modern way
Dominated by trade unions Trade unions sidelined
Broadly anti-Europe (Euro-skeptic) Pro-European

THE WORLD AFTER THE ATTACK ON THE TWIN TOWERS

THE WAR ON TERROR AND THE OBAMA DOCTRINE

9/11/2001

4 planes:

▪ Two airplanes hit the Twin Towers (the two most important towers in the World Trade Center).
Both towers collapsed.
▪ Another plane hit the Pentagon.
▪ Another plane crashed – Flight 93. The 9/11 Commission said that it was headed to the White
House or Capitol Hill. Passengers were able to regain control of the plane.

Terrorism can also grow inside the country. The attack came from the inside. It was the 1​st time
America was attacked in its own territory after Pearl Harbor.

The targets were symbolic of the US and the world:

▪ Twin Towers: commercial center of the world

▪ Pentagon: military center of the world
▪ White House/Congress: political power of the world

US President ​ ​George W. Bush. He had just become president, and he was very much criticized for
his allegedly fraudulent election. His election was decided in Florida, where the governor was his
brother.
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9/11 produced immediate support for the president of the US. The rate of support went up after the
attack ​ ​ feeling of nationalism

BUSH’S SPEECH - CNN

Good evening.

Today, our fellow citizens, our way of life, our very freedom came under attack in a series of
deliberate and deadly terrorist acts.

The victims were in airplanes or in their offices -- secretaries, businessmen and women, military and
federal workers. Moms and dads. Friends and neighbors.

Thousands of lives were suddenly ended by evil, despicable acts of terror.

The pictures of airplanes flying into buildings, fires burning, huge structures collapsing, have filled us
with disbelief, terrible sadness and a quiet, unyielding anger.

These acts of mass murder were intended to frighten our nation into chaos and retreat. But they have
failed. Our country is strong. A great people has been moved to defend a great nation.

Terrorist attacks can shake the foundations of our biggest buildings, but they cannot touch the
foundation of America. These acts shatter steel, but they cannot dent the steel of American resolve.

America was targeted for attack because we're the brightest beacon for freedom and opportunity in
the world. And no one will keep that light from shining.

Today, our nation saw evil, the very worst of human nature, and we responded with the best of
America, with the daring of our rescue workers, with the caring for strangers and neighbors who
came to give blood and help in any way they could.

Immediately following the first attack, I implemented our government's emergency response plans.
Our military is powerful, and it's prepared. Our emergency teams are working in New York City and
Washington, D.C., to help with local rescue efforts.

Our first priority is to get help to those who have been injured and to take every precaution to protect
our citizens at home and around the world from further attacks.

The functions of our government continue without interruption. Federal agencies in Washington
which had to be evacuated today are reopening for essential personnel tonight and will be open for
business tomorrow.

Our financial institutions remain strong, and the American economy will be open for business as well.
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The search is underway for those who are behind these evil acts. I've directed the full resources for our
intelligence and law enforcement communities to find those responsible and bring them to justice. We
will make no distinction between the terrorists who committed these acts and those who harbor them.

I appreciate so very much the members of Congress who have joined me in strongly condemning these
attacks. And on behalf of the American people, I thank the many world leaders who have called to
offer their condolences and assistance.

America and our friends and allies join with all those who want peace and security in the world and
we stand together to win the war against terrorism.

Tonight I ask for your prayers for all those who grieve, for the children whose worlds have been
shattered, for all whose sense of safety and security has been threatened. And I pray they will be
comforted by a power greater than any of us spoken through the ages in Psalm 23: "Even though I
walk through the valley of the shadow of death, I fear no evil, for You are with me."

This is a day when all Americans from every walk of life unite in our resolve for justice and peace.
America has stood down enemies before, and we will do so this time.

None of us will ever forget this day, yet we go forward to defend freedom and all that is good and just
in our world.

Thank you. Good night and God bless America.

Who was attacked?

Freedom ​was attacked. The American way of life ​ “We have been attacked because we are the
greatest beacon for opportunity.

Beacon of the world ​ ​ Puritan idea embedded in America

What is America going to do?

▪ Terrorist attacks can shake the foundations of American buildings but they cannot touch the
foundation of America.

​ Bush very clearly polarized the world again, like Reagan had done in the past.

▪ Traditionally, the US presidents’ doctrine was to intervene against the evil of the world. “We are
the carriers of freedom and we have to intervene to eradicate evil”. The only one that stepped
aside was Obama.
▪ Need to protect our citizens from home and around the world ​ justification to intervene later
on in Afghanistan first and then in Iraq.
▪ Attitude of deterrene
▪ “We are going to win the war on terrorism”
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▪ Life will continue as normal ​ ​ terrorists have failed

▪ “Commerce will be open”
▪ “We will make no distinction between terrorists and those who harbored them” ​ We can wage
the war against terror everywhere in the world. Similarity with the Cold War. The evil was now
terrorism, something not tangible, more elusive.
▪ In his speech, Bush speaks in the name of God. Bin Laden would say the same ​ ​ paradox

WHY DID AMERICA INTERVENE IN AFGHANISTAN?

The US established a flimsy connection that was not true. Real reason for the intervention ​ ​ OIL

1. Osama bin Laden was held responsible for the attack, together with his movement ​Al Qaeda​.
This was a guess. Bin Laden claimed responsibility in 2004 and the accusation was made in
2001. He was accused without sound investigation.
2. The US president said bin Laden was hiding in Afghanistan.

WHY DID AMERICA INTERVENE IN IRAQ?

In the case of Iraq, there was no serious connection whatsoever with Al Qaeda.

Leader of Iran ​ ​ ​Saddam Hussein

Question ​ ​ production and storage of weapons of mass destruction

UN officials said there were no weapons of mass destruction in Iraq

Internal consequences:

▪ National consensus
▪ The Patriot Act

International consequences:

▪ Afghanistan ​ ​ 7 oct to 5 Dec 2001

▪ Iraq ​ ​ 19 March 2003 t0 2010 (?) 2011 (?) 2012 (?)

Important expressions:

▪ Global war
▪ Axis of evil
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▪ Preemption
▪ WMD

Background scene of destruction.

“We are doing this in the name of God”

Bin Laden plotted 9/11 in the name of God.

US Presidents end their speeches in the name of God.

There was not only one enemy in the US. The scope of enemies had broadened ​ ​ “axis of evil” ​ ​ Cuba,
Iraq, Syria, Iran, Libya, among others. On and off different countries formed part of the “axis of evil”.

Preemption and unilateralism

How would the US know when a terror cell had formed in any part of the world? Preemption meant that
the US had the right to intervene even when it suspected about terrorism. This meant that they could
intervene everywhere.

Unilateralism meant that they would attack whether they got the support of international organizations
or not.

UN inspectors were sent to Iraq to find weapons of mass destruction (chemical, nuclear, and biological
weapons). America sent an ultimatum to the UN. America stepped in an attacked Iraq.

In theory, the American forces that are now in Afghanistan and Iraq act only as advisors.

Middle East

Rich in oil. No wonder why the US is so close to Israel.

To understand why the US was so interested in intervening in Afghanistan and Iraq, we need to go back
to the policies carried out by the US in the Middle East.

American-friendly governments in these countries would place the US in a position of privilege.

In the atmosphere of the Cold War (late 70s) when Reagan was the US President, in Afghanistan there
was a government dominated by the Soviets. It was very weak. That’s why the USSR saw the need to
intervene. Different groups of rebels wanted to overthrow this weak government. It was a religious war
which lagged in time for more than a decade (until the 80s). The US supported the rebels.

After the Moscow Summit, the US started to withdraw. The war continued as a civil war until one group
won. One faction emerged as the leading group ​ ​ ​THE TALIBAN

The Taliban was a fundamentalist faction. It considered the US its most terrible enemy. The US wanted
to build a pipeline in Afghanistan for their interests, but the new government would not allow this.

The US then was expecting the right moment to topple Afghanistan’s government and establish and
American-friendly government there. The moment came after 9/11.
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In the 70s, the Iranian government had also been toppled. Another fundamentalist government had
been established there. It believed that by westernizing the country, the US was spoiling/ruining it.

1992 – 1996 – 2001 ​ ​ ​TALIBAN GOVERNMENT

It was overthrown in 2001. The US designated a provisionary president. Then, the president was elected
in its own right. The US started the pipeline (later it was canceled because of instability in the area). The
US finally achieved its aim.

IRAQ

The Gulf War (1990-1991)

▪ Leader of Baath Party

▪ Unity of all Arab countries
▪ Against colonial powers

President of Iraq (1979 – 2003)

▪ Cult of personality
▪ Rule of terror
▪ Ethnic cleansing
▪ Persecution of Shiites

1980-8 Iran-Iraq War

▪ Weak economy in Iraq

▪ Ethnic conflict
▪ Territorial ambitions
▪ Consequences: Iraq’s economy in tatters ​ ​ It needed revenues

Hussein accused Kuwait of stealing Iraq’s oil (justification for the invasion)

IRAQI INVASION OF KUWAIT

US intervention in favor of Kuwait

Gulf War (Jan-Mar 1991)

UNSCOM Weapons Inspection: UN sent inspectors. Bush saw that they didn’t find anything. He wanted
to intervene, so he sent an ultimatum.

Both Gulf Wars took place under the presidency of the Bushes.

INTERNAL CONSEQUENCES OF THE 9/11 ATTACK

USA DOMESTIC SECURITY

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When referring to the war on terror and the attack on the Twin Towers, concentrate on the
consequences in the international field: Afghanistan and Iraq.

The American response ​ ​ search for survivors

Man who played a central role ​ ​ NY Mayor Rudy Giuliani

Terrorist attack on September 11, 2001

Declaration of National State of Emergency

Enhancing Domestic Security against terrorism

National security measures

Anti-terrorist legislation

Important judicial transformations

The USA Patriot Act

The attack made Americans become aware of their vulnerability.

THE USA PATRIOT ACT

U​niting and
S​trengthening
A​merica

P​roviding
A​ppropriate
T​ools
R​equired to
I​ntercept and
O​bstruct
T​errorism

▪ October 26​th​, 2001

▪ Approved by both Republicans and Democrats
▪ Instrument to protect American people and fight terrorism
▪ The Department of Justice's first priority is to prevent future terrorist attacks. Since its passage
following the September 11, 2001 attacks, the Patriot Act has played a key part - and often the
leading role - in a number of successful operations to protect innocent Americans from the
deadly plans of terrorists dedicated to destroying America and our way of life. While the results
have been important, in passing the Patriot Act, Congress provided for only modest, incremental
changes in the law. Congress simply took existing legal principles and retrofitted them to
preserve the lives and liberty of the American people from the challenges posed by a global
terrorist network.
▪ National security became the first priority of the American government.
▪ Modest, incremental changes in the law. The Act was very much criticized for this.
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▪ BUT Congress said that it simply took existing legal principles and retrofitted them to preserve
the lives of American people.
▪ AIM ​ ​to deter and punish terrorist acts in the US and around the world, to enhance law
enforcement investigatory tools, and for other purposes.
▪ It consists of ​10 titles.
o TITLE II ​ ​ enhancing surveillance procedures
It increased the power of federal officials to:
-Track and intercept communication
-Enforce the law
-Counter the growing foreign intelligence

IMPORTANT ASPECTS

It gave the US government powers to:

1. intercept oral, written, and electronic communications

2. know about criminal investigations
3. monitor presumed suspects through tracing
4. obtain information from foreign intelligence agencies and conduct searches
5. new powers to FBI to monitor correspondence and communications via Internet or by telephone
6. library policies ​ ​ authority to search for business files

EFFECTS

Restrictive effects of the law on individual rights and freedoms

Impact on the exercise of fundamental rights:

1. Increased powers of both the secret services and the police,

2. Access by US authorities to confidential information about individuals and foreign companies.
3. Invasion and violation of privacy rights and other fundamental rights.
4. Cuts on personal liberties and security.
5. Incidence, in some cases arbitrarily, on the legal status of alien residents, permitting indefinite
detention of aliens suspected of terrorist offenses or detention without charges.
6. The dialectical tension between the principles of liberty and security.

THE VERY IDEALS OF DEMOCRACY

MAIN CRITICISM

The Patriot Act was attacking the Bill of Rights, which deals with basic rights and freedoms.

HIGHLIGHTS

The Act Improves Counter-Terrorism Efforts in Several Significant Ways:

1. ​The Patriot Act allows investigators to use the tools that were already available to
investigate organized crime and drug trafficking​.​ Many of the tools the Act provides to law
enforcement to fight terrorism have been used for decades to fight organized crime and drug dealers,
and have been reviewed and approved by the courts.
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● Allows law enforcement to use surveillance against more crimes of terror. ​Before
the Patriot Act, courts could permit law enforcement to conduct electronic surveillance to
investigate many ordinary, non-terrorism crimes, such as drug crimes, mail fraud, and passport
fraud. Agents also could obtain wiretaps to investigate some, but not all, of the crimes that
terrorists often commit. The Act enabled investigators to gather information when looking into
the full range of terrorism-related crimes, including: chemical-weapons offenses, the use of
weapons of mass destruction, killing Americans abroad, and terrorism financing.

● Allows federal agents to follow sophisticated terrorists trained to evade

detection.​ For years, law enforcement has been able to use "roving wiretaps" to investigate
ordinary crimes, including drug offenses and racketeering. A roving wiretap can be authorized
by a federal judge to apply to a particular suspect, rather than a particular phone or
communications device. Because international terrorists are sophisticated and trained to thwart
surveillance by rapidly changing locations and communication devices such as cell phones, the
Act authorized agents to seek court permission to use the same techniques in national security
investigations to track terrorists.

● Allows law enforcement to conduct investigations without tipping off terrorists. ​In
some cases if criminals are tipped off too early to an investigation, they might flee, destroy
evidence, intimidate or kill witnesses, cut off contact with associates, or take other action to
evade arrest. Therefore, federal courts in narrow circumstances long have allowed law
enforcement to delay for a limited time when the subject is told that a judicially-approved search
warrant has been executed. Notice is always provided, but the reasonable delay gives law
enforcement time to identify the criminal's associates, eliminate immediate threats to our
communities, and coordinate the arrests of multiple individuals without tipping them off
beforehand. These delayed notification search warrants have been used for decades, have
proven crucial in drug and organized crime cases, and have been upheld by courts as fully
constitutional.

● Allows federal agents to ask a court for an order to obtain business records in
national security terrorism cases.​ Examining business records often provides the key that
investigators are looking for to solve a wide range of crimes. Investigators might seek select
records from hardware stores or chemical plants, for example, to find out who bought materials
to make a bomb, or bank records to see who's sending money to terrorists. Law enforcement
authorities have always been able to obtain business records in criminal cases through grand
jury subpoenas, and continue to do so in national security cases where appropriate. Under the
Patriot Act, the government can now ask a federal court (the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance
Court), if needed to aid an investigation, to order production of the same type of records
available through grand jury subpoenas. This federal court, however, can issue these orders only
after the government demonstrates the records concerned are sought for an authorized
investigation to obtain foreign intelligence information not concerning a U.S. person or to
protect against international terrorism or clandestine intelligence activities, provided that such
investigation of a U.S. person is not conducted solely on the basis of activities protected by the
First Amendment.

2. ​The Patriot Act facilitated information sharing and cooperation among government
agencies so that they can better "connect the dots​." ​The Act removed the major legal barriers
that prevented the law enforcement, intelligence, and national defense communities from talking and
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coordinating their work to protect the American people and our national security. The government's
prevention efforts should not be restricted by boxes on an organizational chart. Now police officers, FBI
agents, federal prosecutors and intelligence officials can protect our communities by "connecting the
dots" to uncover terrorist plots before they are completed.

3. ​The Patriot Act updated the law to reflect new technologies and new threats​.​ The Act
brought the law up to date with current technology, so we no longer have to fight a digital-age battle
with antique weapons-legal authorities leftover from the era of rotary telephones.

● Allows law enforcement officials to obtain a search warrant anywhere a

terrorist-related activity occurred.​ Before the Patriot Act, law enforcement personnel were
required to obtain a search warrant in the district where they intended to conduct a search.
However, modern terrorism investigations often span a number of districts, and officers
therefore had to obtain multiple warrants in multiple jurisdictions, creating unnecessary delays.
The Act provides that warrants can be obtained in any district in which terrorism-related
activities occurred, regardless of where they will be executed. This provision does not change the
standards governing the availability of a search warrant, but streamlines the search-warrant
process.

● Allows victims of computer hacking to request law enforcement assistance in

monitoring the "trespassers" on their computers.​ This change made the law
technology-neutral; it placed electronic trespassers on the same footing as physical trespassers.
Now, hacking victims can seek law enforcement assistance to combat hackers, just as burglary
victims have been able to invite officers into their homes to catch burglars.

4. ​The Patriot Act increased the penalties for those who commit terrorist
crimes​.​ Americans are threatened as much by the terrorist who pays for a bomb as by the one who
pushes the button. That's why the Patriot Act imposed tough new penalties on those who commit and
support terrorist operations, both at home and abroad. In particular, the Act:

● Prohibits the harboring of terrorists.​ The Act created a new offense that prohibits
knowingly harboring persons who have committed or are about to commit a variety of terrorist
offenses, such as: destruction of aircraft; use of nuclear, chemical, or biological weapons; use of
weapons of mass destruction; bombing of government property; sabotage of nuclear facilities;
and aircraft piracy.

● Enhanced the inadequate maximum penalties for various crimes likely to be

committed by terrorists​: including arson, destruction of energy facilities, material support to
terrorists and terrorist organizations, and destruction of national-defense materials.

● Enhanced a number of conspiracy penalties​, including for arson, killings in federal

facilities, attacking communications systems, material support to terrorists, sabotage of nuclear
facilities, and interference with flight crew members. Under previous law, many terrorism
statutes did not specifically prohibit engaging in conspiracies to commit the underlying offenses.
In such cases, the government could only bring prosecutions under the general federal
conspiracy provision, which carries a maximum penalty of only five years in prison.

● Punishes terrorist attacks on mass transit systems.

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● Punishes bioterrorists.

● Eliminates the statutes of limitations for certain terrorism crimes and lengthens
them for other terrorist crimes.

THE IMPACT OF THE 2008/2012 ELECTIONS IN THE US

If there is indeed an “Obama Doctrine” – it is to do with the president’s scepticism about US military
intervention around the world. The key moment is Obama’s decision in August 2013, not to bomb Syria,
after the Assad regime had crossed his “red line” and used chemical weapons. This decision was (and is)
widely criticised. But Obama defends it robustly, saying “I’m very proud of this moment.” He is highly
critical of the Washington foreign-policy establishment and its preference for “militarised responses”.

▪ Obama wanted to stop the war

▪ He changed the American doctrine
▪ THE OBAMA DOCTRINE ​represented a shift from a nation that was considered the 1​st
among equals to one that was considered one among equals.
▪ Important symbol ​ ​ Obama’s visit to Cuba
▪ Policy ​ ​ ​MULTILATERALISM
▪ Highlights:
o Nobel Peace Price
o Health Reform
o Climate Action Plan (2014)

THE OBAMA ERA

Renewal of the Patriot Act and State of Emergency

2005: Reauthorization

2006: Notification and reauthorization

2011: PATRIOT Sunsets Extension Act ​ ​ a four-year extension of 3 key provisions:

▪ wiretaps, allowing government agencies to simultaneously monitor several telephone lines of

persons suspected of involvement in terrorist activities;
▪ the right to seize documentation, commercial records, tangible property and other tangible
objects in the course of antiterrorist operations;
▪ surveillance of “lone wolfs”: individuals suspected of terrorist-related activities not linked to
terrorist groups.

June 2, 2015: The USA Freedom Act

▪ Amendment of certain provisions of the original Patriot Act (2001)

▪ Restrictions to the NSA ​ significant restrictions on the mass phone data collection program of
the NSA, but the program was not prohibited altogether

THE OBAMA DOCTRINE

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In a long article in ​The Atlantic ​magazine, Jeffrey Goldberg describes “the Obama Doctrine” based on a
series of interviews with a reflective Barack Obama.

Here is a summary of key elements of Obama’s thinking on foreign policy drawn from Goldberg’s
interviews:

● Obama came to power to ​challenge views of who is an enemy and who an ally​. Hence his
desire to improve ties with ​Iran ​and Cuba​. He once called the Saudis a ‘so-called ally’ and
privately questions why Pakistan is an ally. He has said, ‘You can gauge the success of a society
by how it treats its women.’

● ‘Free-riders aggravate me’. He wants to change the attitude of allies – in Europe and the Middle
East – ‘pushing us to act but then showing an unwillingness to put any skin in the game’. He
notably told David Cameron, ‘You have to pay your share’ by spending 2 per cent of GDP on
defence. His decision to play down US involvement in the removal of Col Gaddafi in Libya was
designed to encourage the Europeans and Arabs to pull their weight.

● Europe is a source of global stability that requires, to Obama’s occasional annoyance, American
hand-holding.

● The Middle East is no longer so important to American interests, and even if it

were, there is little an American president can do to make it a better place​. It
swallows energy which would be more profitably devoted to Asia, Africa and Latin America. ‘If …
the only thing we’re doing is figuring out how to destroy or cordon off the malicious, nihilistic,
violent parts of humanity, then we’re missing the boat.’

● Obama disdains the Washington foreign policy establishment because it makes a

fetish of purchasing credibility with the use of force​. He is proud of defying the
‘Washington playbook’ by refusing to attack Syria in 2013 over its use of chemical weapons.

● He is riled by what he calls the ​‘mythologies’ of Ronald Reagan’s toughness​, pointing out
he pulled US troops out of Beirut after a bomb attack, invaded Grenada (population 110,000) for
no strategic purpose, and waged a clandestine campaign to unseat Daniel Ortega, who is still
president of Nicaragua today. His signal achievement came from negotiating with Mikhail
Gorbachev, not dropping bombs.

● ‘​Multilateralism regulates hubris​’. Sharing leadership with other countries is a way to

check America’s unruly impulses, particularly in countries which have experienced past US
intervention, such as Iran or Central America.

● Americans are too prone to panic about the threat of terrorism​, Obama believes. At
the risk of appearing Spockian – emotionally disengaged – he tells his staff that fewer
Americans die from terrorism than from handguns or car accidents.

● ‘Ukraine, which is a non-NATO country, is going to be vulnerable to domination by Russia no

matter what we do.’ Ukraine is a core Russian interest, but not an American one.
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● Climate change is ‘a potential existential threat to the entire world if we don’t do something
about it.’ It is, however, ‘a political problem perfectly designed to repel government
intervention’.