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FOR ABALONE Haliotis Tuberculata Coccinea (REEVE) (PDFDrive) PDF
FOR ABALONE Haliotis Tuberculata Coccinea (REEVE) (PDFDrive) PDF
FOR ABALONE Haliotis Tuberculata Coccinea (REEVE) (PDFDrive) PDF
INDEX
Index I
Acknowledgements IV
List of figures VIII
List of tables X
Abbreviations XII
Abstract XIV
1. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1. Abalone in the world 1
1.2. Abalone in Europe 6
1.3. Abalone in the Canary Islands 8
1.4. Factors affecting abalone growth 9
1.4.1. Culture conditions related parameters 10
1.4.1.1. Initial size 10
1.4.1.2. Stocking density 10
1.4.1.3. Water flow 11
1.4.2. Physico-chemical parameters 12
1.4.2.1. Temperature 12
1.4.2.2. Light 13
1.4.2.3. Water quality 14
1.4.3. Grow-out culture systems 15
1.4.3.1. Land-based systems 15
1.4.3.2. Sea-based system 17
1.5. Abalone feeding and nutrition 19
1.5.1. General aspects 19
1.5.2. Abalone feeding practices 20
1.5.3. Abalone nutritional requirements 23
I
Index
2. OBJECTIVES 46
3. MATERIALS AND METHODS 48
3.1. Location and general facilities 48
3.2. Abalone production 50
3.2.1. Brood-stock conditioning and selection 50
3.2.2. Spawning induction 50
3.2.3. Fertilization 51
3.2.4. Larval culture 52
3.2.5. Larval setlement 52
3.2.6. Post-larval and juvenile culture 53
3.3. Algal culture 54 B
3.3.1. Macroalgae species 54
3.3.2. Culture system (IMTA) 62
3.4. Artificial diets 64
3.4.1. Diet formulation 64
3.4.2. Diet preparation 64
3.4.3. Diet water stability 65
3.5. Experimental design 66
3.5.1. Land-based experimental set-up 68
3.5.2. Sea-based grow-out system 69
3.6. Biological parameters evaluation 72
3.6.1. Shell growth rate 72
3.6.2. Specific growth rate 72
3.6.3. Weight gain 72
3.6.4. Feed conversion ratio 73
3.6.5. Protein efficiency ratio 73
II
Index
4. STUDY I 79
5. STUDY II 90
7. STUDY IV 133
8. CONCLUSIONS 150
III
A mis padres, Víctor e Inma,
siempre a mi lado.
Acknowledgement
AGRADECIMIENTOS
Esta tesis llega después de veinte años de trabajo en la acuicultura, en los que mi afán ha
sido aprender, avanzar, contribuir, compartir, ganarme la vida y divertirme. Parte de todo ello es
lo que se presenta ahora en esta tesis, resultado no sólo de un esfuerzo personal, sino también de
la contribución de otras muchas personas, que de una u otra manera me han acompañado en el
camino y a las que me gustaría agradecer.
Al Dr. Hipólito Fernández-Palacios, mi co-direc y también alma mater del GIA. Porque
desde que le conocí contando huevos en aquella nave vieja (¡qué iba a estar haciendo si no!),
nunca ha dejado de estar ahí cuando hace falta, porque no hay asunto de acuicultura que le
preguntes que él no sepa, porque ir con él de congreso es comida rica y diversión asegurada,
porque por muy parquito que sea, es imposible no quererle. Muchas gracias D. Pipo y ¡Viva
España!.
Al Dr. José Vergara, que allá por el 93 me dirigió la Tesis de Máster sobre un tema
novedoso por aquel entonces, piscicultura en jaulas flotantes, que tantas oportunidades
profesionales me ha dado.
A la Dra. Carmen Mª Hernández Cruz, que siempre ha estado a mi lado. Una mujer
trabajadora, eficiente, práctica y mejor persona. No olvido nuestra estancia en Creta; ni tantos
viajes en los que siempre ha sido un placer estar con ella.
IV
Acknowledgement
me enseñe sus nuevas fotos a la vuelta de cada viaje…porque sólo un canario de corazón como
él, puede mostranos lo mejor de nuestras Islas.
Al siempre sonriente Dr. Juan Socorro, con el que empecé en el GIA aprendiendo
histología por las tardes, aunque se riera de mí porque a veces no encotraba las larvas...
Al Dr. Ricardo Haroun, por empezar la línea de trabajo de cultivos integrados - abalón,
sentando las bases para la realización de esta tesis y por su amabilidad, siempre.
Al Dr. Juan Luis Gómez-Pinchetti y su equipo del Centro de Biotecnología Marina, por
su inestimable colaboración en los primeros trabajos de esta tesis, y demás proyectos y tesinas
en los que le hemos ido embarcando, por cedernos la Gracilaria que tan buenos resultados nos
ha dado, y por estar siempre dispuesto a echar una mano en lo que esté de su parte.
A la Dra. Lidia Robaina, por su valiosa ayuda en la formulación de las dietas, por su
compañerismo y buenos consejos a lo largo de tantos años.
Al Dr. Javier Roo, porque juntos hicimos posible que donde había un solar polvoriento
terminara habiendo peces. ¡Cuánto aprendimos en Creta trabajando como locos!, yo a base de
yogur griego, tú de mis tartas de manzana y ambos de nuestros giros pitas. Porque durante
cuatro años de duro trabajo compartido, no hubo más que armonía, compañerismo y buen
entendimiento. Nunca olvidaré la ilusión con la que nos regodeábamos en aquel primer lote de
peces producidos en Canarias, ¡y era el nuestro!, alevines superstar les llamaron en el periódico,
y para nosotros, ¡vaya si lo eran!. Estoy muy orgullosa (que no sorprendida) de lo que has
logrado en el Mesocosmos y ¡lo que queda!, porque alguien de tu brillantez y tesón, no tiene
límites.
A D. Antonio Valencia, que tanto me enseñó de cultivo larvario de peces y al que llevo
en el corazón.
Al resto de los senior del GIA, Dra. Lucía Molina, Dra. María José Caballero, Dr. Juan
Manuel Afonso, Dr. Rafael Ginés, Dra. María Jesús Zamorano. Es un auténtico privilegio
contar con un equipo tan preparado y siempre generoso en compartir conocimiento, y lo que
haga falta.
Mi más sincero agradecimiento a las otras “chicas haliotis”, Amaia, Bea y Desi. Su
trabajo, entusiasmo y entrega, han contribuído de forma muy especial a que los distintos
proyectos y por tanto la línea de investigación del abalón, hayan salido adelante.
V
Acknowledgement
A todo el equipo de técnicos de la nave de cultivos con los que he compartido almuerzo
y búsqueda de cintillos todos estos años (Ada, Manolo, Rubén, Desiré, Damián....), y en
especial a mi querida Moneiba, con la tanto me reí trabajando en el Mesocosmos.
Son muchos los doctorandos, hoy doctores, con los que he tenido el placer de compartir,
viajar y aprender durante estos años en el ICCM, María, Martín, Leire, Agustín, Pedro, Gloria,
Domi, Valeria, Tibi, Silvia, Mónica, Alex, Rachid, Eyad, Fran, Juan Estefanell…, gracias a
ellos ir a Taliarte ha sido siempre mucho más que trabajo. Quiero agradecer especialmente a mi
peruana del alma, Tatiana Kalinowski, que siempre está cuando la necesito.
A mis amigos y amigas, los de siempre, y los que la vida nunca deja de ponerte en el
camino: las niñas del cole, los de la facultad, la Expo, las Lindas de francés, Cáritas, las
cocinitas…Ellos hacen que la vida sea mucho más completa y divertida.
A mis tíos y primos del alma, tantos, y tan distintos, por su cariño y apoyo, porque están
ahí desde el principio y no soy capaz de imaginar una infancia y una vida sin ellos.
A mis queridos hermanos, Víctor y Panchi, con ellos comparto lo mejor que hay en mí y
también el amor por el mar, ¡Arguineguín nos marcó!. Y a mis sobris lindos, Víctor y Eduardo,
que siempre me reciben con el mejor de los abrazos.
VI
Acknowledgement
Gercende, sin duda alguna, tú has sido la persona más importante en esta maravillosa
aventura del desarrollo del cultivo de abalón, en la que juntas, hemos trabajado mucho y nos
hemos divertido aún más. Cuando pienso en esas madrugadas de desoves con luna llena, los
muestreos y zafarranchos; la emoción con la que miramos las placas llenas de semillitas; esas
horas de discusión y trabajo para solicitar nuevos proyectos (y la alegría cuando los
conseguímos); las jornadas de reuniones con tantos socios distintos; la preparación de tantos
informes y congresos; esos viajes, bailes, charlas y tantas y tantas risas….no puedo dejar de
pensar que en ocasiones la vida te da buenas oportunidades, y creo sinceramente que a nosotras
nos la dio al reunirnos. Gracias por todo y mucho más. ¡Dame una R., dame una U, dame
una…..RUBIA!!!.
Esta tesis está dedicada a mis padres. A mi madre, que tanto nos amó, por su lucha
inquebrantable por permanecer a nuestro lado, por transmitirme ese inmenso amor a la familia,
al placer de reunir a los amigos a la mesa y demostrarles el cariño a través de algo rico y
¡dintinto!, por ser una madre-madre, que me sigue acompañando en el camino. A mi padre, un
ejemplo de superación, de estudio, de amor por su profesión. Él me inculcó el “ímpetu juvenil”
necesario para llevar el trabajo adelante, porque “la vida es milicia”, y “el no, ya lo tenemos del
lado de acá”. Porque no puedo pensar en sus preciosas manos de cirujano sin emocionarme,
porque cuando desde que naces, te aman, te protegen y te miman de la manera que él lo hizo
con nosotros, nada te puede ir mal en la vida.
VII
List of figures
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Newly settled, juvenile and adult abalone (H. tuberculata coccinea).
Figure 2. Abalone culinary products, pearl shell and handicraft.
Figure 3. Amas abalone divers (Japan).
Figure 4. Evolution of global abalone production from legal fisheries and aquaculture
during last decade (source FAO, 2012).
Figure 5. Distribution of H.tuberculata tuberculata and H. tuberculata coccinea
(Geiger, 2000).
Figure 6. PVC tiles used as shelters in donkey´s ear (A) and Canarian abalone (B)
culture.
Figure 7. Several on-shore systems for the culture of H. rufescens (A; Chile), H. discus
hannai (B; Korea), H. asinina (C; Thailand) and H. tuberculata (D; Ireland).
Figure 8. (A) Long-line culture of red abalone H. rufescens in Chile. (B) Represents a
six-tiered basket traditionally used for H. discus hannai farming in south China.
Figure 9. Sea-floor culture of European ormer in Jersey Islands (UK).
Figure 10. Cage culture of abalone H. tuberculata in Brittany (France).
Figure 11. Juvenile abalone (H. tuberculata coccinea) grazing on green algae.
Figure 12. Harvested Macrocystis pyrifera and Palmaria palmata to feed red abalone
(A; Chile) and European ormer (B; Brittany).
Figure 13. Fish-seaweed-abalone integrated culture system.
Figure 14. Top view of the Canary Islands and location of the GIA marine culture
facilities.
Figure 15. Brood-stock conditioning (A); larval rearing facilities (B); abalone nursery B
(C); diatoms production zone (D); grow out zone (E); feeding trials area (F) and
outdoor macroalgae culture systems (G, H).
Figure 16. Female (A) and male (B) H. tuberculata coccinea in stage 2-3 of the gonad
index.
Figure 17. Gametes expulsion from females (A) and males (B). B
Figure 18. Eggs are rinse to remove excess sperm.
Figure 19. Hatching out trochophore larvae equipped with cilia (A), third tubule
appearance on cephalic tentacles (B) (Courtois de ViÇose et al., 2007).
Figure 20. Vertical settlement plates.
A
VIII
List of figures
Figure 21. Diatoms species fed to the abalone post- larvae: Proschkinia sp. (A),
Navicula incerta (B), Amphora sp. (C) and Nitzschia sp. (D) (Courtois de ViÇose et al.,
2012b).
Figure 22. Fishponds and semi-circular tanks for the cultivation of macroalgae (CBM-
ULPGC).
Figure 23. Diagram of the IMTA (ICCM-ULPGC).
Figure 24. Biofilter produced macroalgae and drying equipment.
Figure 25. Details of diets preparation: ingredients, processing and drying procedure.
Figure 26. Final product: vegetable-based experimental diets.
Figura 27a. Selection of experimental animals: Abalone sampling.
Figure 27b. Abalone distribution among experimental triplicates.
Figure 28. Feeding experimental abalones with macroalgae: Studies I and II (A), Study
III (B) and Study IV (C); or with artificial diets: Study IV (D).
Figure 29. Experimental set-up for the culture of juvenile abalones (Studies I and II).
Figure 30. Rearing system employed for the culture of 30 - 45 mm abalones (Study III).
Figure 31. CANEXMAR cages and location.
Figure 32. Details of the experimental abalone cages and shelters.
Figure 33. Scheme of the sea-based experimental set-up. A: aerial view of the fish farm
installation. B: detail of the ORTACS set-up.
Figure 34. ORTACS installation.
Figure 35. Underwater experimental devices next to fish cages.
Figure 36. Drying the diets leftover.
Figure 37. Condition index evaluation: abalone dissection and weighing.
Figure 38. Offshore grow-out system: (a) experimental abalone cages, (b) shelter, (c)
underwater experimental installation next to fish cages.
Figure 39. Linear growth in shell length (mm) and weight (g) of abalone H. tuberculata
coccinea initially measuring 30 (Trial I) and 40 mm (Trial II), fed with enriched mixed
diet of G. cornea and U. rigida at high and low stocking densities for 27 wks.
IX
List of tables
LIST OF TABLES
X
List of tables
Table 23. Proximate and aminoacid composition of seaweed meals used in experimental
feeds for abalone H. tuberculata coccinea (%DW)
Table 24. Ingredients of the three experimental diets for abalone H. tuberculata
coccinea (DW basis)
Table 25. Proximate analysis of the fresh algae or experimental diets containing
different algal species (%DW)
Table 26. Fatty acid composition (% total fatty acids) of the fresh algae or experimental
diets containing different algal species*
Table 27. Survival and growth performance of abalone H. tuberculata coccinea fed for
6 months algae (fresh algae) or experimental diets containing different algal species *
(Mean ± S.D.)
Table 28. Consumption, feed efficiency and condition index of abalone H. tuberculata
coccinea fed for 6 months algae (fresh algae) or experimental diets containing different
algal species* (Mean ± S.D.)
Table 29. Proximate composition of viscera and muscle of Haliotis tuberculata
coccinea fed for 6 months algae (fresh algae) or experimental diets containing different
algal species*(g/100 g DW) (Mean ± S.D.) (Values in the same column with different
letters are significantly different. P< 0.05)
Table 30. Fatty acid composition (% total fatty acids) of the abalone tissues of Haliotis
tuberculata coccinea fed for 6 months fresh algae or experimental diets containing
different algal species*
Table 31. Proximate composition and caloric content of the macroalgal diets (g/100 g
DW) (Mean ± S.D.) fed to abalone along the experimental trials
Table 32. Survival and growth performance of abalone H. tuberculata coccinea, initially
measuring 30 mm (Trial I) and 40 mm (Trial II), fed with enriched G. cornea and U.
rigida at high and low stocking densities for 27 weeks
Table 33. Two-Way ANOVA analysis of variance for growth (size and weight) for the
27 wks grow-out culture period under the experimental densities
Table 34. Consumption and feed efficiency of abalone H. tuberculata coccinea. initially
measuring 30 mm (Trial I) and 40 mm (Trial II), fed with G. cornea and U. rigida at
different stocking densities (high and low) for 27 weeks
XI
Abbreviationss
ABBREVIATIONS
XII
Abbreviationss
XIII
Abstract
ABSTRACT
The overall aim of this thesis was “to develop grow-out technology for the local
abalone species, Haliotis tuberculata coccinea“, considered a new candidate for
Canarian aquaculture diversification. More specifically, algal and artificial diets
suitability, growth and survival, as well as various factors affecting the on-growing
success, were addressed through the performance of four different studies. Besides, this
general objective was undertaken through an environmental approach so as to maximize
the sustainability of the abalone production methods to be developed.
On the other hand, it was found that the rearing system employed to produce
macroalgae markedly affected their proximate composition, specifically protein content,
which was increased by 100-163% in algae reared in fishpond wastewater effluents
compared with those in fresh seawater. Furthermore, biofilter produced macroalgae
were discovered to greatly enhance abalone growth, revealing a strong potential to be
considered for future abalone culture. In addition, animals fed the mixed diets
performed significantly better than those fed a single algal diet, indicating that abalone
obtain a complete range of required nutrients by eating a mixed algal regime, and that
essential nutrients may become limiting when animal are fed single-species diets. Thus,
the dietary value of the macroalgal regimes tested can be divided into three categories:
best obtained with the mixed algal feeding regime, intermediate by using single Ulva
rigida or Hypnea spinella feeding regimes and the lowest by Gracilaria cornea.
Overall, the fatty acid profiles of the algae studied were characteristic of green and red
XIV
Abstract
algae, palmitic acid being the most abundant SFA, the Chlorophyta Ulva rigida
showing predominat levels of C16 and C18 PUFAs and minimal levels of C20 fatty acids.
DHA was very low in all algae tested, hence this fatty acid do not appear to be essential
in H. t. coccinea, as all macroalgae tested supported optimal growth of this abalone
species.
Finally, the effect of stocking density on growth and survival of two different
size groups of Canarian abalone, as well as the potential of sea-based abalone farming
during the final grow-out culture phase were assessed. The results of this study revealed
that lower stocking density was the best suited to sustain abalone growth in both distinct
initial size groups of abalones, that exhibited an increase in feeding behaviour and feed
utilisation efficacy probably linked to a lower competition for space or food. Thus,
present results suggest stocking density of 100 abalone m-2 for 30-45 mm abalone, and
XV
Abstract
of 30 abalone m-2 for 45 mm abalone onwards. Besides, the offshore mariculture system
as well as the biofilter produced macroalgae, were found to be suitable to sustain high
growth and survival of H. tuberculata coccinea that overall could reach
cocktail/commercial size of 45-60 mm in only 18-22 months.
XVI
Introduction
INTRODUCTION
Introduction
1. INTRODUCTION
Abalones are marine one-shelled gastropods that belong to the family Haliotidae
of the phylum Mollusca (Barkai and Griffiths, 1986) (Table 1; Fig.1). There are 56
currently described species, all belonging to the genus Haliotis, of world-wide
distribution in tropical to temperate waters (Geiger, 2000). They are usually found
between the intertidal and the littoral zone (Hone and Fleming, 1998), reaching their
maximum population density between 3–10 m where seaweeds, their natural food, grow
abundantly. All are benthic occurring on hard substrata of granite and limestone (Joll,
1996); however, newly settled abalone prefer to live on encrusting coralline algae (Hone
et al., 1997; Roberts, 2001), whereas juveniles (≥ 10 mm in size) and adults, graze
chiefly on attached or drifting algal material (Shepherd, 1973; Hanh et al., 1989;
Shepherd and Steinberg, 1992). Abalones are gonochoristic and broadcast spawners,
with males and females synchronously liberating their gametes in the water column for
reproduction (Stephenson, 1924; Crofts, 1929). Mature males and females can easily be
recognized by the differences in gonad colour (Bardach et al., 1972). Abalone species
that occur in temperate regions are bigger (20-30 cm) than those found in the tropics (6-
10 cm) (Hanh et al., 1989; Jarayabhand and Paphavasit, 1996).
1
Introduction
Figure 1. Newly settled, juvenile and adult abalone (H. tuberculata coccinea).
Abalone have traditionally been a highly prized delicacies worldwide, its flesh
being used for food whereas its shell, which has an iridescent interior, often is used for
implements, trade material and decoration (Howorth, 1988; Fig. 2).
Despite the fact that the major world abalone consumers have traditionally been
Japan and China (early Japanese references to abalone divers date back to 30 A.D.; Fig.
3), abalone fisheries have also been the basis of social and economic development for
further coastal human settlements in several countries like United States of America,
Mexico, New Zealand, France, Australia or South Africa (Leighton, 1989; Guzmán del
Proó, 1992; Schiel, 1992; Mercer et al., 1993; Freeman, 2001; Troell et al., 2006), with
local communities depending heavily upon this resource.
2
Introduction
The study of abalone biology and ecology started long ago (Stephenson, 1924;
Bonnot, 1930; Crofts, 1932), and has been further and intensively investigated in the
last 35 years as a result of the development of commercial fisheries and exponential
development of abalone aquaculture in the last two decades. Indeed, overexploitation,
illegal harvesting, disease, habitat degradation and inadequate enforcement policies,
have gradually decreased legal landings from abalone fisheries from almost 20.000 tons
(t) in the 1970s to less than 9.000t in 2008 (Cook and Gordon, 2010). As a consequence,
fisheries alone could gradually no longer meet the market demand for abalone and the
share of aquaculture production rapidly increased to cover the needs. In fact, although
abalone farming had begun in the 1950´s and early 1960´s in Japan and China (Elbert
and Houk, 1984; Leighton, 2000), the rapid development of abalone culture took place
in the 1990s, and is actually widespread in many countries worldwide. The major reason
behind this rapid increase is the lucrative market value for their large adductor muscle
or foot (Elliott, 2000), this increase being possible by the development of production
practices, especially for juvenile stages (Daume et al., 2004; Roberts et al., 2004).
Specifically, the global culture of abalone species has grown markedly in the
last decade, with production increased by more than 21 times (Fig. 4). In 2010, world
abalone production was 65.525t, valued about 451 million €, in contrast, only 8.656t
came from the fisheries sector which means that, approximately, 88% of the total
abalone legally consumed came from aquaculture (FAO, 2012).
3
Introduction
Figure 4. Evolution of global abalone production from legal fisheries and aquaculture during
last decade (source FAO, 2012).
4
Introduction
Regarding production countries, China is the largest world producer with a total
production of 56.511t in 2010 (FAO, 2012). The main cultured species is the preferred
and high valuable Pacific ezo abalone (H. discus hannai) (Wu et al., 2009), which
covers more than 95% of the total production. Small and lower value abalone H.
diversicolor, which was the most important culture species 10 years ago, is now only
culture in the subtropical and tropical China (Ke et al., 2012).
In Korea, production has grown to be the second one in the world, with over
5.000 abalone farmers engaged in from juvenile to grown up (Park and Kim, 2013).
Despite commercial abalone farming started just in the early 2000s, the development of
new aquaculture methods using sea cages, has dramatically increased the production
from 29t in 2001 to 6.228t in 2010 (FAO, 2012).
South Africa is the largest abalone (H. midae) producer outside Asia, with
production coming from both farmed and wild abalone. Current annual production is
close to 3.000t with aquaculture contributing 1.200t, legal fishery production 150t and
illegal fishery production estimated to be of the order of 1.500t (Britz, 2012).
Despite abalone are not Chilean native species, commercial abalone farming (H.
rufescens and H. discus hannai) has emerged during the 1990s mainly for exportation to
Asiatic countries, reaching a production of almost 800t (99% of H. rufescens) in 2010
(FAO, 2012).
Over 50% of the world´s wild caught abalone harvest comes from Australia,
where there is also a growing farming sector which produced 456t (H. rubra, H.
laevigata and hybrids) in 2010 (FAO, 2012).
Also, there are small industries in United States of America (250t), Taiwan
(171t) and New Zealand (80t, H. iris), that contribute to the world abalone production
(FAO, 2012).
Most of the market demand for abalone is in Asia, mainly in Japan (live, fresh
and frozen abalone), and Mainland China (canned product), whereas there are also well
established markets in Mexico, USA and Europe (Oakes and Ponte, 1996; Robertson-
Anderson, 2003). In addition, abalone shells are also sold for decoration purposes
(Gordon and Cook, 2001). As a result, most commercial cultivation of abalone species
is in Asia and abalone aquaculture and fishery harvests from other parts of the globe are
to a large extent intended for these markets. However, the combination of the highest
5
Introduction
world supply during the past few years together with a huge increase in the availability
of illegal product as well as the world financial crisis, have led to an overall reduction of
abalone prices (Qi et al., 2010). Therefore, abalone producers are commanded to
improve profitability, through the use of more efficiency cultures systems, international
quality certification and both product and customers diversifications (Cook and Gordon,
2010).
Only one species of abalone is present in Europe, the commonly known as the
Ormer, Haliotis tuberculata Linneaus, 1758 (Mgaya, 1995), with three sub-species
being initially described based on morphological characteristics: H. tuberculata
tuberculata Linneaus, 1758, in the Eastern Atlantic coast and the Mediterranean Sea and
both H. tuberculata coccinea Reeve, 1846, and the recently described H. tuberculata
fernandesi Owen and Afonso, 2012, mainly found in the Macaronesian Region (Clavier,
1992; Geiger, 2000; Geiger and Owen, 2012; Fig. 5).
6
Introduction
it occurs in sizeable densities and has been a traditional fishery products commanding
very high prices (Mgaya and Mercer, 1994).
Decreasing natural stocks and increasing value for the flesh, have led to an
interest in mariculture of this species since the late 1970s, with culture techniques
mostly developed in the Channel Islands (Bossy, 1989, 1990; Hayashi, 1982; Hjul,
1991), France (Koike, 1978; Koike et al., 1979; Flassch and Aveline, 1984) and Ireland
(Mercer, 1981; LaTouche and Moylan 1984; La Touche et al., 1993; Mercer et al.,
1993; Mgaya and Mercer 1994, 1995; Mai et al., 1995a,b, 1996), where both European
ormer and Pacific abalone were introduced during the late 1970ʼs and mid 1980ʼs
respectively (Leighton, 2008).
7
Introduction
has recently been started in Galicia, with an expecting production of 115 t in 2017
(GMA, 2014).
The exceptional climate conditions and high quality of the Canary Island
coastal waters makes this Spanish region to have very good perspectives for aquaculture
expansion. Nevertheless, local commercial aquaculture is limited to a reduced number
of marine fish species such as gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata), European sea bass
(Dicentrachus labrax) and small amount of Senegalese sole (Solea senegalensis)
(APROMAR, 2012). Hence, species diversification being a challenge for further local
aquaculture development.
This abalone species has been locally exploited during decades, leading to an
overexploitation of its stocks, which are actually almost depleted (Pérez and Moreno,
1991; Espino and Herrera, 2002). Consequently, there is public interest in developing
the culture techniques of this species to both, supply the local market and to contribute
to the recovery of wild populations. Moreover, the potential of this species for
aquaculture production, relies also on the external growing demand for small “cocktail
size abalone“ (4-7 cm shell length) (Jarayabhand and Paphavasit, 1996; Najmudeen and
Victor, 2004), as well as on the high degree of development achieved in some other
species of the family Haliotidae, in particular of the currently produced European ormer
Haliotis tuberculata tuberculata L., with close biological characteristics.
8
Introduction
However, little published data exist on the optimum conditions for juveniles
and adults production in the Canary Islands (Toledo et al., 2000). Thus, in order to
develop a grow-out technology adapted to this species, it is necessary to investigate in
the areas of nutrition and feeding, culture system and rearing conditions suitable for
abalone culture. Besides, since this culture frequently requires large quantities of wild
harvested macroalgae, not locally available, and alternative to this feed income should
be evaluated. Furthermore, work should also underway to develop production methods
which ensure the sustainability of this industry fitting into the strongly growing EU eco-
sector for shellfish products as well as the Abalone Aquaculture Dialogue standards
(WWF, 2010).
Abalone growth is generally low and variable (Day and Fleming, 1992; Britz
1996a; Sales and Britz, 2001), with typical growth rates of approximately 2-3 cm/year
and therefore, 2-5 years are required to produce a market-size abalone (Hahn, 1989;
Troell et al., 2006; Qi et al., 2010). Consequently, a proper grow-out techniques and the
resulting growth and survival of cultured abalone, are critical factors to maximize
economic success and production.
9
Introduction
Stocking size has been regarded as a major factor affecting abalone grow-out
(Flemming and Hone, 1996; Wu et al., 2009), showing significant differences in growth
and survival among juvenile groups of different initial body sizes (Mgaya and Mercer,
1995; Nie et al., 1996; Leaf et al., 2007). These variations may be a result of genetic
differences related to body size (Sun et al., 1993; Wu et al., 2009), protein requirements
(Shipton and Britz, 2001), dietary protein and energy utilization (Britz and Hecht, 1997;
Shipton and Britz 2001; Green et al., 2011) or grazing efficiency and capability of the
radula (Jonhston et al., 2005).
Land-based abalone farming is highly capital intensive, and so the efficient use
of infrastructure is critical to profitability. Consequently, abalone farmers wish to use
high stocking densities in an attempt to maximize production. However, this factor
markedly affects abalone growth and survival, being determinant for growing abalone to
market size.
The negative effect of increasing stocking density on abalone growth seems to
be strongly associated with these grazing gastropods density-dependent competition for
10
Introduction
space and/or food, as it has been shown for most of commercial abalone species
worldwide: H. tuberculata (Koike et al., 1979; Cochard, 1980; Mgaya and Mercer,
1995); H. cracherodii (Douros, 1987); H. discus hannai (Jee et al., 1988; Wu et al.,
2009; Wu and Zhang, 2013); H. rubra (Huchette et al., 2003a, b); H. asinina (Capinpin
et al., 1999; Fermin and Buen, 2002; Jarayabhand et al., 2010); Haliotis diversicolor
supertexta (Liu and Chen, 1999); H. rufescens (McCormick et al., 1992; Aviles and
Shepeherd, 1996, Valdés-Urriolagoitia, 2000); H. midae (Tarr, 1995); H. corrugata
(Badillo et al., 2007); H. kamtschatkana (Lloyd and Bates, 2008) and for H. iris (Heath
and Moss, 2009), in different culture systems.
11
Introduction
of high stocking density, helping farms to maximize financial returns (Wassnig et al.,
2010).
Besides, Tissot (1992) reported that suitable water velocities need to be provided
to induce sufficient mantle cavity circulation to allow optimal performance of abalone
species. However, in shallow raceway tanks (such as the so-called ‘slab’ tank), which
are common in commercial abalone farms (Hutchinson and Vandepeer, 2004; Wassnig
et al., 2010), high water flowing could also have a negative effect by causing increased
nutrient leaching from food pellets (Fleming et al., 1997; Marchetti et al., 1999) and by
washing feed downstream (Fleming et al., 1997). Thus, water velocity should also be
considered not to exceed a critical limit.
In a flow through systems, the cost associated with the maintenance of the
mentioned high water exchange rate (mainly pumping costs) accounts for between 15%
to 30% of the operational budgets (Neori et al., 2000; Badillo et al., 2007). Thus, in
order to not only reduce the production cost but the effluents nutrients loads to the
environments, several recirculating, serial-use raceways and also co-culture (seaweed-
abalone) recirculation systems, have been developed and even stated as suitable
commercial grow-out systems for several abalone species such as H. tuberculata
(Mgaya and Mercer, 1995; Schuenhoff et al., 2003), H. discus hannai (Nie et al., 1996;
Park et al., 2008; Demetropoulos and Langdon, 2004), H. rufescens and Haliotis
sorenseni, (Demetropoulos and Langdon, 2004), H. corrugata (Badillo et al., 2007), H.
asinina (Jarayabhand et al., 2010), H. midae (Naylor et al., 2011) or H. iris (Tait,
2012).
1.4.2.1. Temperature
12
Introduction
et al., 1981; Hahn, 1989; Peck, 1989; Britz et al., 1997; Gilroy and Edwards, 1998;
Hoshikawa et al., 1998; Lopez et al., 1998; Steinarsson and Imsland, 2003; Alcántara
and Noro, 2006; García-Esquivel et al., 2007); survival (Hahn, 1989), stress
susceptibility (Lee et al., 2001; Haldane, 2002; Malham et al., 2003), and the
development of temperature-based farm-management protocols (Vandepeer, 2006), and
is thus integral to the development of economically viable technology for abalone
culture.
Each abalone species has a preferred temperature range, but generally temperate
species can be found in water temperatures ranging from 8-18ºC, with subtropical
species found in ranges of 14-26ºC and tropical species located in temperatures around
16-30ºC. Gilroy and Edwards (1998) stated that in general, abalone have a conservative
thermal response and little tendency to adapt to chronically altered thermal
environments, hence rearing temperature should be as close to the preferred one as
possible.
1.4.2.2. Light
Despite abalone habitat and behaviour may vary widely between species
(Shepherd, 1975), they are generally more active at night, light clearly influencing their
distribution and activities (Cochard, 1980; Huchette et al., 2003b; Morikawa and
Norman, 2003), hence their feeding behaviour (Tahil and Juinio-Menes, 1999).
Consequently, shading and refuges are useful management tools and either needed for
optimal growth (Maguire et al., 1996; Fig. 6). Moreover, providing shading and refuges
during higher stocking densities can lead to improved growth rates by both, increasing
the “preferred surface area” thus reducing abalone stacking, and limiting the impact of
photoperiod on the regulation of the feeding activity (Hindrum et al., 1999; Huchette et
al., 2003b). However, shading and refuges may also present several disadvantages,
including increase of labour cost for feeding and maintenance or reduction of good
water circulation (Maguire et al., 1996).
13
Introduction
Figure 6. PVC tiles used as shelters in donkey´s ear (A) and Canarian abalone (B) culture.
14
Introduction
Onshore on-growing systems can include large deep concrete tanks, specialized
plastic tanks or outdoor ponds (McShane, 1988; Freeman, 2001; Alcántara and Noro,
2006; Fig. 7). However, since tank design influence both feed and behavior (Fleming
and Hone, 1996), these different systems vary considerably in effectiveness.
Over the past few years, a major objective of production techniques research has
focused on developing a tank system suitable for manufactured diets, which has become
in very shallow high flow rate tanks, which ensures that wastes can be easily flushed
from the system (Wassnig et al., 2010). Production in such a system is estimated at 1
t/tank/year (Morrison and Smith, 2000).
15
Introduction
Figure 7. Several on-shore systems for the culture of H. rufescens (A; Chile), H. discus hannai
(B; Korea), H. asinina (C; Thailand) and H. tuberculata (D; Ireland).
16
Introduction
In offshore farms, wave motion and tidal currents drive water exchange within
the offshore structures thus, growth might be affected by prevailing weather conditions
(Nagler et al., 2003). The advantages of sea-based abalone farming include potential
improvement of rearing conditions, minimal start-up and operational costs and easy
access for feeding, managing and harvesting (Jarayabhand and Paphavasist, 1996;
Leighton, 1989; Capinpin et al., 1999; Wu et al., 2009). Whereas drawbacks involved
high labour cost in keeping meshed areas clean, lack of control over environmental
conditions, lack of suitable conditions for spat grow-out and security issues (Hindrum et
al., 1996; Preece and Mladenov, 1999; Wu and Zhang, 2010, 2013).
In sea-based production systems, structures that afford shelter for abalone are
suspended below the water surface from long-line systems, floating docks or placed on
the sea-floor (Aviles and Shepherd, 1996; Capinpin et al., 1999; Fermin and Buen,
2002; Wu et al., 2009; Fig. 8-10). A variety of these offshore structures: barrels, PVC
tubes, net cages or plastic multitier baskets, have been tested for different abalone
species like H. rufescens (Benson et al., 1986); H. fulgens (Gonzáles-Avilés and
Shepherd, 1996); H. asinina, (Capinipin et al., 1999, Minh et al., 2010); H. iris (Preece
and Mladenov, 1999), H. diversicolor (Alcántara and Noro, 2006; Wu et al., 2009), H.
tuberculata (Bossy 1989, 1990; Hensey 1991, 1993; La Touche et al., 1993; Legg et
al., 2012) or hybrid abalone (H. rubra x H. laevigata, Mulvaney et al., 2012), showing
that abalone growth rate varies greatly as a result of the containment structure used for
grow-out.
Figure 8. (A) Long-line culture of red abalone H. rufescens in Chile. (B) Represents a six-tiered
basket traditionally used for H. discus hannai farming in south China.
17
Introduction
However, the rapid expansion of rearing facilities in inner coastal bays has led to
the overcrowding of floating rafts, which reduces water flow, thereby affecting the
growth and survival of abalone (Fleming et al., 1997; Searcy-Bernal and Gorrostieta-
Hurtado, 2007; Wassnig et al., 2010). The development of floating cages submerged in
offshore waters has made cage culture possible for finfish (e.g., salmonids) in Europe
and Canada (Korsoen et al., 2009) and large yellow croaker Pseudosciaena crocea in
China (Lu et al., 2008). This culture technique combines high yield, easy husbandry and
low labour and energy costs (Mortensen et al., 2007). Thus, some novel submerge cages
have recently been tested in China, showing an overall better growth performance of
abalone H. discus hannai than the one attained in traditional suspended multi-tier
baskets (Wu and Zhang, 2013).
In general, sea-based culture technology has become the most popular grow-out
mode worldwide, because of its lower cost compared to the traditional land-based
farming, better quality products and higher sustainability in the long term (Ke et al.,
2012; Park and Kim, 2013; Legg et al., 2012).
18
Introduction
The proper nutrition and the resulting growth of cultured abalone are critical
factors in the successful culture of this animal. Thus, as a first step in this thesis, an
extensive review of existing knowledge and ongoing research in Haliotids production
worldwide, mainly focused on their nutritional requirements and feeding practices, was
carried out.
19
Introduction
Figure 11. Juvenile abalone (H. tuberculata coccinea) grazing on green algae.
The natural feeding patterns of abalone change during different stages of their
life cycle (de Waal et al., 2003). This is attributed not only to the increased mouth size
(Fleming et al., 1996), but also to morphological changes of the radula as the abalone
grows (Steneck and Watling, 1982; Kawamura et al., 2001; Daume and Ryan, 2004;
Simental et al., 2004; Johnston et al., 2005). Changes in diet could also be due to
transformations in the gut micro-organisms, such as bacteria and enzymes within the
digestive system of abalone as they grow and thus enabling them to digest macroalgae
(Erasmus et al., 1997; Tanaka et al., 2003).
Abalone can consume seaweed at a rate close to 35% of its body weight per day
(Tahil and Juinio-Menez, 1999), hence sustaining of growth requires a large amount of
fresh macroalgae (Fig. 12). However, the limited availability of suitable seaweed, and
the low protein content of the harvestable ones, are major impediments for intensive
cultivation of this mollusk worldwide (Hahn, 1989). Moreover, macroalgae nutritional
quality and abundance varies greatly according to geographic location and time of
sampling (Dawczynski et al., 2007; Courtois de Viçose et al., 2012a), greatly affecting
20
Introduction
growth rates and making it difficult to optimize feeding for abalone growers (Bautista-
Teruel and Millamena, 1999).
Owing to the relatively low and variable growth of abalone fed on macroalgae
(Britz, 1996a; Cook, 1991; Bautista-Teruel and Millamena, 1999; Tan and Mai 2001;
Moriyama and Kawauchi, 2004), and the logistical and supply problems associated with
the use of fresh seaweed, intensive abalone culture has become increasingly reliant upon
artificial feeds (Britz 1996a, b; Sales and Britz, 2001), which are formulated so as to
fulfill the nutritional requirements of each abalone species.
Feed options for abalone are also influenced by the choice of culture technique
with seaweed use generally better suited to offshore systems, whilst artificial feeds may
be more appropriate in land based operations (Kinkerdale et al., 2010; Qi et al., 2010).
In consequence, both seaweed and artificial dietary sources have their place and should
be considered on a site specific basis (Dlaza, 2006). Besides, feeding strategies and
recommended practices should be based upon not only nutritional factors but economic
success.
In commercial abalone farming, animals are generally fed 2-3 times per week or
every 2 days (Maguire et al., 1996).
Figure 12. Harvested Macrocystis pyrifera and Palmaria palmata to feed red abalone (A;
Chile) and European ormer (B; Brittany).
In the case of the Canary Islands, seaweed resources are less abundant than in
some other nutrient rich coastal areas and hence not harvested. Therefore, to replace
wild seaweed as a main diet component, the development of local abalone culture
industry, should be reliant on the use of cultured macroalgae and/or formulated feeds.
21
Introduction
Table 2. Suitable wild and cultured macroalgae as food for different abalone species (Numbers indicate references which are listed below)
Abalone species
Macraolgae H.
H. H. H. H. H. H. H. H. H. H. H. H.
discus
asinina roei midae corrugata rufescesn sorenseni laevigata rubra fulgens diversicolor iris tuberculata
hannai
Red macroalgae
Asparagopsis armata 1
Gelidium spp. 2
Gracilaria spp. 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Gracilariopsis spp. 10
Jeannerettia lobata 11
Palmaria spp. 12 13 14 15
Brown macroalgae
Ecklonia maxima 16
Egregia menziesii 17
Eisenia spp 18
Laminaria spp. 19 20 21
Macrocistys pyrifera 22 23 24 25
Phyllospora comosa 26
Undaria pinnatifida 27
Green macroalgae
Ulva spp 28 29 30 31 32
1. Shepherd and Cannon,1988.; 2. Troell et al., 2006 ; 3. Jackson et al.,2001 (G. edulis); 4. Sales and Britz, 2001 (G. gracilis); 5. Pang et al., 2006 (G. textorii); 6. Mcbride et al., 2001
(G. conferta); 7. Liao et al., 2003 (G. tenuistipitata); 8. Allen et al., 2006; 9. Neori et al., 1998; Mcbride et al., 2001(G. conferta); 10. Capinpin and Corre, 1996 (G. heteroclada);
Reyes and Fermin, 2003 (G. bailinae);11. Fleming, 1995; 12. Mercer et al., 1993 (P. palmata); Demetropoulos and Langdon, 2004 (P. mollis); 13& 14. Demetropoulos and Langdon,
2004 (P. mollis); 15. Mercer et al., 1993 (P. palmata); 16. Naidoo et al., 2006; 17. Nelson et al., 2002; 18. Uki et al., 1985a; 19. Troell et al., 2006 (L. pallida); 20. Qi et al., 2010 (L.
japonica); 21. Mercer et al., 1993 (L. digitata); 22. Badillo et al., 2007; 23 and 24. Serviere-Zaragoza et al., 2001; 25. Allen et al., 2006; 26. Vandepeer and van Barneveld 2003; 27.
Sakata et al., 1984; 28. Boarder and Shpigel, 2001 (U. rigida); 29. Naidoo et al., 2006; 30. Shuenhoff et al., 2003; 31 and 32. Mcbride et al., 2001 (U. lactuca)
22
Introduction
The nutritional value of abalone food rations depends on many factors including
nutrient composition and bioavailability (Middlen and Redding, 1998; Serviere-
Zaragoza et al., 2001; Nelson et al., 2002; Bautista-Teruel et al., 2003); digestibility
(Sales and Britz 2001, 2002; Gomez-Montes et al., 2003); processing techniques (Booth
et al,. 2002; Sales and Britz, 2002); diet particle size (Southgate and Partridge, 1998);
feed pellet size and presentation (Fleming et al., 1996; Kinkerdale et al., 2010); the
presence of attractants (Fleming et al., 1996; Sales and Janssens, 2004); or texture and
palatability (Kautsky et al., 2001). Therefore, feed quality is based upon several linked
factors. Hence, no one factor should be considered alone.
Among the different nutrients, abalone requires adequate levels of high quality
protein for soft tissue growth (Uki et al., 1985a; Mai et al., 1995a, b; Britz and Hecht,
1997; Bautista-Teruel and Millamena, 1999; Gómez-Montes et al., 2003; Reyes and
Fermín, 2003; Viana et al., 2007). This essential but expensive dietary component must
be optimally utilized by the abalone for growth rather than for energy. The main factors
affecting dietary protein utilisation are its digestibility and the balance and availability
of its amino acids, energy supplied being also considered important (Fleming et al.,
1996).
23
Introduction
Table 3. Proximate composition (% dry matter) and caloric content of artificial diets
tested for abalone
References
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Crude protein 30 31 35 38 32 40 35 35 28 35 27 36 38 35 44
Carbohydrate 48 33 39 40 44 42 48 45 43
Ash 3 11 8 9 6 16
Moisture 5 10 6
P:e ratio* 47 85 96
1. Uki et al., 1985b (Japan: H. discus hannai); 2. Mai et al., 1995b (Ireland: H. tuberculata and H. discus
hannai); 3. Viana et al., 1993 (México: H. fulgens); 4. Guzmán and Viana, 1998 (Mexico: H. fulgens); 5.
Bautista-Teruel and Millamena, 1999 (Philippines: H.asinina); 6. Jackson et al., 2001 (Australia: H.
asinina); 7. Serviere-Zaragoza et al., 2001 (Mexico: H. fulgens); 8. Shipton and Britz, 2001(South Africa:
H. midae); 9. Bautista-Teruel et al., 2003 (Philippines: H. asinina); 10. Gómez-Montes et al., 2003
(Mexico: H. fulgens); 11. Reyes and Fermín, 2003 (Philippines: H. asinina); 12. Sales et al., 2003 (South
Africa: H. midae); 13. Thongrod et al., 2003 (Thailand: H. asinina); 14. Naidoo et al., 2006 (South Africa:
H. midae); 15. Hernández et al., 2009 (Chile: H. rufescens). * Protein: energy ratio
The most common protein sources employed in abalone feeds includes fishmeal,
defatted soybean meal (Guzmán and Viana, 1998; Sales and Britz, 2002; Gómez-
Montes et al., 2003; Thongrod et al., 2003; Naidoo et al., 2006; García-Esquivel et al.,
2007), casein (Uki et al., 1985b; Viana et al., 1993; Mai et al., 1995b; Sales et al., 2003;
Vandepeer and van Barneveld, 2003) and Spirulina spp. (Uki et al., 1985b; Britz et al.,
1996a, Bautista-Teruel et al., 2003; Thongrod et al., 2003; Naidoo et al., 2006;Troell et
al., 2006). Few novel protein sources have also been tested at low inclusion proportions
(Table 4). To get advantage of the high nutritional value of algae, algal meals have been
occasionally included in abalone feeds (García-Esquivel et al., 2007; Viana et al., 2007).
Fish or abalone viscera silage have been also proposed as economic protein sources
24
Introduction
(Viana et al., 1996; Guzmán and Viana, 1998). Besides, different protein sources may
be balanced by addition of synthetic amino acids such as methionine, threonine and
arginine in order to fulfil the essential amino acid requirements of these species (Mai et
al., 1995b; Guzmán and Viana, 1998; Serviere-Zaragoza et al., 2001; García-Esquivel et
al., 2007).
Among all the sources tested as a single protein source, fishmeal is the only one
that supports good growth performance (Fleming et al., 1996). However, concern over
the sustainability of fishmeal use in aquaculture has led the World Wildlife Fund to
place restrictions of its use in the new standards for sustainable abalone farming (WWF,
2010). For abalone fed diets containing fishmeal the standards require that it should not
take more than one kilogram of fish to produce a kilogram of abalone i.e. Forage-Fish-
Efficiency-Ratio (FFER) of 1 or lower. Moreover, abalone output in Europe is
substantially focused on organic or eco-certified products, implying that no fishmeal,
pharmaceuticals or fertilizers are used. Hence, developing a non-including fishmeal
artificial feed for abalone, would have marketing benefits not only for consumers, who
are increasingly environmentally sensitive, but also for producers, who could validate
the environmental and social sustainability of their farming operations (WWF, 2010).
25
Introduction
Table 4. Nutritional composition (% dry matter) of artificial diets tested for abalone: Protein sources and inclusion levels
Nutrient Diet
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Protein source and content
Fish meal 47 41-71 44 9-62 40 7-17 30 12-48 20
Soy bean meal 60 10 17 20 10 19-37 10
Casein 32 8-41 32
Shrimp meal 7-20
Silage 20
Spirulina spp. 43 15-30
Cotton seed meal 2 5
Sunflower meal 24-48 5
Torula yeast 57 24-40
Vegetable meal 52
Corn meal 47 10 10 15
Kelp meal 12 10 12
Soya oil cake 63
Egg albumin 37
Whole egg 34
1. Uki et al., 1985b (Japan: H. discus hannai) ; 2. Mai et al., 1995b (Ireland : H. tuberculata and H. discus hannai); 3. Britz et al, 1996a (South Africa: H. midae); 4.
Britz et al, 1996b (South Africa: H. midae); 5. Fleming et al,, 1996 (review); 6. Britz and Hecht, 1997(South Africa: H. midae); 7. Guzmán and Viana, 1998 (México:
H. fulgens); 8. Bautista-Teruel and Millamena, 1999 (Philippines: H. asinina); 9. Serviere-Zaragoza et al., 2001 (México: H. fulgens); 10. Shipton and Britz,
2001(South Africa: H. midae); 11. Sales and Britz, 2002 (South Africa: H. midae)
26
Introduction
Table 4. Continued.
Diet
Nutrient
12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Spirulina spp. 20 20 10 10
Soy bean protein isolate 9-17 5
Lupin meal 10
Seaweed **
12. Bautista-Teruel et al., 2003 (Philippines: H. asinina); 13. Gómez-Montes et al., 2003 (Mexico: H. fulgens); 14. Reyes and Fermín, 2003 (Philippines: H. asinina);
15. Sales et al., 2003 (South Africa: H. midae); 16. Thongrod et al., 2003 (Thailand: H. asinina); 17. Vandepeer et al., 2003 (Australia: H. rubra and H. laevigata); 18.
Naidoo et al., 2006 (South Africa: H. midae); 19. Troell et al, 2006 (South Africa: H. midae); 20. García-Esquivel et al, 2007 (Mexico: H. fulgens); 21. Viana et al,
2007 (Mexico: H. fulgens); 22. Hernández et al., 2009 (Chile: H. rufescens); 23. Green et al., 2011 (South Africa: H. midae)
27
Introduction
1.5.3.3. Lipid sources, optimal inclusion levels and essential fatty acids
Lipids are an important dietary constituent not only because of their high energy
value and source of essential fatty acids, that are necessary for cellular metabolism and
maintenance of the membrane structure (Corraze, 2001), but also because they contain
fat-soluble vitamins (Fleming et al., 1996). Moreover, lipids (especially long-chain
PUFA) are an important nutrient determining the flavour and odour of seafoods.
Therefore, several investigations have been conducted to evaluate the response of
abalone to various levels of dietary lipid (Uki et al., 1985a; 1986; Mai et al., 1995a;
Bautista-Teruel et al., 2011); whether abalone lipid requirement are met using fish oil in
artificial diets (Dunstan et al, 1996); the effect of protein-energy ratio on growth rate,
nutritional indices and body composition (Britz and Hecht, 1997; Bautista-Teruel and
Millamena, 1999; Gómez-Montes et al., 2003; Green et al., 2011); the role of lipid in
growth and gonadal maturation (Nelson et al., 2002), the tissues fatty acids composition
(Dunstan et al., 1996; Grubert et al., 2004; Li et al., 2002; Durazo and Viana, 2013;
Hernández et al., 2013) or the effect of lipid to carbohydrate ratio and energy content in
abalone diets (Thongrod et al., 2003).
Abalone species show a low lipid requirement, typical of herbivores molluscs
and fish (Mai et al., 1995a). This low lipid requirement has been associated by some
authors (Durazo-Beltrán et al., 2004) with a low use of dietary lipids as energy source
by abalone based upon its low metabolic rate. Furthermore, high levels of dietary lipid
(> 7%) seem to affect negatively abalone growth and reduce the uptake of other
nutrients in abalone diets as it has been shown for several species including H. laevigata
(Van Barneveld et al., 1998); H. tuberculata and H. discus hannai (Mai et al.,1995a); H.
midae (Britz and Hecht, 1997; Green et al., 2011), H. fulgens (Durazo-Beltran et al.,
2003, 2004); H. asinina (Thongrod et al., 2003) or H. corrugata (Montano-Vargas et
al., 2005).
Despite a wide range of total lipid content have been tested in abalone
formulated diets worldwide (2-19% DW; Table 5), in most cases the total lipid
comprised 3-5% of the diet (Uki et al., 1985a).
28
Introduction
Britz, 1996a,b; Bautista-Teruel and Millamena, 1999; Shipton and Britz, 2001;
Bautista-Teruel et al., 2003; Gómez-Montes et al., 2003; Reyes and Fermín, 2003)
(Table 5). The lipid bound in fishmeal contributes to the total lipid content and in some
diets is the sole supply. To ensure that oils used do not become rancid, vitamin E, a
natural antioxidant, is commonly added to the lipids (Uki et al., 1985a, b).
A number of studies have found that the composition of fatty acids in the tissues
of macroalgal feeders, such as abalone, is very different to that of carnivorous and
plankton-feeders. Such differences between species have been attributed to the different
lipid composition of their respective diets (Dunstan et al., 1996; Grubert et al., 2004).
Uki et al. (1985a) estimated the requirement for n-3 PUFA to be about 1% of
diet containing 5% lipid (reviewed by Uki and Watanabe, 1992) which represents 20%
of the lipid.
In regards to abalone flesh, the lipid content is low and made up of the fatty
acids: palmitic acid (16:0), stearic acid (18:0), oleic acid (18:1n9), vaccenic acid
(18:1n7), arachidonic acid (20:4n6), eicosapentaenoic acid (20:5n3) and
docosapentaenoic acid (22:5n3) (Dunstan et al., 1999; Nelson et al., 2002).
29
Introduction
Table 5. Nutritional composition (% dry matter) of artificial diets tested for abalone: Lipid sources and inclusion levels
Diet
Nutrient
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Lipid source and content
Total lipid 1.2-5 0.6-12 5 and 8 6-8 6 4-5 3-4 1.5-5 3 6-7 5 1-19 5.3 0-10
1. Uki et al., 1985a, b (Japan : H. discus hannai); 2. Mai et al., 1995a (Ireland : H. tuberculata and H. discus hannai); 3. Britz, 1996a, b (South Africa: H. midae); 4. Guzmán
and Viana, 1998 (México: H.fulgens); 5. Bautista-Teruel and Millamena, 1999 (Philippines: H.asinina); 6. Shipton and Britz, 2001(South Africa:H. midae); 7. Sales and Britz,
2002 (South Africa:H. midae); 8. Viana et al, 2002 (Review); 9. Bautista-Teruel et al., 2003 (Philippines: H.asinina); 10. Gómez-Montes et al., 2003 (México: H.fulgens); 11.
Reyes and Fermín., 2003 (Philippines: H.asinina); 12. Thongrod et al., 2003 (Thailand: H. asinina); 13. Naidoo et al., 2006 (South Africa: H. midae); 14. Bautista-Teruel et
al., 2011 (Philippines: H. asinina)
30
Introduction
Cheap cereal sources, such as wheat and corn flour, soybean meal, maize or rice
starch are frequently used as an energy source. Starches play a major role as both an
energy source and binder in many commercial and tested feeds (Table 6).
Despite the ability of abalone to utilise a wide variety of energy sources, being a
mollusc, the metabolic rate of abalone is low and therefore energy need are low. Caloric
content (gross energy) of the diets is generally around 4 Kcal g-1 (Table 3).
Aquatic animal feeds differ from conventional livestock feeds in that they
require a matrix in which the dietary nutrients are held. An additional requirement of the
feed by a slow feeder, such as abalone, is that water-soluble nutrient remain in the feed
and the food particles remain bound together so that pellets stay intact for at least two
days in water. Undoubtedly, artificial diets and macroalgae are very different in their
physical properties, such as texture and water stability. These properties affect feeding,
digestion, absorption, and subsequently growth of abalone. Thus, water stability is a
significant factor, being responsible for the different performances of aquatic animals
between feeding artificial diet and fresh one (Mai et al., 1995a). Therefore, achieving
this is crucial to the development of a successful feed for abalone (Fleming et al, 1996;
Hernández et al., 2009). The average stability of commercial abalone feeds is about 2-3
days (Fleming et al., 1996). Diets can lose approximately 30-40% of the dry matter
content after being immersed for 48 hours (Maguire, 1996; Bautista- Teruel et al.,
2003).
Abalone have a limited ability to digest fiber, despite the presence of cellulases
in the gut. Some artificial diets contain fiber for binding purposes with the level as high
31
Introduction
as 6% of the dry weight (Fleming et al., 1996; Guzmán and Viana, 1998; Serviere-
Zaragoza et al., 2001; Naidoo et al., 2006).
32
Introduction
Table 6. Nutritional composition (% dry matter) of artificial diets tested for abalone: Energy / binder sources and content
Nutrient Diet
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Seaweed * 7 9 5 7
Sodium alginate 18 4
Agar 20
Gelatin 5 6 6 5-6 6
Total carbohydrate 47 40-50 33-47 47 46-50 28-82 42-44 21-49 31-48 39-47 43
Cellulose 5 4 5 2
1. Mai et al., 1995a (Ireland: H. tuberculata and H. discus hannai); 2. Fleming et al., 1996 (review) ; 3. Guzmán and Viana, 1998 (México: H.fulgens); 4. Bautista-Teruel
and Millamena, 1999 (Philippines: H.asinina); 5. Serviere-Zaragoza et al., 2001(México: H.fulgens); 6. Shipton and Britz, 2001(South Africa: H. midae); 7. Sales et al., 2003
(South Africa: H. midae); 8. Bautista-Teruel et al., 2003 (Philippines: H.asinina); 9. Gómez-Montes et al., 2003 (México: H.fulgens); 10. Thongrod et al., 2003 (Thailand: H.
asinina); 11. Reyes and Fermín., 2003 (Philippines: H. asinina); 12. Durazo-Beltrán et al., 2004 (México: H. fulgens); 13. Naidoo et al., 2006 (South Africa: H. midae); 14.
García-Esquivel et al., 2007 (México: H.fulgens)
33
Introduction
Most diet formulated since Uki´s experiments have copied these values (Table
8).
Cellulose 45
34
Introduction
Table 8. Nutritional composition (% dry matter) of artificial diets tested for abalone. Ingredient with secondary nutritional contribution
Nutrient Diet
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Alpha-Tocopherol 0.01
Vitamin E 0.1
Dicalcium phosphate 3 3
Bentonite 15
1. Uki et al., 1985a,b (Japan: H. discus hannai); 2. Mai et al., 1995a (Ireland: H. tuberculata and H. discus hannai); 3. Britz et al., 1997 (South Africa: H. midae); 4. Guzmán and Viana, 1998
(México: H. fulgens); 5. Bautista-Teruel et al., 1999 (Philippines: H. asinina); 6. Serviere-Zaragoza et al., 2001(México: H. fulgens); 7. Reyes and Fermín, 2003 (Philippines: H. asinina); 8.
Sales et al., 2003 (South Africa: H. midae); 9. Thongrod et al., 2003 (Thailand: H. asinina); 10. Vandepeer et al., 2003 (Australia: H. rubra and H. laevigata); 11. Naidoo et al., 2006 (South
Africa: H. midae); 12. García-Esquivel et al., 2007(México: H. fulgens); 13. Viana et al., 2007 (México: H. fulgens)
35
Introduction
36
Introduction
Table 9. Summary of various nutritional studies regarding abalone growth performance during the last three decades of abalone culture development
37
Introduction
38
Introduction
39
Introduction
40
Introduction
FI= Feed intake expressed by % BW day-1 (Jackson, 2001) or mg abalone day-1 (Fleming, 1995); SGR = Specific growth rate; FCR=Food conversion ratio
expressed; FCE= Feed conversion efficiency (%); PER = Protein efficiency ratio; DGSL= daily growth rate in shell length, WG=Weight gain; E= gross energy
(Kcalg-1); P/E= protein: energy ratio; WS= Water stability (Guzmán and Viana, 1998; Hernández et al., 2009 (12 h inmersion); Mai, 1995a (48 h inmersion);
41
Introduction
Rising global demand for seafood and declining catches have resulted in the
volume of mariculture doubling each decade, a growth expected to persist in the
decades to come (FAO, 2012). Such industry, whether semi-intensive or intensive,
thus release organic materials mainly as unconsumed feed, but also as undigested feed
residues and inorganic nutrient excretions (Msuya et al., 2006). Ammonium and
suspended solids are known to be the most significant polluting components of
aquaculture effluents (Tovar et al., 2000). If released directly to the sea, the organic
and nutrient loads cause eutrophication of the marine environment, which affects the
naturally growing marine organisms. In addition, a mariculture operation itself can be
affected by upstream impact of environmental degradation (Neori et al., 2004).
42
Introduction
The choice of seaweed species for inclusion in an IMTA must first depend
upon meeting a number of basic criteria: high growth rate and tissue nitrogen
concentration; easy of cultivation and control of life cycle; resistance to epiphytes and
disease-causing organisms; and a match between the ecophysiological characteristics
and the growth environment. In addition, given the ecological damage that may result
from the introduction of nonnative organism, the seaweed should be a local species.
Beyond these basic criteria, the seaweed intended application (yield or
bioremediation) should also be taken into account, the optimal system including
seaweed with both applications (Neori et al., 2004). Besides, the market value of the
harvested biomass should be also considered (Buschmann et al., 1996).
Thus, the seaweed genera most common in mariculture biofiltration are Ulva:
U. lactuca (Cohen and Neori, 1991; Neori et al., 1991, 2000, 2003; Shpigel et al.,
1993; Schuenhoff et al., 2003; Vandermeulen and Gordin, 1990, Naidoo et al., 2006;
43
Introduction
The by-production of high quality seaweeds in the biofilters calls for the co-
culture of other high-valued marine macroalgivores, such as abalone. Already in the
1970s, Tenore (1976) published his pioneer study on the seaweed-abalone integrated
culture (Fig. 13). This was followed by the integrated abalone - Ulva and Gracilaria
systems developed in Israel (Shpigel et al., 1993, 1996a, b, 1999 ; Shpigel and Neori,
1996; Neori et al., 1998, 2000), of abalone and green algae in Japan (Sakai and Hirata,
2000), and of Palmaria – abalone in the USA (Evans and Langdon, 2000). All those
studies reported that abalone efficiently grow-out when fed with biofilter produced
macroalgae, probably related to its high protein content due to its production under
44
Introduction
the high nitrogen culture conditions of the IMTA system (Neori et al., 1998; Shpigel
et al., 1999; Boarder and Shigel, 2001; Naidoo et al., 2006; Robertson-Andersson et
al., 2011).
45
Development of a Sustainable Grow-out Technology for Abalone
Haliotis tuberculata coccinea (Reeve) as a New Species for
Aquaculture Diversification in the Canary Islands
OBJECTIVES
Objectives
2. OBJECTIVES
The overall aim of this thesis was “to develop grow-out technology for the
local abalone species, Haliotis tuberculata coccinea“, considered a new candidate
for Canarian aquaculture diversification. More specifically, algal and artificial diets
suitability, growth and survival, as well as various factors affecting the on-growing
success, were addressed in this thesis. Besides, this general objective was undertaken
through an environmental approach so as to maximize the sustainability of the
abalone production methods to be developed.
This study aims to evaluate the suitability of three red macroalgae species
from genus reported to induce growth in other abalone species, as a potential feed for
the grow-out culture of juvenile Canarian abalone. Since the biomass of locally
harvested macroalgae is insufficient to sustain the commercial production of abalone,
experimental macroalgae were reared in an Integrated Multi-Trophic Culture System
(IMTA). This objective was addressed to identify suitable algal diets to promote high
growth and survival for this abalone species, and to investigate the dietary value of
the biofilter produced seaweeds. A two month feeding trial was conducted to achieve
this objective.
This study aims to evaluate the effect of several non-enriched versus farm-
grown green and red monoespecific and mixed macroalgae diets on the growth of
juvenile Canarian abalone. This objective was addressed in order to, not only find a
suitable feed to grow the animals, but to further evaluate the advantages of co-
culturing macroalgae alongside H. tuberculata coccinea in integrated aquaculture
46
Objectives
systems, that will allow the sustainability of the future abalone production while
improving abalone growth performance. A three month feeding trial was conducted to
achieve this objective.
This study aims to describe the effect of stocking density, one of the key
important factors for growing abalone to market size, on growth and survival of two
different size groups of Canarian abalone. This objective was addressed in order to
identify certain culture conditions that improve abalone growth performance and
evaluate the potential of sea-based abalone farming during the final grow-out culture
phase. A six month offshore feeding experiment was performed to achieve this
objective.
47
Material and Methods
The studies were carried out at the culture facilities of the Aquaculture
Research Group (GIA- ULPGC) in the Canarian Institute of Marine Sciences (ICCM),
located in Melenara, Telde, province of Las Palmas (Canary Islands, Spain), with a
geographic situation of 27º59’31’’N and 15º22’31’’W (Fig. 14).
Figure 14. Top view of the Canary Islands and location of the GIA marine culture facilities.
Both, ICCM abalone facilities and studies have been financed and developed
in the frame of several Canarian (PI 2007/034), Spanish (JACUMAR Oreja de mar,
2005/07; JACUMAR Multitrófico, TR 2003/08) and European projects
(SUDEVAB: FP 7-SME-2007-1/BSG-SME).
48
Material and Methods
Figure 15. Brood-stock conditioning (A); larval rearing facilities (B); abalone nursery (C); B
diatoms production zone (D); grow out zone (E); feeding trials area (F) and outdoor
macroalgae culture systems (G, H).
49
Material and Methods
Figure 16. Female (A) and male (B) H. tuberculata coccinea in stage 2-3 of the gonad index.
Mature males and females, with a male to female ratio of 1:2, were induced to
spawn, separately by sex, into spawning containers filled with 1-µm cartridge filtered
and UV sterilized seawater. Gametes from different sex were obtained separately in
order to control the ratio of gametes employed during fertilization (Fig. 17). During
50
Material and Methods
spawning induction the containers were left in the dark. Two spawning induction
methods were employed to carry out these studies, the hydrogen peroxide one (Morse
et al., 1977) and the ultraviolet spawning induction method (Kikuchi and Uki, 1974).
Figure 17. Gametes expulsion from females (A) and males (B). B
3.2.3. Fertilization
Once the gametes were obtained, the released oocytes, which are negatively
buoyant, were siphoned fromA the spawning containers and passed through a 300 µm
mesh screen to retain faeces or other debris. The oocytes were collected in 10-l
containers and fertilized with a final sperm concentration of 105/ml during 30
minutes. After that, eggs were rinsed with fresh seawater to remove excess sperm and
fertilization rates were determined by recording the proportion of eggs showing
dividing cells 1 h after fertilization under the dissecting microscope (Mod. SL
260004, Optech, Duisburg, Germany) (Fig. 18). Fertilized eggs, were transferred to
the larval rearing tanks (Fig 15-B).
51
Material and Methods
Larval stages begins at the trocophore stage and is completed with the
formation of the fourth tubule on the cephalic tentacles, although larvae are
considered ready for settlement when the third tubule appears and larvae start to
explore the surface (Fig. 19).
Figure 19. Hatching out trochophore larvae equipped with cilia (A), third tubule appearance
on cephalic tentacles (B) (Courtois de ViÇose et al., 2007).
52
Material and Methods
To induce the larval settlement, various substrates were used to colonize the
settlement plates: crustose coralline algae, benthic diatoms biofilms and spores of the
green algae Ulvella lens.
Figure 21. Diatoms species fed to the abalone post- larvae: Proschkinia sp. (A), Navicula
incerta (B), Amphora sp. (C) and Nitzschia sp. (D) (Courtois de ViÇose et al., 2012b).
53
Material and Methods
Animals maintained this diets for 4-5 months, when juvenile abalone were
gradually switched to the green macroalgae Ulva rigida (Study I); Ulva rigida,
Hypnea spinella and Gracilaria cornea (Study II); or Ulva rigida and Gracilaria
cornea (Study III and IV), prior to the beginning of the feeding trials.
Four fresh macroalgae species were used throughout the different abalone
feeding trials, the Rodophyta species: Gracilaria cornea J. Agardh, Hypnea spinella
(C. Agardh) Kützing and Hypnea musciformis (Wulfen) J.V. Lamoroux; and the
Chlorophyta Ulva rigida J. Agardh. Besides, the Rodophyta Palmaria palmata (L.)
Weber and Mohr, the Phaeophyta Laminaria digitata (Hudson) Lamoroux and the
Chlorophyta Ulva lactuca Linnaeus, were tested as ingredients in artificial diets
(Study III).
The most important characteristics of this species are shown in the following
Tables 10-16.
54
Material and Methods
55
Material and Methods
Habitat Common on calm intertidal and shallow subtidal reef flats, tidepools
and on rocky intertidal benches. Frequently epiphytic on reef algae
such as Sargassum echinocarpum and Acanthophora spicifera. In
bloom stage, may be found free-floating.
56
Material and Methods
Uses and compounds Considerable economic importance as a source of food for both
humans and shellfish (abalone), playing a major role in the
production of agar and other hydrocolloids.
57
Material and Methods
Geographical In Atlantic Europe from Portugal to the Balitc coasts, coasts of Iceland
distribution and the Faroe Islands. Shores of Arctic Russia, Arctic Canada, Atlantic
Canada, Alaska, Japan and Korea .
Uses and Food: additive, ground whole tissue; cosmetics; wellness and folk medicine;
compounds Biological, medical and pharmacological activity (antihelminthic). Animal
production (feed). Mineral supplement.
58
Material and Methods
Reproduction Can be fertile throughout the year but highest in spring – April,
May onwards into summer, and lowest in Winter. Reproductive
tissue (sorus) appears as raised and darkened patches found on the
blades. Mature sorus, ready to release zoospores, is well raised from
the blade and several shades darker brown.
Geographical North west Atlantic from Greenland south to Cape Cod and in the
distribution north east Atlantic from northern Russia and Iceland south
to France. It is common round the coasts of the British Isles except
for much of the east coast of England.
Uses and Fertiliser; extraction of alginic acid; cosmetic; food industry and
compounds human and animal nutrition.
59
Material and Methods
60
Material and Methods
Morphological Thin flat alga growing from a discoid holdfast. The margin is
characteristics somewhat ruffled and often torn. It may reach 18 centimetres
(7.1 in) or more in length, though generally much less, and up
to 30 centimetres (12 in) across. The membrane is two cells
thick, soft and translucent, and grows attached, without astipe,
to rocks or other algae by a small disc-shaped holdfast. Green
to dark green in color, this species in the Chlorophyta is formed
of two layers of cells irregularly arranged, as seen in cross
section. The chloroplast is cup-shaped with 1 to 3 pyrenoids.
61
Material and Methods
Except with the non enriched treatments (Study II), all experimental fresh
macroalgae were grown in a flow-through fish-seaweed integrated culture system.
In Studies I and II, algae were cultured at the Centro de Biotecnología Marina
(CBM-ULPGC, Gran Canaria, Spain) IMTA. Effluents were channelled from the
fishponds (Fig. 22-A) to a 11 m3 sedimentation pond for the removal of suspended
particles and then, pumped at a flow rate of 10 m3 h-1 to the seaweed tanks located in
a greenhouse, where maximum irradiance was approximately of 1600 µmol photons
m-2 s-1. Semi-circular fiberglass tanks with a surface of 1.8 m2 and a volume of 0.75
m3 were provided aeration through a bottom-central linear pipeline and were
employed for the cultivation of macroalgae (Fig. 22- B). In Study I, algal stocking
density for G. cornea, H. spinella and H. musciformis was 6 g l-1, whereas in Study
II, algal stocking density were 1, 3 and 4 g l-1 for U. rigida, H. spinella and G. cornea,
respectively. Water exchange rate in the seaweed culture tanks was 4 vol day-1 and
TAN (total ammonia nitrogen) inflow into the biofilter ranged between 10 and 400
µM.
Figure 22. Fishponds and semi-circular tanks for the cultivation of macroalgae (CBM-
ULPGC).
Regarding Studies III and IV, U. rigida and G. cornea were grown in the
Grupo de Investigación en Acuicultura (GIA, Canary Islands, Spain) aquaculture
research facility, in a flow-through integrated system collecting wastewater from fish
and abalone ponds in a macroalgal biofilter (Fig. 23). Effluents were channelled from
62
Material and Methods
Each algal type was grown in triplicates with fortnightly seaweed harvests.
Prior to feed the experimental animals, freshly collected algae were blotted dry (AEG
SV 4528, Germany; Fig. 24) and accurately weighed (KERN EW 1500-2M, Balingen,
Germany).
63
Material and Methods
Prior to diets preparation, seaweeds meals (U. lactuca (U), G. cornea (G), L.
digitata (L) and P. palmata (P)), and the rest of vegetable ingredients were analyzed
for proximate composition in GIA laboratories. Macroalgae ingredients were also
analyzed for aminoacid profile in LDG (Laboratorio de Diagnóstico General,
Barcelona, España).
Based on the results, three diets (UG, UGL and UGP) were formulated to
contain 35% protein, 4% lipid content and around of 4kcal g-1total energy, these
levels being reported as optimal for abalone growth. Vitamin and mineral mixture
were used as recommended by Uki et al. (1885a). All the experimental diets were
supplemented with synthetic L- methionine and lysine essential amino acids in order
to match the amino acid profile of abalone muscle which was used as a guide to
formulate the amino acid composition of the practical diets. Sodium alginate was used
as binder.
64
Material and Methods
Figure 25. Details of diets preparation: ingredients, processing and drying procedure.
Final products were tested for their stability in seawater according to the
method of Hastings et al. (1971). Diet stability was determined at 17-h period (16:00-
9:00h). Percent water stability was computed as:
where B is the final weight of feed and A is the initial weight of feed
65
Material and Methods
To select the experimental animals, individuals were blot dried, weighed to the
nearest 0.1 mg (total wet body weight: TWBW) (KERN EW 1500-2M, Belingen,
Germany) and measured with manual caliper with 0.1 mm accuracy (total shell
length: SL) (Fig. 27a). Abalones were then distributed among replicates so that there
were no significant differences in SL or TWBW, and assigned to the specific
experimental units or cages (Fig. 27b).
66
Material and Methods
Each fresh algal diet was weekly supplied to the experimental abalones
(Studies I-IV) (Fig. 28-A, B, C), whereas the artificial ones (Study III), were offered
once daily from Monday to Saturday (Fig. 28-D). All of them were tested in
triplicates and supplied in excess to guarantee ad libitum feeding throughout the
experiments.
Figure 28. Feeding experimental abalones with macroalgae: Studies I and II (A), Study III
(B) and Study IV (C); or with artificial diets: Study IV (D).
67
Material and Methods
In each trial, to calculate the feed intake, experimental units that contained
food but no abalone were used as controls for changes in algal and/or compound feeds
weight. In the land based trials, abalones were subjected to a natural photoperiod of
approximately 12 h L / 12 h D.
To assess abalone growth, both in length and weight, SL and TFBW of 100%
of the population in each experimental unit were monthly recorded in all the
experiments.
Cages were cleaned on a monthly basis to remove fouling organisms.
In the first set of feeding studies with 11-12 mm juvenile abalones, the
experimental units consisted of a 1 l lidded (plastic net of 2 mm mesh) PVC plastic
container (20 x 14 cm), located in a 100 l cylindrical tank filled with flowing 50 µm
cartridge filtered seawater provided with constant aeration(Fig. 29) . Water flowed in
an approximately 2.4 l/min.
Figure 29. Experimental set-up for the culture of juvenile abalones (Studies I and II).
In Study III, the experimental unit consisted of a plastic bucket (15 x 16cm),
hung in a 100-l rectangular tank (100 x 40 x 25cm) filled with 50 µm filtered seawater
provide with constant aeration (Fig. 30-A, B). Water flowed in an approximately 2.8
l/min. Two PVC shelters were provided in each container.
68
Material and Methods
Figure 30. Rearing system employed for the culture of 30 - 45 mm abalones (Study III).
Specially designed abalone sea cages (ORTACS, Jersey Sea Farms, St.
Martins, Ireland), were composed of a 33 l lidded black PVC meshed container, with
total underside surface area of 0.4 m2 and weighing 1.5 kg. Six black plastic discs
(12.0 cm Ø) were placed inside as shelters (Fig. 32). The total surface area for
attachment was 0.5 m2. The abalone cages were suspended from fish cages (25 m Ø)
mooring ropes and placed, approximately, 10 m below the water surface (Fig. 33-35).
69
Material and Methods
Figure 33. Scheme of the sea-based experimental set-up. A: aerial view of the fish farm
installation. B: detail of the ORTACS set-up.
70
Material and Methods
71
Material and Methods
Shell growth rate per day (μm d-1) was calculated for all treatments at the end
of the trials using the following equation:
(𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺 − 𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺)
𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺 𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈𝒈 𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓 = 𝒙𝒙 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
𝒕𝒕
where SL1 is the initial mean length of animals; SL2 is the animal final mean length at
time t (days of culture).
This parameter indicates the increase in weight gain in relation to the number
of days of feeding period and it is expressed in percentage values:
(𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑾𝑾𝟐𝟐 −𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑾𝑾𝟏𝟏 )
SGR (% 𝒅𝒅−𝟏𝟏 ) = 𝒙𝒙 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
𝒕𝒕
where W2 is the weight at time t (days of culture) and W1 is the initial weight.
(𝒘𝒘𝟐𝟐 − 𝒘𝒘𝟏𝟏 )
𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾 (%) = 𝒙𝒙 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
𝒘𝒘𝟏𝟏
72
Material and Methods
This parameter is based on the weight gain of the abalones in relation to their
protein intake during the trial period. It is calculated as follows:
In Studies I, II and IV, where just macroalgae diets were tested, to determine
feed intake, freshly collected algae to be fed to the abalone were blotted dry and
accurately weighed as well as the remaining algae at the end of the week. The weight
of unconsumed food was deducted from the total weekly ration. Besides, weight of
uneaten algae was corrected by calculating the natural weight variations of the algae
in the control units (without abalones) during the same feeding period.
In Study III, artificial feeds were offered once daily (ad libitum) in the
evening from Monday to Saturday. Any remaining diet was collected every day at
9:00 h except Sunday, by manually siphoning uneaten feed from tanks. Consumption
was estimated on a dry weight basis by relating the dry weight of the uneaten food to
the known dry weight of the feed provided (Fig. 36). Consumption data were
corrected for dry matter weight loss attributable to leaching, by allowing the diets to
leach over a 17-h period (16:00-9:00h) using a “control” rearing unit without abalone,
and drying the remaining diet until constant weight.
73
Material and Methods
At the end of experiments II and III, six and ten abalones respectively were
collected from each experimental unit, and the soft tissue (SB) was shucked from the
shell (S). Shell and meat were then weighed separately in order to calculate the
condition index as an indicator of the abalone nutritional status (Fig 37).
𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺
𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪 =
𝑺𝑺
74
Material and Methods
3.6.8. Survival
Dead abalones were daily recorded and, at the end of the trials, survival was
estimated taking into account daily mortality and final alive animals.
(𝑷𝑷𝒊𝒊 − 𝑷𝑷𝒇𝒇)
% 𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫 = 𝒙𝒙 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
𝑷𝑷𝒊𝒊
75
Material and Methods
𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷 𝒙𝒙 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
% 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 =
𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷
The protein content, calculated from total content of the samples, was
determined by the Kjeldahl method. According to AOAC (2005), the technique
consists in the sulphuric acid (H2SO4) sample digestion at 420ºC in presence of a
copper catalyst for one hour. The end result is an ammonium sulphate solution
((NH4)2SO4). Excess base (NaOH) is added to the digestion product to convert NH4 to
NH3 which is recovered by distilling the reaction product. In the distillation unit
(Mod. Foss Tecator, 1002, Höganäs, Sweden) direct titration is performed, using boric
acid (H3BO3) as the receiving solution, to quantify the amount of ammonia in the
receiving solution. Titration is performed with HCl at 0.1.M. Analysis of a blank was
run in parallel to the samples analysis. In order to calculate the protein content, the
following expression was applied:
(𝑽𝑽𝒔𝒔 −𝑽𝑽𝒃𝒃 ) 𝒙𝒙 𝑵𝑵 𝒙𝒙 𝑷𝑷𝒎𝒎
% Protein = 𝒙𝒙 𝑭𝑭
𝑾𝑾
Where
76
Material and Methods
77
Material and Methods
All statistical analyses were applied using the Statgraphics Plus 5.1
(MANUGISTIES, Rockville, Maryland, USA) software. The data of each experiment,
proximate composition, as well as growth performance, survival or condition indexes
were statistically compared by means of T-Student (Sokal and Rolf, 1995) when two
treatments were established or with analysis of variance (ANOVAs) if the number of
treatments were greater. As general criteria 5% confidence level was applied. If
statistically significant differences with the ANOVA were detected, the differences
among means were detected with Tuckey HSD. Assumption of normality and
homogeneity of variance were assessed with standardized Skewness and Kurtosis and
Barlett´s test. When data did not follow a normal distribution, a non-parametric one-
way ANOVA on ranks of Kruskal-Wallis was applied (Zar, 1984).
78
Development of a Sustainable Grow-out Technology for Abalone Haliotis
tuberculata coccinea (Reeve) as a New Species for Aquaculture
Diversification in the Canary Islands
a
Grupo de Investigación en Acuicultura (GIA), ULPGC and ICCM, P.O. Boz 56. 35200,
Telde, Las Palmas, Gran Canaria, Canary Islands, Spain
b
Grupo de Algología Aplicada. Centro de Biotecnología Marina, Universidad de Las Palmas
de Gran Canaria. Muelle de Taliarte s/n, 35214 Telde, Las Palmas, Canary Islands, Spain
Abstract
A 60-days feeding trial was conducted to assess the suitability of three red algae,
Hypnea spinella, Hypnea musciformis and Gracilaria cornea, as potential feed for the
abalone, Haliotis tuberculata coccinea R. Seaweeds were reared in a biofiltration unit with
fishpond waste water effluents. The three algal species were found to contain high protein
contents which would be related to their production under the high nitrogen conditions of the
biofilter system. Protein and carbohydrates contents were highest in H. musciformis and
lowest in G. cornea. Survival rates of juvenile abalone were very good, regardless of the
algae fed. Feed intake of H. spinella was highest, followed by H. musciformis. Growth rate of
abalone were in range obtained under commercial conditions, final shell length and weight
being significantly highest in animals fed H. spinella and lowest in those fed G. cornea.
Feeding G. cornea lead to the lowest growth performance due to the lowest fee intake,
whereas feed conversion ratios were significantly highest for H. musciformis and protein
efficiency ratios higher for both H. spinella and G. cornea. This study suggested the good
potential of any of three red seaweeds tested- successfully produced by the biofilter system,
their nutritional composition being similar to other macroalgae used as feed for abalone and
matching the abalone protein and lipid requirements- hence promoting growth and survival.
Nevertheless, the biofilter produced macroalgae H. spinella showed the highest dietary value
for juvenile of H. tuberculata coccinea.
Keywords: Haliotis tuberculata coccinea; Macroalgae; Seaweed biofilter; Polyculture; Feeding and
nutrition-molluscs
*
Corresponding autor. Tel + 34 928 132900/04; fax +34 928132908
E-mail address: mapi@iccm.rcanaria.es (M.P. Viera)
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Study I Aquaculture 248 (2005) 75-82
4.1. INTRODUCTION
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Study I Aquaculture 248 (2005) 75-82
increases its protein content from 11% to over 32% in dry weight (Shpigel et al.,
1999; Boarder and Schpigel, 2001). Thus, this biofilter produced Ulva have been
shown to provide good growth rate for H. tuberculata (Neori et al., 1998; Schpigel et
al., 1999), H. discus hannai (Corazani and Illanes, 1998) and H. roei (Boarder and
Schpigel, 2001). Previous experiences in our laboratory have also shown the potential
of using enriched Ulva rigida as a suitable feed for H. tuberculata coccinea (Viera
and co-workers, unpublished data). But in the wild, Canarian abalone seems to have a
higher preference for red algae (Espino and Herrera, 2002) as it has also been shown
for several abalone species such as H. iris and H. australis (Poore, 1972; Shepherd,
1973; Wells and Keesing, 1989; Shepherd and Steinberg, 1992; Fleming, 1995), H.
tuberculata or H. discus hannai (Mai et al., 1995a). Hence, in order to diversify the
offer of macroalgae to cultured abalone in the Canary Islands, this study focused the
evaluation of the suitability of three local red macroalgae cultivated in a biofiltration
unit as a potential feed for the Canarian abalone H. tuberculta coccinea.
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Study I Aquaculture 248 (2005) 75-82
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Study I Aquaculture 248 (2005) 75-82
Besides, weight of uneaten algae was corrected by calculating the natural change in
weight of the algae in the control units during the same feeding period.
The average daily intakes by individual abalones during the entire feeding trial
were calculated by dividing the algal biomass eaten each week by the feeding days
and the number of abalones in each experimental unit.
The following nutritional indices were calculated for all treatments ant the end
of the trial:
Where L1 is the initial mean length of animals, L2 is the final mean length of animals,
Ln W2 is the natural logarithm of weight at time t (days of culture), and Ln W1 is the
natural logarithm of initial weight.
Statistical analysis was conducted using one-way ANOVA and Tukey test for
multiple comparison of means with 5% significance level was applied (P < 0.05).
When data did not have normal distribution, a non- parametric one-way ANOVA on
ranks of Kruskal- Wallis was tested (Zar, 1984).
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Study I Aquaculture 248 (2005) 75-82
4.3. RESULTS
Nutritional composition and caloric content of the three red seaweeds are
shown in Table 17. Protein energy ratios and gross energy were very similar among
the different algae. However, there were significant differences (P < 0.05) among the
proximate composition of the algae fed. Protein content was significantly highest in
H. musciformis, whereas G. cornea showed the lowest. Similarly, H. musciformis
showed the highest carbohydrate content and G. cornea the lowest. The three algal
species were low in lipid content, the highest being also found in H musciformis and
the lowest in H. spinella. The ash content varied inversely to protein and carbohydrate
contents and was highest in G.cornea and lowest in H. musciformis.
Table 17. Proximate composition and caloric content of the three red macroalgae
(g/100 g DW) (mean ± S.D.) fed to abalone along the experimental trial
Algal species
Values in the same row with different letters are significantly different (P ˂0.05) n =3.
* Metabolizable energy was calculated based on the physiological values at 5.6 kcal g_1
protein, 9.5 kcal g_1 lipid and 4.1 kcal g_1 carbohydrates (Cho et al., 1982).
** Gross energy.
*** Calculated by difference (AOAC, 1995).
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Study I Aquaculture 248 (2005) 75-82
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Study I Aquaculture 248 (2005) 75-82
Table 18. Growth, feed utilization and survival of juvenile Canarian abalone (H.
tuberculata coccinea) at the beginning of the experiment and after being fed the
selected macroalgae for 60 days under laboratory conditions
Values in the same row with different letters are significantly different (P ˂0.05) n =40x3.
4.4. DISCUSSION
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Study I Aquaculture 248 (2005) 75-82
red seaweeds (10-47%) (Fleurence, 1999; Wong and Cheung, 2000) and was higher
than the level found in the red seaweed, Palmaria palmata (18.4%), which has been
found to be a good algal diet for H. tuberculata (Mercer et al., 1993; Mai et al.,
1995a). Furthermore, protein content of H. spinella and H. musciformis was higher
than that reported for other species of Hypnea (4.2-19% DW) (Portugal et al., 1983;
Wong and Cheun, 2000). These high levels of protein content observed in the algae of
the present study would be related to its production under the high nitrogen culture
conditions of the biofilter system, as it has been also observed in Ulva spp. cultured as
macroalgal biofilters (Tenore, 1976; Neori, 1996; Shpigel et al., 1996a, b, 1999).
Hence, protein content of the three macroalgae used in the present experiment would
match the protein requirements described for several species of Haliotis such as H.
discus (20%) (Ogino and Kato, 1964), H. discus hannai (20-30%), (Uki et al., 1986),
H. kamtschatkana (30%) (Taylor, 1992) or for H. tuberculata and H. discus hannai
(25-35%) (Mai et al., 1995b), although it would be lower than that required for H.
midae (47%) (Britz, 1996a).
All the algae were low in lipid (2-2.4% DW) but within the range of other
species of red seaweeds (1-3 % DW) reported previously (Mabeau and Fleurence,
1993; Wong and Cheun, 2000). Nevertheless, abalone species show low lipid
requirement, typical of herbivore molluscs and fish (Mai et al., 1995a). This low lipid
requirement has been associated by some authors (Durazo-Beltrán et al., 2004) with
the low used of dietary lipids as energy source by abalone based upon its low
metabolic rate. Indeed, high levels of dietary lipid seem to negatively affect abalone
growth (Thongrod et al., 2003). However, high levels of carbohydrate enhance growth
(Thongrod et al., 2003) of abalone which has various enzymes capable of hydrolysing
complex carbohydrates (Fleming et al., 1996) and a good capacity to synthesize non-
essential lipids from carbohydrates. In the present study, carbohydrate values (28-33%
DW) were high and comparable to those obtained for other algal species (Kaehler and
Kennish, 1996; Foster and Hodgson, 1998).
Ash content of the Hypnea species was higher than that of other species of the
same genus H. charoide (23-35% DW), H. pannosa (15% DW) and H. japonica (19%
DW) (Portugal et al., 1983; Wong and Cheun, 2000). High ash content in algae results
from calcium carbonate, which limit the other nutrient´s presence and reduce nutrient
digestibility (Horn, 1989; Hay et al., 1994).
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Study I Aquaculture 248 (2005) 75-82
It is generally accepted that balanced levels of protein (> 15%), lipid (3-5%)
and carbohydrate (20-30%), with no toxic substances in natural algae, are essential for
optimal growth performance of abalone (Mercer et al, 1993). From this point of view,
the three algae tested appear to be able to match the abalone requirements.
Growth rates of abalone fed dietary treatments in this study were within the
range of 62-127 µm day-1, close to those obtained by other authors in similar species
(50-100 µm day-1; Viana et al., 1996, 2000; Guzmán and Viana, 1998; Gómez-
Montes et al., 2003) under similar experimental conditions and to that obtained under
commercial condition (80 µm day-1; Gómez–Montes et al., 2003). SGR values were
also high (1.5-2.7%) in comparison with those reported by Mai et al. (1996), who
studies the effect of five species of macroalgae (P. palmata, Alaria esculenta, Ulva
lactuca, Laminaria digitata and Laminaria saccharina) and reported SGR values of
1.03–1.31% for H. tuberculata and 0.7–1.25% for H. discus hannai.
Gracilaria species have been reported to promote high growth and survival in
other species of abalone such as H. asinina (Upatham et al., 1998; Bautista- Teruel
and Millamena, 1999; Capinpin et al., 1999; Reyes and Fermin, 2003). In the present
study feeding G. cornea lead to the lowest growth performance due to the lowest feed
intake registered, since feed utilization in terms of FCR and PER was as good as those
of the highest growing abalone fed H. spinella. Indeed, consumption rate in abalone
may be influenced by factors other than the nutritional quality of food, such as its
toughness or presence of antinutritional chemicals (Fleming, 1995). Hence, the harder
texture and ash content of G. cornea may have affected its consumption by H.
tuberculata since, in the wild, abalone prefer soft texture macroalgae (Shepherd and
Steinberg, 1992). This preference seem to be related to the little capacity of the
rhipidoglossan radula to penetrate the algal surface (Steneck and Watling, 1982) as its
teeth have limited ability to exert force against the substrate.
The high FCR of the three treatments agrees well with those reported for H.
discus hannai and H. tuberculata using seaweeds as food (Shpigel et al., 1999) and H.
asinina fed G. fisheri (Kunavongdate et al., 1995). The higher food conversion rate
(FCR) attained for abalone fed H. musciformis in the present study does not seem to
be explained by the general composition of the algae, or by the protein: energy ratio
but to a significantly lower protein efficiency ratio (PER) than the rest of the
treatments, suggesting that differences in response could be attributed to differential
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Study I Aquaculture 248 (2005) 75-82
In conclusion, this study suggested the good potential of using any of the three
red seaweeds tested -successfully produced by the biofilter system, their nutritional
composition being similar to other macroalgae used as feed for abalone and being
able to match the protein and lipid requirements of abalone- hence promoting good
growth and survival. Nevertheless, based on growth performance, food conversión
ratio, protein efficiency ratio and protein: energy ratio, the macroalgae H. spinella
produced by the biofilter showed the highest dietary value for juvenile of H.
tuberculata coccinea.
4.5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
89
Development of a Sustainable Grow-out Technology for Abalone
Haliotis tuberculata coccinea (Reeve) as a New Species for
Aquaculture Diversification in the Canary Islands
a
Grupo de Investigación en Acuicultura, Instituto Canario de Ciencias Marinas &
Universidad de las Palmas de Gran Canaria P. O. Box 56, 35200 Telde, Canary Islands,
Spain
b
Grupo de Algología Aplicada. Centro de Biotecnología Marina, Universidad de Las Palmas
de Gran Canaria. Muelle de Taliarte s/n, 35214 Telde, Las Palmas. Canary Islands. Spain
Abstract
Keywords: Haliotis tuberculata coccinea; macroalgae; seaweed biofilter; polyculture; feeding and
nutrition-molluscs.
*Corresponding author: María del Pino Viera-Toledo
Phone: (34) 928 132900/04 ; Fax: (34) 928 132908
Mail: mapi@iccm.rcanaria.es
Address: P.O. Box 56. Telde, 35200, Gran Canaria, Canary Islands, Spain
90
Study II Aquaculture 319 (2011) 423-429
5.1. INTRODUCTION
Abalone species (Haliotis spp.) are found worldwide and are becoming
important for aquaculture diversification due to their high market price and the over
exploitation of wild stocks. In Europe, abalone industry is currently focussed on the
production of the ormer Haliotis tuberculata Linnaeus (1758). Ireland, the Channel
Islands (Huchette and Clavier 2004) and France are currently the only established
producing countries. A subspecies of ormer, the abalone Haliotis tuberculata
coccinea Reeve (1846), is also considered a good candidate for European aquaculture,
as it is highly appreciated for its delicate taste, reaches a large enough size to be
commercialized and its culture techniques have been successfully developed (Toledo
et al., 2000; Viera et al., 2003, 2005, 2007, 2009a, b; Bilbao et al., 2004, 2010a, b;
Courtois de Viçose et al., 2007, 2009, 2010). A limiting factor for further expansion
of abalone aquaculture is the restricted availability of an economically and
environmentally sustainable feed, as this culture frequently requires large quantities of
wild harvested macroalgae. Such feed would be particularly important in areas where
wild algae are not commercially available (Viera et al, 2005).
Among different nutrients, protein constitutes the most costly component and
is a major determinant of the nutritional value in diets of the abalone (Uki et al.,
1985b; Uki and Watanabe, 1986; Mai et al., 1995b; Britz, 1996a, b; Britz and Hecht,
1997; Shipton and Britz, 2001; Bautista-Teruel et al., 2003; Gómez-Montes et al.,
2003; Reyes and Fermín., 2003; Sales et al., 2003). In an aquaculture integrated
system, nitrogen enriched waste water of intensively cultured organisms, may be
transformed into a valuable algal biomass, seaweeds production being an added
income as feed for shellfish (Evans and Langdon, 2000; Schuenhoff et al., 2003;
Neori et al., 2004). Besides, several studies have shown that the culture of macroalgae
in nutrient-rich waters increases their protein content (Shpigel et al., 1999; Boarder
and Shpigel, 2001; Robertson-Andersson et al, 2006; Viera et al, 2005; Naidoo et al,
2006). Thus, biofilter produced seaweed have been shown to support fast growth rates
for Haliotis tuberculata (Neori et al., 1998; Shpigel et al., 1999), Haliotis discus
hannai (Corazani and Illanes, 1998; Shpigel et al., 1999), H. roei (Boarder and
Shpigel, 2001) and H. tuberculata coccinea (Viera et al., 2005).
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Study II Aquaculture 319 (2011) 423-429
Among the different macroalgae produced, Ulva spp. and Gracilaria spp. are
good candidates as feed for abalone since their mass production technologies are well
developed and their nutrient uptake capacities are among the highest known
(Martínez-Aragon et al., 2002). The valuable rhodophyte Hypnea sp. has also been
successfully cultured in mariculture biofilters (Harlin et al, 1978; Neori et al, 2004;
Viera et al, 2005).
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Study II Aquaculture 319 (2011) 423-429
Ulva rigida J.Agardh, Hypnea spinella (C. Agardh) Kützing and Gracilaria
cornea J. Agardh were grown at the Centro de Biotecnología Marina (CBM-ULPGC),
Gran Canaria, Spain. Eight feeding regimes were evaluated: three monospecific ones
with macroalgae produced in fresh seawater Ulva rigida (U), Hypnea spinella (H) and
Gracilaria cornea (G), and a mixture of equal parts from the three algae (M); and the
same four feeding regimes using algae produced out of fishpond waste water effluents
(UN; HN; GN and MN). Effluents were channelled from the fishponds to a 11 m3
sedimentation pond for the removal of suspended particles and then, pumped at a flow
rate of 10 m3 h-1 to the seaweed tanks located in a greenhouse, where maximum
irradiance was approximately of 1600 µmol photons m-2 s-1. Semi-circular fiberglass
tanks with a surface of 1.8 m2 and a volume of 0.75 m3 were provided aeration
through a bottom-central linear pipeline and were employed for the cultivation of
macroalgae. Algal stocking densities were adjusted to the optimal values obtained
from previous experiments (1, 3 and 4 g l-1 for U. rigida, H. spinella and G. cornea,
respectively). Water exchange rate in the seaweed culture tanks was 4 vol day-1 and
TAN (total ammonia nitrogen) inflow into the biofilter ranged between 10 and 400
µM.
Animals were initially fed a mixed diet of Navicula sp. and Nitzschia sp. for 4
to 5 months. Feeding of all abalone was then gradually switched to the green
macroalgae Ulva rigida cultured in the laboratory biofiltration system for a period of
1 month prior to the beginning of the experiment. A total of 600 juvenile abalones
(25/tank) with an average shell length and weight of 12.5 ± 1.6 mm and 0.27 ± 0.18 g,
respectively, were selected for the trial.
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Study II Aquaculture 319 (2011) 423-429
Individuals were blot dried, weighed to the nearest 0.1 mg (total wet body
weight: TWBW), measured with manual calliper with 0.1 mm accuracy (total shell
length: SL) and assigned to an experimental unit. Abalones were homogeneously
distributed among tanks to avoid significant differences in SL or TWBW. Each
experimental algal regime (8 feeding diets tested in triplicates) was fed for 12 weeks
to the abalones and tested in triplicates in a flow-through system. Eight control units
containing the same feeding regimes without abalone, were used as controls to
estimate percentage of modification in algal weight (computed as: ((A-B) / A) x 100;
where B is the final weight of algae and A is the initial weight of algae in the control
unit determined at 1 week interval).
To determine feed intake, freshly collected algae were blotted dry and
accurately weighed as well as the remaining algae at the end of the week. The weight
of unconsumed food was deducted from the total weekly ration. Besides, weight of
uneaten algae was corrected by calculating the natural weight variations of the algae
in the control units during the same feeding period. Average daily intake by individual
abalone was calculated by dividing the algal biomass eaten each week by the feeding
days and the number of abalones in each experimental unit.
SL and TWBW of each animal were determined every four weeks. Besides,
the following indices were calculated for all treatments at the end of the trial:
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Study II Aquaculture 319 (2011) 423-429
Protein efficiency ratio = (increase in body wet weight (g)) / (protein intake
(g))
where L1 is the initial mean length of animals; L2 is the final mean length of
animals; W2 is the weight at time t (days of culture), and W1 is the initial weight.
At the end of the experiment, ten abalones were collected from each
experimental unit, and the soft tissue was shucked from the shell. Shell and meat
were then weighed separately in order to calculate the condition index (wet weight
of soft flesh/wet weight of shell, SB/S in W/W) as an indicator of the abalone
nutritional status.
All data were statistically treated by one-way ANOVA and Tukey’s test was
applied for multiple comparison of means at a 5% significance level (P< 0.05). When
data did not follow a normal distribution, a non-parametric one-way ANOVA on
ranks of Kruskal-Wallis was applied (Zar, 1984).
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Study II Aquaculture 319 (2011) 423-429
5.3. RESULTS
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Study II Aquaculture 319 (2011) 423-429
Table 19. Proximate composition and caloric content of the eight macroalgae treatments (g/100 g DW) (Mean ± S.D.) fed to abalone along
the experimental trial
Diets
Crude protein 16.6±3.8 b 13.2±1.7b 11.27±1.1b 13.7±3b 33.76±0.5a 33.09±6a 29.35±2a 32.1±3.9a
Crude lipid 3.7±1abc 1.4±0.4c 5.4±3.5abc 3.4±2.5bc 4.4±0.8abc 6.6±2.6ab 7.21±2.7a 6.06±2.1a
GE2 (Kcal g-1) 3.5 3.5 3.6 3.6 3.9 4.1 3.6 4.04
Protein:energy ratio3 47.5 37.7 31.4 38.05 86.6 80.7 81.5 79.4
1
Calculated by difference (AOAC, 2005)
2
Gross energy
3
Metabolizable energy was calculated based on the physiological values at 5.6 Kcal g-1 protein, 9.5 Kcal g-1 lipid and 4.1 Kcal g-1 carbohydrates (Cho et al., 1982).
Values in the same row with different letters are significantly different (P<0.05) n=3
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Study II Aquaculture 319 (2011) 423-429
Table 20. Growth performance, feed utilization and survival of juvenile abalone (H. tuberculata coccinea) fed the selected 8 macroalgae diets for 12-weeks
Final length (mm) 19±3c 19.3±2.1c 14.3±1.7d 22.3±3.5b 21.6±2.3b 20.1±1.9c 14.4±1.8d 25.1±2.6a
Shell growth rate (μm d-1) 77.7±3.2c 81.9±7.8c 20.8±0.8d 118.4±7.9b 110.1±0.8b 90.5±8.4c 23.0±1.2d 150.9±3.9a
SGR (% day-1) 1.5±0.02c 1.4±0.2 c 0.2±0.0d 2±0.1b 1.9±0.0 b 1.4±0. 1c 0.3±0.04d 2.3±0.04a
Initial weight (g) 0.2±0.1 0.3±0.1 0.3±0.1 0.3±0.9 0.3±0.1 0.3±0.1 0.3±0.1 0.3±0.9
Final weight (g) 0.9±0.3c 0.8±0.4c 0.3±0.1d 1.4±0.6b 1.2±0.4b 0.9±0.3c 0.3±0.1d 1.8±0.6a
Weight gain (%) 239.9±6.5c 255.9±7 c 17±3.3 d 410±37.5 b 371.6±12.6 b 229.9±3 c 33±4.3d 561.3±20.3a
Feed intake (mg abalone-1day-1) 63.5±2.5d 147.4±10.0b 31.8±2.5e 168.7±18.3ab 81.0±0.8c 173.7±17.1ab 35.4±0.1e 189.9±5.0a
CI (%) 2.9±0.4b 2.9±0.4b 2.4±0.5c 3.1±0.4ab 3.3±0.3a 2.8±0.4b 2.4±0.4c 3.3 ±0.3a
Survival (%) 93.3ab 100a 85.3b 97.3a 93.7ab 96ab 92ab 98.7a
Values in the same row with different letters are significantly different (P<0.05) n =25x3.
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Fatty acid profiles of the eight macroalgae diets are summarised in Table 3.
The lipids of all algae tested consisted mainly of saturated fatty acids (SFA) (43-
60%), with palmitic acid (16:0) as the most abundant fatty acid (FA) (40-47%) of
total FAME. A higher amount (5-7.2%) of myristic acid (14:0) was detected in both
Rhodophyta species as compared to that in the green algae (1%). The green algae U.
rigida showed higher levels of C16 (58%) and C18 (32%) fatty acids and lower level of
C20 fatty acids (1.8-1.1%) than that of red algae. 18:1n-7 was the predominant mono-
unsaturated fatty acid of this Chlorophyta. All red algal treatments contained
considerable levels of mono-unsaturated fatty acid predominantly 18:1n-9. Linoleic
acid (18:2n-6) was present at similar levels in all selected algae, whereas linolenic
acid (18:3n-3) was higher in U. rigida. The levels of ∑ n-6 PUFA (7-9%) were
generally lower than those of ∑ n-3 PUFA (12-18%). Eicosapentanoic acid (20:5n-3)
(EPA) highest percentage was found in red algae H. spinella (6.3-6.9%), being ten
times higher than the one of U. rigida (0.7%). All macroalgae presented very low
level of arachinodic acid (0.1-1.6%) (ARA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) (22:6-
n-3), with the highest percentage been found in enriched G. cornea with 3% of total
FAME.
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Table 21. Fatty acid composition (% total fatty acids) of the eight macroalgae treatments
SFA, saturated fatty acids; MUFA, monounsaturated fatty acids; PUFA, polyunsaturated fatty acids;
Other includes all components <1%: 14(1n-7), 15:00, 16:0ISO, 16:(2n-6), 16:(2n-4), 17:00, 16:(3n-
3), 16:(3n-1),16:(4n-1), 18:(1n-5), 18:(2n-4), 18:(3n-6), 18:(3n-4), 20:00, 20:(1n-9+n-7), 20:(1n-5),
20:(3n-6), 22:(1n-9), 22:(4n-6), 22:(5n-6)
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Table 22. Proximate composition of foot tissues of Haliotis tuberculata coccinea reared on the experimental diets (g/100 g DW) (Mean ± S.D.)
Viscera Muscle Viscera Muscle Viscera Muscle Viscera Muscle Viscera Muscle
U. rigida 73.0±0.3b 75.7±0.1a 63.4±0.0b 74.0±0.1 19.4±1.8a 7.1±0.2ab 9.4±0.9d 9.9±0.4ab 10.1±0.7a 9.1±0.2c
H. spinella 73.7±0.9ab 75.3±0.3a 55.4±1.3d 74.5±1.5 16.8±1b 4.8±1.3b 18.8±2.1b 10.1±0.5ab 9.8±0.1ab 10±.1ab
G. cornea 75.3±2.4a 75.5±0.0a 63.1±0.1b 74.1±0.2 15.3±1.4bc 5.8±1.3ab 11.6±1.1c 10.6±1.7 ab 9.1±0.2abc 9.7±0.2bc
Mixed diet 73.8±0.6ab 74.5±0.4b 63.3±1.4bc 74.1±0.2 20.5±0.5a 6.7±1.2ab 7.7±1de 8.2±1.3c 8.4±0.2c 11.0±0.3a
Enriched
70.2±0.2c 73.9±0.3b 61.3±0.3bc 74.4±0.5 16.2±0.3b 5±0.2b 14.1±0.3c 12.6±0.7a 8.5±0.4c 8.1±0.3d
U. rigida
Enriched
73.2±0.1ab 75.4±0.3a 73.7±0.9a 76.3±1.2 12.8±0.4cd 7.3±0.3ab 4.9±0.1e 9.2±0.7 ab 8.9±0.5bc 6.9±0.4de
H. spinella
Enriched
71.4±0.1bc 74±0.3b 55±0.2d 76±1.6 11.5±0.6d 7.9±1.1a 24.4±0.1a 7.4±1.6c 9.5±0.1abc 9.3±0.6bc
G. cornea
Enriched
70.7±0.4c 75.6±0.1a 61.5±0.6c 75.9±2.6 12.2±1.1d 5.6±0.3ab 19.5±1.6b 10.6±3.1ab 7.1±0.3d 7.9±0.1de
mixed diet
1
Calculated by difference (AOAC, 2005)
Values in the same column with different letters are significantly different (Tukey test, P<0.05 n=3)
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Study II Aquaculture 319 (2011) 423-429
5.4. DISCUSSION
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Study II Aquaculture 319 (2011) 423-429
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Study II Aquaculture 319 (2011) 423-429
μm day-1) were generally higher than both, those obtain by other authors with other
species (50-100 μm day-1; Viana et al., 1996, 2000; Guzmán and Viana, 1998;
Jackson et al., 2001; Gómez-Montes et al., 2003) under similar experimental
conditions, and those obtain under commercial conditions (80 μm day-1; Gómez-
Montes et al., 2003). SGR values in the present study (1.4 to 2.3%) were higher than
those reported by Mercer et al. (1993) and Mai et al. (1995b) in abalone fed several
species of macroalgae who reported SGR values of 0.8 % for H. tuberculata and 0.7-
1% for H. discus hannai, and similar to the results reported by Capinpin et al. 1996
(2.5%) for H. asinina fed Gracilariopsis heteroclada. In an aquaculture context, the
rate of weight gain is vitally important, particularly in the case of haliotids, as they are
relatively slow growing. Therefore, from an aquaculture perspective, an optimal
dietary protein level should be defined in terms of growth rate as well as dietary
ingredient cost. In the present study, except with G. cornea treatments, all feeding
regimes produced a similar or better weight gain (230-561%) than Gracilariopsis
bailinae (134%, Bautista-Teruel and Millamena, 1999) or compound diets (454%,
Bautista-Teruel et al., 2003) in H. asinina under similar conditions. Regarding G.
cornea, the lowest growth rate obtained with abalone fed this macroalgae, might be
due to the lowest feed intake registered. Indeed, consumption rate in abalone may be
influenced by various factors that may decrease algal palatability, such as, the
structure, growth form, and thallus toughness (Steneck and Watling, 1982). Hence,
the harder texture of G. cornea may have affected its consumption by H. t.coccinea,
since in the wild, abalone prefer soft textured macroalgae (Shepherd and Steinberg,
1992). This preference seem to be related to the little capacity of the rhipidoglossan
radula to penetrate the algal surface (Steneck and Watling, 1982) as its teeth have
limited ability to exert force against the substrate. However when the animals were
fed G. cornea as a proportion of a mixed diet, they exhibited excellent growth rates,
suggesting that this red seaweed provided essential nutrients not found in the other
algae fed.
Except in animals fed G. cornea, food conversion rate (FCR) values were
within the range of those reported for H. asinina, H. discus hannai, H. tuberculata or
H. t. coccinea fed seaweeds diets (Kunavongdate et al., 1995, Shpigel et al., 1999;
Viera et al., 2005). The lower FCR attained for abalone fed enriched seaweeds in the
present study seems to be explained, not only by the general composition of the algae,
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Study II Aquaculture 319 (2011) 423-429
but also by a significantly higher protein:energy ratio than the rest of dietary
treatments. PER values observed on the non enriched treatments agreed well with
those reported for H. discus hannai (Uki et al, 1985a) and H. midae (Britz, 1996b) fed
seaweeds or H. midae and H. fulgens fed compound feeds (Britz and Hecht, 1997;
*Gómez-Montes et a., 2003). Protein efficiency ratios were generally lower in
abalone fed enriched macroalgae. Similar observations have been reported by Uki et
al., (1986), Britz (1996a) and Bautista-Teruel and Millamena (1999), who found that
the growth rate of H. discus hannai, H. midae and H. asinina respectively, increased
with an increase in protein content whereas the PER was negatively correlated with
protein level. Despite the poorer efficiency of protein conversion by abalone fed the
enriched macroalgae, higher weight gain and lower FCR were obtained with an
increasing protein level in the algal diet. This increase in protein level, linked to the
culture conditions of the integrated culture system, is of high economic significance
for the production.
Soft-body to shell ratios of the experimental animals (2.4-3.3) were similar
and even higher than those recorded by Mai et al. (1995a) for H. tuberculata (1.8-2.1)
and H. discus hannai (2-2.4) fed with P. palmata and various levels of dietary lipids
or by Sales et al. (2003) for H midae (2.9-3.2) fed different dietary crude protein
level. Furthermore, the high survival of abalone noted for all treatments may well
indicate a general balance of nutrients in the diets, although the low feed intake of
both G. cornea diets may not have been enough to sustain comparable growth of
abalone with those fed the rest of the experimental diets.
The algae studied presented typical fatty acid patterns of green and red algae
in agreement with previous macroalgal studies (Mai et al., 1996, Li et al., 2002).
Palmitic acid was the most abundant SFA, at similar contents of those reported for
other species of seaweeds (Jackson et al., 2001; Li et al., 2002; Nelson et al., 2002).
The fatty acid composition of the Chlorophyta Ulva rigida with predominat levels of
C16 and C18 PUFAs and minimal levels of C20 fatty acids followed a pattern similar to
the ones reported for other species of Ulvales such as U. lactuca (Mai et al., 1996)
and U. pertusa (Li et al., 2002). Accordingly, the higher level of 18:3-n-3 and 18:1-n-
7 relative to green algae, has been regarded as a characteristic of this phylum with a
particular taxonomic value in Chlorophyta species (Johns et al., 1979). All
macroalgae presented very low levels of 22:6-n3, with similar results found in other
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5.4. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank to Dr. D. Montero for his valuable comments
on the manuscript. This study has been financed by the Spanish Government in the
frame of the National Plan for Development of Marine Cultures (JACUMAR, Oreja
de mar) and by the Canarian Government (PI 2007/034).
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Development of a Sustainable Grow-out Technology for Abalone Haliotis
tuberculata coccinea (Reeve) as a New Species for Aquaculture
Diversification in the Canary Islands
Aquaculture, submitted
Study III Aquaculture (2014), submitted
Abstract
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6.1. INTRODUCTION
Among the different nutrients, abalone requires adequate levels of high quality
protein for soft tissue growth (Uki et al., 1985a; Mai et al., 1995a, b; Britz and Hecht,
1997; Bautista-Teruel and Millamena., 1999; Gómez-Montes et al., 2003; Reyes and
Fermín, 2003; Viana et al., 2007). The most common protein sources employed in
abalone feeds include fishmeal, defatted soybean meal (Guzmán and Viana, 1998;
Sales and Britz, 2002; Gómez-Montes et al., 2003; Thongrod et al., 2003; Naidoo et
al., 2006; García-Esquivel et al., 2007), casein (Uki et al., 1985b; Viana et al., 1993;
Mai et al., 1995b; Sales et al., 2003; Vandepeer and van Barneveld, 2003) and
Spirulina spp. (Uki et al., 1985b; Britz et al., 1996a; Bautista-Teruel et al.,
2003;Thongrod et al., 2003; Naidoo et al., 2006; Troell et al., 2006). Few novel
protein sources have also been tested at low inclusion proportions (Vandepeer et al.,
1999, Vandepeer and van Barneveld, 2003; Shipton and Britz, 2001; Sales and Britz,
2002; Reyes and Fermín., 2003). To get advantage of the high nutritional value of
algae, algal meals have been occasionally included in abalone feeds (García-Esquivel
et al., 2007; Viana et al., 2007), reducing the cost and use of fresh algae. Fishery by-
products such as fish or abalone viscera silage have been also proposed as economic
protein sources (Lopez and Viana, 1995; Viana et al., 1996; Rivero and Viana, 1996;
Guzmán and Viana, 1998). Besides, different protein sources may be balanced by
addition of synthetic amino acids such as methionine, threonine and arginine in order
to fulfil the essential amino acid requirements of these species (Mai et al., 1995b;
Guzmán and Viana, 1998; Serviere-Zaragoza et al., 2001; García-Esquivel et al.,
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Study III Aquaculture (2014), submitted
2007). Among all the sources tested as a single protein source, fishmeal is the only
one that supports good growth performance (Fleming et al., 1996).
Studies with cultured abalone have demonstrated that diet can have a
significant effect on quality-related factors such as chemical composition, taste,
texture and colour (Dunstan et al., 1996; Chiou and Lai, 2002; Allen et al., 2006). In
particular, the lipid composition of abalone muscle is markedly affected by the diet
(Uki et al., 1986; Dunstan et al., 1996). Moreover, lipids (especially long-chain
polyunsaturated fatty acids, PUFA) are essential to determine the flavour and odour of
seafoods (Lindsay, 1988). Thus, the use of artificial feeds containing fishmeal could
give cultured abalone a much “fishier” flavour than diets containing vegetable sources
(Dunstan et al., 1996). Indeed, a way of improving market acceptability and product
quality includes feeding abalone on macroalgae immediately prior to sale (Dunstan et
al., 1996; Kinkerdale et al., 2010). Moreover, abalone output in Europe is
substantially focused on high quality and low volume niche markets, such as organic
or eco-certified products, implying that, among other requirements, no fishmeal,
pharmaceuticals or fertilizers are used. Hence, developing a vegetal based artificial
feed for European abalone, will have marketing benefits not only for consumers, who
are increasingly environmentally sensitive, but also for producers, providing them a
readily available and more stable nutritional feed, whereas validating the
environmental and social sustainability of their farming operations (SUDEVAB,
2007; WWF, 2010).
In the wild, abalone consumes a variety of seaweeds, obtaining its required
nutrients from a combination of algal species (Sales and Britz, 2001; Dlaza, 2008).
These seaweeds are selected mainly according to their abundance and availability in
the surrounding area (Nelson et al., 2002). In the case of the European abalone, red
algae such as Palmaria palmata and the green ones Ulva spp. are preferred.
Nevertheless, other coarser and abundant seaweeds like kelps Laminaria spp,. (Koike
et al., 1979; Mercer et al., 1993) are commonly used as a bulk feed in abalone
farms(Fitzgerald, 2008; Walsh and Watson, 2011). Earlier studies have shown that
fresh P. palmata, Ulva spp. or the rhodophyte Gracilaria spp. have a high dietary
value for H. tuberculata spp., (Culley and Peck, 1981; Mercer et al., 1993; Viera et
al., 2005, 2011), showing also that mixed diets produced far better growth rates than
single-species diets, which is generally accepted for most abalone species (Simpson
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Study III Aquaculture (2014), submitted
and Cook, 1998; Dlaza et al., 2008; Naidoo et al., 2006; Kinkerdale et al., 2010;
Robertson-Andersson et al., 2011 ).
Therefore, the objective of the present study was to test the nutritional value of
the most commonly used fresh abalone feed in Europe: Laminaria digitata
(Phaeophyta), Palmaria palmata (Rhodophyta), Ulva lactuca (Chlorophyta) and
Gracilaria cornea (Rhodophyta) as alternative ingredients to obtain more sustainable
feeds for abalone (Haliotis tuberculata coccinea) production in Europe.
Fresh G. cornea (G), U. lactuca (U), L. digitata (L) and P. palmata (P) (kindly
supplied respectively by the Centro de Biotecnología Marina (CBM-ULPGC), Gran
Canaria, Spain; South West Abalone Growers Association (SWAGA), Cornwall, UK;
Martin Ryan Institute (MRI), Galway, Ireland and France Haliotis (FRHAL),
Brittany, France), were cleaned, washed with freshwater to remove salts and epizoos
and oven dried at 35ºC. The dried samples were finely ground using an electric fine
mill (sieve size <0.1 mm) and frozen at -80 ºC until analysis. Algal meals were
analyzed for nutrient composition and aminoacid profile (Table 23).
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Amino acids
Alanine 8.5 7.2 10.7 7.2
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Based on these meals, three diets were formulated to contain 35% protein,
17% of which was contributed by the different selected seaweeds meals: U and G; U,
G and L and U, G and P (Tables 23 and 24). The remaining protein and energy
contents were supplied by soybean meal, corn gluten meal, spirulina and starch, such
that each experimental diet had a similar lipid content (4%) and total energy (4kcal g-
1
). These inclusion levels have been reported by Britz and Hetch (1997), Viana et al.
(2007) and Viera et al. (2011) as being optimal for abalone growth. Vitamin and
mineral mixtures were used as recommended by Uki et al. (1885a). All the
experimental diets were supplemented with synthetic L- methionine and lysine in
order to match the amino acid profile of abalone muscle which was used as a guide to
formulate the amino acid composition of the practical diets. Sodium alginate, which
has been suggested to increase protein efficiency when feeding with seaweed (Kemp
and Britz, 2012) was used as binder (Table 24).
Experimental and control diets were sampled for proximate composition. The
algal samples were processed as indicated above and artificial diets were held under
the same conditions as algal samples until analysis.
All the diets were tested for their stability in seawater under the same
conditions as the feeding experiment in tanks without abalone, by measuring the loss
of dry matter of pellets after 17 h of immersion (16:00-9:00) and of natural diet for a
3-days period.
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Table 24. Ingredients of the three experimental diets for abalone H. tuberculata coccinea
(DW basis)
Experimental diets1
Ingredients
UG UGL UGP
G. cornea 16 16 16
U. lactuca 27 15 15
L. digitata - 12 -
P. palmata - - 12
2
Spirulina 2 2 2
3
Soybean meal 22 22 22
Corn gluten4 18 18 18
5
Starch 4 4 4
6
Vitamin mix 2.5 2.5 2.5
Mineral mix6 1.5 1.5 1.5
7
Lys 1.35 1.35 1.35
7
Met 0.65 0.65 0.65
Na alginate 5 5 5
1
UG: U. lactuca + G. cornea; UGL: U. lactuca + G. cornea + L. digitata; UGP: U. lactuca +
G. cornea + P. palmata.
2
50.8% protein, 9.2% lipid.
3
48.2% protein, 3.6% lipid
4
78.3% protein, 6.3% lipid
5
8.4% protein, 4.7% lipid.α cellulosa. Sigmabrand
6
Uki et al.. 1985a
7
Sigma (UK)
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Artificial feeds were offered once daily (ad libitum) in the evening from
Monday to Saturday. Any remaining diet was collected every day at 9:00 h. except
Sunday, by manually siphoning uneaten feed from tanks. Consumption was estimated
on a dry weight basis by relating the dry weight of the uneaten food to the known dry
weight of the feed provided. Consumption data were corrected for dry matter weight
loss attributable to leaching, by allowing the diets to leach over a 17-hperiod (16:00-
9:00h) using a “control” rearing unit without abalone, and drying the remaining diet
until constant weight. To guarantee ad libitum feeding in the control diet, fresh algae
were supplied well in excess twice a week. To determine control feed intake, freshly
collected algae to be fed to the abalone were blotted dry and accurately weighed as
well as the remaining algae every third day. The weight of unconsumed food was
deducted from the total weekly ration. Besides, weight of uneaten algae was corrected
by calculating the natural change in weight of the algae in the control units during the
same feeding period. The average daily intakes by individual abalone during the
entire feeding trial were calculated by dividing the algal biomass eaten each week by
the feeding days and the number of abalones in each experimental unit.
SL and TFBW of each animal were monthly recorded. Abalone growth rates
(growth rate day-1), as well as the following indices, were calculated for all treatments
at the end of the trial:
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Protein efficiency ratio, PER = (increase in body wet weight (g)) / (protein
intake (g))
where L1 is the initial mean length of animals; L2 is the final mean length of animals;
W2 is the weight at time t (days of culture), and W1 is the initial weight.
Besides, six abalones were collected from each experimental unit, and the soft
tissue was shucked from the shell. Shell and meat were then weighed separately in
order to calculate the condition index (wet weight of soft flesh/wet weight of shell.
SB/S in W/W) as an indicator of the abalone nutritional status.Abalone tissues were
also sampled and frozen at -80 ºC until analysis.
Homogenized samples of the seaweed meals, formulated diets, fresh algae and
abalone (visceral mass and foot muscle) were analyzed in triplicate for nutrient
composition. Amino acid was done on each experimental seaweed meal using an
HPLC amino acid analyzer. Protein content was determined by Kjedahl method
according to AOAC (2005) standard analyses. Total lipids were extracted with
chloroform–methanol (2:1) as described by Folch et al. (1957). Fatty acids in the lipid
extracts were transesterified to methyl esters (FAMEs) with 1% sulphuric acid:
methanol complex (Christie, 1982). FAMEs samples were extracted into hexane and
stored at -80ºC. Fatty acids were analyzed in a Thermo Finnigan- GC Focus gas
chromatograph equipped with a flame ionization detector (260ºC). FAMEs were
separated with capillary column (Supercowax 28m x 0.32mm x 0.25 i.d.) using
helium as the carrier gas under the conditions described by Izquierdo et al. (1989).
Fatty acids of the experimental and control diets and abalone were also analyzed. The
dry matter was determined by drying at 110ºC until constant weight (AOAC, 2005).
Ash content was determined by incinerating samples at 600ºC for 24 h (AOAC,
2005).
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All data were tested for normality and homogeneity of variance. Means and
standard deviations (SD) were calculated for each parameter measured. At the end of
the trial, proximate composition of abalones, survival, growth performance and
nutritional indices were calculated and statistically treated by one-way ANOVA and
Tukey’s test was applied for multiple comparisson of means at a 5% significance
level (P< 0.05). All statistical analyses were applied using the Statgraphics Plus 5.1
(MANUGISTIES, Rockville, Maryland, USA) software.
6.3. RESULTS
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Table 25. Proximate analysis of the fresh algae or experimental diets containing
different algal species (%DW)
Experimental diets2
Fresh algae1
UG UGL UGP
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Table 26. Fatty acid composition (% total fatty acids) of the fresh algae or
experimental diets containing different algal species*
Experimental diets*
FA Fresh algae
UG UGL UGP
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Survival rates were very high (95-98%), regardless of the diet fed. In general,
fresh algae produced a far better growth for H. tuberculata coccinea (169% WG) than
all the other experimental diets (49-84% WG) (Table 27). Comparison among abalone
fed the different formulated diets showed that growth was improved by the inclusion
of P. palmata, whereas the lowest growth was obtained by the inclusion of L. digitata.
Hence, at the end of the trial, animals fed diet UGP displayed the highest shell growth
rate, specific growth rate and weight gain, whereas those fed diet UGL showed the
lowest values (Table 27).
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Table 27. Survival and growth performance of abalone H. tuberculata coccinea fed for 6 months algae (fresh algae) or experimental diets
containing different algal species * (Mean ± S.D.)
Survival Initial size Final size Shell growth rate Initial Final weight Weight gain
Treatment SGR (%d-1)
(%) (mm) (mm) (μm d-1) weight(g) (g) (%)
Fresh algae 97.8±3.8 33.1±0.1 44.2±0.9a 62.8±4.9a 4.7±0.2 12.6±0.8a 0.56±0.0a 168.8±15.4a
UG 98.3±2.4 33.1±0.1 37.9±0.1bA 27.3±0.8bB 4.7±0.2 7.8±0.1bB 0.27±0.0bcAB 61.6±6.2bAB
UGL 98.3±2.4 33.1±0.0 36.9±0.4bB 21.1±1.5bC 4.7±0.2 6.9±0.1bC 0.22±0.0cB 48.4±0.8bB
UGP 95±2.4 33.1±0.1 38.7±0.1bA 31.9±0.7bA 4.7±0.0 8.5±0.1bA 0.34±0.1bA 83.8±7.2bA
UG: U. lactuca + G. cornea; UGL: U. lactuca + G. cornea + L. digitata; UGP: U. lactuca + G. cornea + P. palmata
* Low case letters indicate significant differences among feed treatments including fresh algae, whereas upper case letters indicate differences only
among formulated feeds, P< 0.05.
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Feed intake
Treatment FCR PER SB/S
(mg ind-1d-1)
* Low case letters indicate significant differences among feed treatments including fresh
algae, whereas upper case letters indicate differences only among formulated feeds, P<
0.05.
6.3.5. Effect of diets on the general and fatty acid composition of animals
Nutritional analysis revealed that, except for moisture content, foot muscle
composition of H. tuberculata coccinea was significantly (P<0.05) affected by the
dietary treatments, whereas viscera composition did not differ significantly within the
feeding regimes (Table 29).The percentage of protein deposited was significantly
(P<0.05) the highest in abalone fed diet containing P. palmata meal (UGP), followed
by those fed fresh algae, and the lowest in those fed diet UGL. Overall, foot muscle
contained much lower lipid levels (5-7%) than viscera (19-20%), whereas the latter
showed much lower protein content. Abalone fed control diet showed the
significantly (P<0.05) lowest lipid levels stored in the foot muscle, the highest being
found in those fed diet UGL. Carbohydrate content in foot muscle was significantly
highest in animals fed diet UGP than that of abalone fed the rest of the feeding
regimes. Ash content was generally lower in animals fed fresh algae than that of
abalone fed the formulated diets (Table 29).
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Fatty acid profiles of the H. tuberculata coccinea foot tissues are summarised
in Table 30. The proportion of total saturated (41-49%), total monounsaturated (25-
29%) and total polyunsaturated (22-29%) fatty acids were remarkably similar among
all abalone tissues samples (both viscera and muscle). Palmitic acid (16:0) was the
major fatty acid in all tissues (29-34%). Other prominent FA included 18:0.18:1n-9
and18:1n-7 (Table 30). Abalone fed the practical diets showed accumulations of
linoleic acid (LA. 8-9%) in the foot muscle and elevated levels of its chain-elongation
product 20:2n-6 (3%) compared with the tissues of abalone fed fresh macroalgae (3%
LA and 0.2% 20:2n-6 respectively) (Table 30). In agreement with the dietary levels,
foot tissues of abalone fed fresh algae presented remarkably higher levels of n-3 fatty
acids, including 20:3n-3, 20:4n-3, 22:5n-3, and specially, eicosapentanoic acid (EPA)
20:5n-3 (3.2-5%) compared with those showed by abalone fed artificial diets (0.8-
1.7%). Abalone fed all diets showed elevated levels of ARA relative to their feeds.
For all treatments, the proportion of ARA was higher in the foot muscle than in the
viscera, resulting in relatively higher ARA: EPA ratio in the foot, being also higher in
abalones fed artificial diets relative to those fed the control one. Docosahexaenoic
acid (DHA) (22:6-n-3) was a minor FA (<1%) in all samples.
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Table 29. Proximate composition of viscera and muscle of Haliotis tuberculata coccinea fed for 6 months algae (fresh algae) or experimental
diets containing different algal species*(g/100 g DW) (Mean ± S.D.) (Values in the same column with different letters are significantly different.
P< 0.05)
Viscera Muscle Viscera Muscle Viscera Muscle Viscera Muscle Viscera Muscle
Fresh algae 70.0±0.9 71.9±0.8 57±1.4 74.6±0.2b 19.2±1.1 4.6±0.1c 15.8±1.2 15.1±0.7a 8±0.9 5.7±0.5b
UG 70.2±0.1 73.1±0.4 56.8±2.4 73.7±0.5bc 19.8±0.0 6.2±0.0ab 15.3±2 13±0.2a 8.2±0.4 7±0.2a
UGL 72.9±0.6 72.8±0.1 57.1±2.2 72.3±0.6c 20.2±1.5 6.8±0.3a 12.9±2.8 14.5±0.8a 9.9±1.1 6.4±0.1ab
UGP 71.1±2.2 72.4±0.9 58.3±2 80.7±0.1a 20.4±2.4 5.7±0.2b 12.3±2.8 6.8±0.3b 9±1.7 6.7±0.1ab
UG: U. lactuca + G. cornea; UGL: U. lactuca + G. cornea + L. digitata; UGP: U. lactuca + G. cornea + P. palmata.
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Table 30. Fatty acid composition (% total fatty acids) of the abalone tissues of
Haliotis tuberculata coccinea fed for 6 months fresh algae or experimental diets
containing different algal species*
Experimental diets*
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6.4. DISCUSSION
Compound feeds have been reported to outperform fresh algae diets in abalone
culture (Viana et al., 1993; Britz, 1996b; Corazani and Illanes, 1998; Bautista-Teruel
and Millamena. 1999; Coote et al., 2000). In those studies, the low protein content
and less balanced amino acid profile of the seaweed could not be sufficient to support
abalone rapid growth, suggesting a high requirement of good quality protein in this
species. Moreover, it has been suggested that this could be the reason of such a long
time to get abalone to marketable size (2-5 years) using macroalgae (Hahn, 1989;
Robertson-Andersson, 2003; Johnston et al., 2005). However, in the present study,
feeding the fresh algae resulted in maximum growth of abalone, indicating the high
dietary value of the macroalgae reared in the IMTA. Indeed, the type of macroalgae
consumed can significantly affect abalone growth offering different proportions of
their nutrients requirement. The good growth performance attained for these large
abalones fed enriched seaweeds in the present study (169±15% WG) seems to be
explained, not only by the high protein content of the macroalgae produced under the
high nitrogen culture conditions of the biofilter system (Boarder and Shpigel, 2001;
Viera et al., 2005, 2011; Naidoo et al., 2006; Roberstson-Andersson et al., 2006,
2011), but also by the rest of their nutrients composition and energy content, which
matched abalone nutritional requirements (Fleming et al., 1996; Jackson et al., 2001;
McBride et al., 2001; Sales and Janssens, 2004). Besides, the combination of both red
and green algae species, each one with the typical biochemical composition of its
phylum (Li et al., 2002; Dawczynski et al., 2007; Kinkerdale et al., 2010), may have a
complementary effect to fulfil the micronutrient requirements of abalone, contributing
to the good growth rates obtained. In fact, abalone fed mixed algal regimes, have been
reported to perform significantly better than those fed with a single algal diet (Mercer
et al., 1993; Dlaza, 2008; Naidoo et al., 2006; Roberstson-Andersson et al., 2011;
Viera et al., 2011). Analysis of the proximate composition of the compound diets
showed no differences in protein, lipid, gross energy values, protein:energy (PE)
ratios and only a small difference in carbohydrates content, all of them being also
within the limits recommended for several abalone species (Fleming et al., 1996;
Jackson et al., 2001; McBride et al., 2001).
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Study III Aquaculture (2014), submitted
palmata as specific seaweed meal, performed better than the others and, particularly,
those fed diets containing L. digitata. These results agree well with those obtained by
Mercer et al. (1993) and Mai et al. (1995a, 1996) who reported the best performance
on close European ormer, H. tuberculata fed P. palmata and the lowest on those fed
L. digitata and L. sacharina. SGR values in this study (0.2-0.3%) were higher than in
abalone H. roei fed various compound diets as reported by Boarder and Shpigel
(2001), who found SGR values of 0.1 %, under similar experimental conditions.
However, growth rates (21-32μm day-1) were generally lower (21-56μm day-1) than
those obtain by Britz and Hetch (1997) in similar size H. midae fed with fish meal-
based diets containing different proportions of protein and energy. Previous studies
have shown that abalone fed formulated diets based on animal protein sources or a
combination of plant and animal protein ones, yield better growth rates than those fed
diets with protein sources of plant origin only (Britz, 1996b; Viana et al., 1996;
Boarder and Shpigel, 2001; Bautista-Teruel et al., 2003). In agreement, Dlaza et al.
(2008) reported the poorest performance (27μm day-1) of post-weaning abalone H.
midae when fed an all-seaweed-based formulated feed compared to that recorded for
those fed several fishmeal-based protein diets (46-61 μm day-1), claiming that
seaweed proteins were less readily absorbed than animal based protein.
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Study III Aquaculture (2014), submitted
brown algae are reported to be digested more slowly than red algae for several
abalone species (H. midae, Day and Cook, 1995; H. rubra, Foale and Day, 1992).
Nevertheless, this growth and PER reduction could be also related to an specific
leaching of dietary proteins even though dry matter leaching was low, as suggested by
other authors (Viana et al., 1996; Edward and Cook, 1999; Jackson et al., 2001).
Animals fed fresh macroalgae ate significantly more than animals fed practical
diets. This result could be due to the significantly lower PE ratio of the fresh algae
related the artificial feeds, since feed intake is the main compensatory mechanism of
herbivorous animals to satisfy energy requirement and being protein and
carbohydrate, rather than lipid, the principal energy sources in abalone (Durazo-
Beltrán et al., 2004; Viana et al., 2007). Additionally, previous investigations have
demonstrated that dietary protein source may affect feed consumption in Haliotids
(Uki and Watanabe, 1986; Viana et al., 1994), hence different attractiveness and
palatability between fresh algae and artificial diets could have also affected
consumption. The food conversion ratio (FCR) attained for the control treatment,
agrees well with those obtained previously for this (H. tuberculata coccinea, Viera et
al., 2005, 2011) and other abalone species fed macroalgae (H. asinina, Kunavongdate
et al., 1995; H. discus hannai and H. tuberculata, Shpigel et al., 1999). However,
FCR (3-6) obtained for abalone fed formulated diets were higher than reported values
(0.7- 1.8; Britz, 1996b; Shipton and Britz, 2001; Bautista-Teruel et al., 2003; García-
Esquivel et al., 2007), probably due to the loss of unconsumed feed that could not be
recovered during the study. Thus, some unconsumed or rasped pellets could have
broken up and drained out of the tank. Similar observations and even higher FCR
results (3-13) have been reported for H. asinina fed formulated diets (Reyes and
Fermin, 2003; Thongrod et al., 2003).
In the present study, PER was significantly better in abalone fed fresh algae,
hence, suggesting a higher protein utilization efficiency. However, the CI (SB/S) of
animals reared on fresh macroalgae was similar to those of animals fed diets UG and
UGP, indicating that all of them produced healthy animals of a high product quality.
Moreover, protein deposition being higher in animals fed UGP and similar in those
fed UG, related to that obtained with fresh algae, further indicate the good protein
quality of those diets, as tissue deposition cannot occur unless the requirements for
essential amino acids are met (Durazo-Beltrán et al., 2003). CI values (2.6-3.1) were
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Study III Aquaculture (2014), submitted
similar and even higher than those recorded for Viera et al. (2011) for this specie (2.4-
3.3) or by Mai et al. (1995a) for H. tuberculata (1.8-2.1) and H. discus hannai (2-2.4)
fed with P. palmata and various levels of dietary lipids or by Sales et al. (2003) for H
midae (2.9-3.2) fed different dietary crude protein level.
Total lipid in the foot muscle were relatively low in agreement to their natural
diets and to previous reports on both wild and cultured abalone (Nelson et al., 2002;
Durazo-Beltrán, et al., 2004; Grubert et al., 2004). Abalone seem very efficient in
assimilating lipids from their diets and, thus, diets with only 3-5% lipid have been
recommended to promote high growth rate of abalone (Fleming et al., 1996; Bautista-
Teruel and Millamena, 1999; Shipton and Britz, 2001; Johnston et al., 2005; Green et
al., 2011).Viscera contained much higher lipid levels than muscle in agreement with
previous studies (Webber, 1970; Mercer et al.,1993; Nelson et al., 2002; Viera et al.,
2011), and denoting the lipid storage function of HG (Uki et al., 1986b; Dunstan et
al., 1996). In Haliotids, lipids are essential nutrients for growth and gonad maturation,
but not a primary source of energy (Nelson et al., 2002). Moreover, muscle in the
abalone foot is a major energy consumer due to daily movements and strong shell
adhesion properties, free aminoacids playing an important role in rapid energy
production for shell adhesion, while the energy for slow locomotion mainly comes
from carbohydrates (Mercer et al., 1993).
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Study III Aquaculture (2014), submitted
largely on n-3 PUFA, mainly 20:5n-3 and 18:3n-3 playing an important role in
accelerating the growth of this species (Mai et al., 1996).
In relation to the dietary levels, the elevated contents of 20:4n-6 in the abalone
fed the experimental diets and 20:5n-3 in abalone fed the fresh algae, as well as their
respective metabolites 20:2n-6, 20:3n-6, 20:4n-3, suggest that abalone have the ability
to desaturate and elongate LA to ARA and ALA to EPA. This conversion of C18
PUFA to the C20 and C22 PUFAs they require, is present in many marine
invertebrates including other Haliotis species, these herbivorous marine animals
converting much more efficiently than carnivorous ones (Uki et al., 1986). Both
control and formulated diets as well as all abalone tissues presented very low levels of
DHA 22:6-n3 (Mai et al., 1996; Dawczynski et al., 2007; Viera et al., 2011; Courtois
de Viçose et al., 2012a), indicating that the composition of abalone is quite different
to that of other marine animals, which have this fatty acid as one of the main tissue
essential PUFA. Furthermore, it has been suggested that abalone are unusual
compared with other marine animals in the importance of DPA rather than DHA
(Viana et al., 1993; Dunstan et al., 1996).
In summary, this study has shown that feeding H. tuberculata coccinea with
seaweeds based diets without fishmeal inclusion resulted in high survival and good
dietary protein utilization. The inclusion of P. palmata in these types of diets is
recommended to improve growth, condition index and dietary protein utilization. On
the contrary, the use of L. digitata should be avoid, at least in the level included in the
present study, since markedly reduced growth performance and increased conversion
index, reducing the efficiency of dietary protein. Further studies are required to
improve the growth obtained with this type of diets, especially concerning the use of
different seaweed combinations and inclusion levels, as well as the diet processing
methods to improve stability.
6.5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
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132
Development of a Sustainable Grow-out Technology for Abalone
Haliotistuberculata coccinea (Reeve) as a New Species for Aquaculture
Diversification in the Canary Islands
Grow out culture of abalone Haliotis tuberculata coccinea Reeve, fed land-
based IMTA produced macroalgae, in a combined fish/abalone offshore
mariculture system: effect of stocking density
Abstract
Haliotis tuberculata coccinea has been identified as a target species for European
aquaculture development, in order to fulfil the rising demand for abalone. The effects of
different stocking densities on the growth performance, feed utilization and survival of two
different initial size groups (30 and 40 mm) of abalones, during the final grow-out to
cocktail/market size (45-60 mm), were determined over a 6 month period. Trials were
performed in abalone cages installed in a commercial open-sea cages fish farm. Animals were
fed the red algae Gracilaria cornea and the green one Ulva rigida, both obtained from a land-
based integrated multi-trophic aquaculture system. Survival rates were very high (94-98%)
regardless the density employed. Sustained high linear growth was recorded both in shell and
weight. However, a 17-19% reduction in weight gain was obtained by doubling the initial
stocking density, suggesting a higher competition for space or food. Nevertheless, the high
growth performance (70-94 μm d-1; 250-372% weight gain) and survival attained, even at
high densities, denoted the suitability of the offshore mariculture system as well as the
biofilter produced macroalgae for grow out culture of H. tuberculata coccinea that overall
could reach cocktail/commercial size in only 18-22 months.
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7.1. INTRODUCTION
Another key factor for the successful culture of abalone species is the
availability of suitable feed (Shipton and Britz, 2001; Reyes and Fermín, 2003; Viana
et al., 2007). Abalone production requires large quantities of macroalgae, not always
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Thus, the present research aimed to determine, during the final abalone grow-
out to market/cocktail size (30-60 mm), the effects of initial stocking densities on
growth, feed consumption and survival of two distinct initial size groups of H.
tuberculata coccinea, fed biofilter produced macroalgae, in an offshore mariculture
system.
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7.2.1. Algae
Ulva rigida J.Agardh and Gracilaria cornea J. Agardh were grown in the
Grupo de Investigación en Acuicultura (GIA, Canary Islands, Spain) aquaculture
research facility, in a flow-through integrated system collecting wastewater from fish
and abalone ponds in a macroalgal biofilter. Effluents were channelled from the land-
based facility tanks to a 11 m3 sedimentation pond for the removal of suspended
particles and then, pumped at a flow rate of 10 m3 h-1 to the seaweed tanks located
outdoor, where maximum irradiance was close to 1600 µmol photons m-2 s-1. Circular
plastic tanks with a volume of 1.5 m3 and aeration supplied by a bottom-circular
pipeline were used for the cultivation of macroalgae. Algal stocking densities were 1
and 4 g L-1 for U. rigida and G. cornea, respectively. Water exchange rate in the
seaweed tanks was 12 vol day-1 and total ammonia nitrogen inflow into the biofilter
ranged between 10 and 30 µmoles.
To assess the feed quality, homogenized samples of each algae were analyzed
in triplicates for proximate composition. The algae were cleaned, washed with
freshwater and frozen at -80 ºC. Dry mass was determined by drying samples at
110ºC until constant weight was attained. Ash content was determined by incinerating
samples at 600ºC for 24 h. Protein content was analyzed by the Kjeldahl method in
agreement with AOAC (2005) and total lipids were extracted by a chloroform-
methanol (2:1) mixture as described by Folch et al., (1957).
7.2.2. Abalone
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Specially designed abalone sea cages (ORTACS, Jersey Sea Farms, St.
Martins, Ireland), were composed of a 33 L lidded black PVC meshed container with
total underside surface area of 0.4 m2 and weighing 1.5 kg. (Fig.38a). Six black
plastic discs (12.0 cm Ø), stacked together forming a shelf-like device connected by
tube-shaped rods, were placed inside as shelters (Fig. 38b). The total surface area for
attachment was 0.5 m2. The abalone cages were suspended from fish cages (25 m Ø)
mooring ropes and placed, approximately, 10 m below the water surface (Fig.38c).
Figure 38. Offshore grow-out system: (a) experimental abalone cages, (b) shelter, (c)
underwater experimental installation next to fish cages.
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The experimental abalones were blot dried, weighed to the nearest 0.1 mg
(total fresh body weight: TFBW), measured with a manual calliper with 0.1 mm
accuracy (total shell length: SL) and assigned to the experimental cages. Abalones
were homogeneously distributed among cages to avoid significant differences in SL
or TFBW.
To determine feed intake, the weight of unconsumed food was deducted from
the total weekly ration. Besides, weight of uneaten algae was corrected by calculating
the natural weight variations of the algae in the control cages without abalone during
the same feeding period.
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7.3. RESULTS
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Table 31. Proximate composition and caloric content of the macroalgal diets (g/100 g
DW) (Mean ± S.D.) fed to abalone along the experimental trials
Macroalgae
*
Calculated by difference (AOAC, 2005).
**
Calculated gross energy (Cho et al., 1982).
***
Metabolizable energy was calculated based on the physiological values at 5.6 Kcal g-1
protein, 9.5 Kcal g-1 lipid and 4.1 Kcal g-1 carbohydrates (Cho et al., 1982).
Values in the same row with different letters are significantly different (P<0.05)
n=3
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effect of density on growth both in shell length and weight in trial I (t4=-3. 34798, p=0
.0286; t4= -21.5088, p=0.000028) and II (t4=-4.2733, p=0.0129; t4=-4.801,
p=0.008642) respectively.
Thus, at the end of the Trial I, animal cultured at low density (I100) presented a
significantly (P<0.05) higher growth performance in shell growth rate (16%), weight
growth rate (21%), specific growth rate (10%) and weight gain (19%) than those at
high density.
Accordingly, in Trial II, where abalones had a higher initial size than in Trial
I, at the end of the experimental period abalones reared at a lower density (II30)
showed significantly (P<0.05) higher daily growth rate, both in shell length (14%)
and weight (16%), specific growth rate (11%) and weight gain (17%) than those at
high density (Table 32).
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Figure 39. Linear growth in shell length (mm) and weight (g) of abalone H. tuberculata coccinea initially measuring 30 (Trial I) and 40 mm (Trial II), fed
with enriched mixed diet of G. cornea and U. rigida at high and low stocking densities for 27 wks.
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Table 32. Survival and growth performance of abalone H. tuberculata coccinea, initially measuring 30 mm (Trial I) and 40 mm (Trial II), fed
with enriched G. cornea and U. rigida at high and low stocking densities for 27 weeks
Treatment Survival Initial size Final size DGSL Initial Final DGW SGR Weight gain
(%) (mm) (mm) (μm d-1) weight (g) weight (g) (mg d-1) (% d-1) (%)
Trial I
I200 94.3±1.2 29.7 ± 1 43±0.5b 70.1±2.6b 3.3 ± 0.5 13.0±0.2b 51.7±1.3b 0.74±0.02b 302.6±12b
I100 96.7±1.2 29.7 ± 1 45.4±0.6a 82.7±3.2a 3.3 ± 0.5 15.8±0.1a 65.8±0.7a 0.82±0.0a 371.9±4.3a
Trial II
II60 97.8±1.9 39.5 ± 1.1 54.6±0.7b 79.2±3.4b 7.8 ± 1.1 27.3±0.8b 103.4±3.4b 0.66±0.01b 250.5±6.2b
II30 97.8±3.8 39.5 ± 1.1 57.3±0.8a 94.1±4.3a 7.8 ± 1.1 30.8±1.3a 122.5±7.3a 0.74±0.03a 302.3±22.4a
GSL= daily growth rate in shell length, GW= daily growth rate in weight, SGR= Specific growth rate
Within each trial, values in the same column with different letters are significantly different (P<0.05); I200: n =100x3; I100: n =50x3; II60: n =30x3;
II30: n =15x3.
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Table 33. Two-Way ANOVA analysis of variance for growth (size and weight) for the
27 wks grow-out culture period under the experimental densities
Effect SS d.f. MS F p
Trial I
Trial II
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In Trial I, daily feed intake on algal rations, recorded for 27 weeks, was
significantly (P<0.05) higher in abalones cultured at lower density (I100) (Table 34). In
relation to feed utilization efficacy, food conversion ratio (FCR) values were
significantly affected by stocking density being lower in animals cultured at low
density. Similarly, protein efficiency ratio (PER) values were significantly (P<0.05)
improved in abalone cultured at low density (Table 34).
Trial I
Trial II
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7.4. DISCUSSION
Average feeding rates (16% BW d-1; 30-57 mm shell length; 30-200 abalones m-
2
) were good and comparable to those of the tropical fast growing H. asinina fed
Gracilaria bailinae under similar experimental conditions (16% BW d-1; 30-55 mm
shell length, 43-175 ind m-2) (Capinpin et al., 1999). Moreover, feed conversion ratios
(19-23) were also good and similar to those previously obtained for other abalone
species fed macroalgae (H. asinina, Kunavongdate et al., 1995; H. discus hannai and H.
tuberculata, Shpigel et al., 1999).
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and Williams, 1996; Valdés-Urriolagoitia, 2000; Huchette et al., 2003a, b; Badillo et al.,
2007; Lloyd and Bates, 2008; Jarayabhand et al., 2010), where a wide range of stocking
sizes (7-65mm) and densities (43- 4100 abalones m-2) have been tested. In particular,
initial densities of 43-175 abalones m-2 tested in cage cultures of another ”cocktail size”
species such as H. asinina (Capinpin et al., 1999) and of 83-386 abalones m-2 for
juveniles of a close related species such as H. tuberculata (Koike et al., 1979; Mgaya
and Mercer, 1995), showed a marked effect on final growth of abalone. In the present
study, doubling the stocking density from 30 to 60 abalones m-2 caused a 14% reduction
in growth (mm month-1), whereas doubling from 100 to 200 further reduced growth in a
16%. In agreement, growth reduction in other studies ranged from 14% to 52% (mm
month-1) due to 2- to 60-fold increases in density (Huchette et al., 2003a). Particularly, a
3 times increase in initial stocking density may cause a 52% reduction in growth for H.
tuberculata (Mgaya and Mercer, 1995).
Results obtained in the present study when initial stocking densities were
increased suggest that these grazing gastropods show a density-dependent competition
for space or food (Marshall and Keogh, 1994; Capinpin et al., 1999; Huchette et al.,
2003a, b). In both trials, abalones stocked at a lower density showed a significantly
higher food consumption than those stocked at double density, suggesting that at high
density, abalone in the cage would tend to stack, hence restricting movement during
feeding and affecting their feed intake even though the food supply is in sufficient
quantity (Douros, 1987; Lloyd and Bates, 2008). A similar reduction in feeding
behaviour has been found in other abalone species (Mgaya and Mercer, 1995; Tarr,
1995; Marsden and Williams, 1996), particularly when they are fed algae (Tahil and
Juinio-Menes, 1999). Additionally, the highest stocking density (200 abalones m-2) in
the present study, not only decreased feed intake in the smaller size abalones, but also
increased FCR and reduced PER, denoting a reduction in feed utilisation efficacy.
Despite the fact that stocking density may have a negative effect on abalone
survival (Nie et al., 1996), in the present study, and in agreement with previous
research, survival was not influenced by density (Mgaya and Mercer, 1995; Capinpin et
al., 1999; Jarayabhand et al., 2010). The high survival rates (94-98%) registered for all
treatments, regardless the density conditions, may well indicate not only the mentioned
general balance of nutrients in the enriched mixed diet but also the generally good
culture conditions that could have contributed to the well-being of the abalone. Indeed,
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besides feeding regime and stocking density, several factors are important in providing
the optimal conditions for growth and survival in abalone such as water flow, water
quality, light, shading and culture system (Capinpin et al., 1999; Huchette et al., 2003a;
Demetropoulos and Langdon, 2004; Badillo et al., 2007; Wassnig et al., 2010). Abalone
growth and health are reported to be inhibited by decreases in water quality (Basuyaux
and Mathieu, 1999; Naylor et al., 2011) which can result from the decomposition of
faeces and uneaten food (Yearsley et al., 2009), high levels of nitrogenous wastes
excreted by the animals (Barkai and Grifths, 1987; Reddy-Lapata et al., 2006),
reduction of dissolved oxygen (Badillo et al., 2007; Naylor et al., 2012) or from low
water pH exposure (Naylor et al., 2012). Hence, the high water exchange rate linked to
the oceanic conditions of the open water experimental set-up, were consequently
appropriate for H. tuberculata coccinea culture, maintaining water quality even as
stocking densities increased (Wassnig et al., 2010). Abalone are generally more active
at night, light and shading clearly influence their distribution and activities (Cochard,
1980; Huchette et al., 2003b; Morikawa and Norman, 2003), hence their feeding
behaviour (Tahil and Juinio-Menes, 1999). Since the cages were located at 10 m depth,
the influence of light on the regulation of abalone´s feeding activity inside the
experimental cages, could have been limited. Additionally, the refuges provided could
have led to an improvement of growth rates by increasing the “preferred surface area”
(Hindrum et al., 1999). Regarding culture system, growth performance of H.
tuberculata coccinea cultured in the tested offshore cages, was significantly better than
the one obtained under similar experimental conditions in a land-based system (60.2 μm
d-1; WG: 151%; Viera et al., submitted).
The stocking densities tested and providing the best growth rates are within the
range of those currently applied in commercial sea-based system for H. tuberculata (30-
125 abalones m-2 for 30- ≥ 65mm; Huchette, personal communication). Therefore, as the
choice of stocking density is essentially a trade–off between maximum growth, optimal
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7.5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors especially thank Rafael Guirao, and the rest of the staff from
CANEXMAR, S.L., who have kindly cooperated in this study hosted within their
facilities. They also acknowledge Tony Legg, from Jersey Sea Farms, for kindly
supplying the ORTACS. They would also like to thank Desirée Chacón and Beatriz
Sosa for their support through maintenance tasks in harsh conditions and to Dr.
Fernando Tuya for his assistance with the statistical analysis. This study has been
financed by the Spanish Government in the frame of the National Plan for Development
of Marine Cultures (Jacumar Multitrófico).
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Development of a Sustainable Grow-out Technology for Abalone Haliotis
tuberculata coccinea (Reeve) as a New Species for Aquaculture
Diversification in the Canary Islands
CONCLUSIONS
Conclusions
8. CONCLUSIONS
Study I: Suitability of three red macroalgae as a feed for the abalone Haliotis
tuberculata coccinea Reeve.
2. H. spinella was found to be the best growth promoting diet for H. tuberculata
coccinea due to the highest feed intake and protein efficiency ratio observed.
The harder texture of G. cornea had a negative effect on feed consumption
hence leading to the lowest growth performance of Canarian abalone.
3. Overall growth rate of abalone were within the range of those obtained under
commercial conditions this fact, linked to the high survival attained, suggesting
the suitability of the three red seaweeds tested, successfully produced in the
IMTA system, for the grow-out culture of H. tuberculata coccinea.
5. The fatty acid profiles of the algae studied were characteristic of green and red
algae, palmitic acid being the most abundant SFA, the Chlorophyta Ulva rigida
showing predominat levels of C16 and C18 PUFAs and minimal levels of C20
150
Conclusions
fatty acids. DHA was very low in all algae tested, hence this fatty acid do not
appear to be essential in H. t. coccinea, as all macroalgae tested supported
optimal growth of this abalone species.
7. Animals fed the mixed diets, both enriched and non enriched, performed
significantly better than those that were fed with a single algal diet, indicating
that abalone obtain a complete range of required nutrients by eating a mixed
algal regime and that essential nutrients may become limiting when animal are
fed single-species diets.
9. The dietary value of the macroalgal regimes tested can be divided into three
categories: Best obtained with the mixed algal feeding regime, intermediate by
using single Ulva rigida or Hypnea spinella feeding regimes and the lowest by
Gracilaria cornea.
10. Growth results clearly indicate that H. tuberculata coccinea can be efficiently
grow-out in an integrated-culture system suggesting that on-farm seaweed-
abalone production could be a part of future development of abalone industry
in the Canary Islands.
Study III: First development of various vegetable-based diets and their suitability
for abalone Haliotis tuberculata coccinea.
151
Conclusions
11. Feeding the fresh algae produced a far better growth for H. tuberculata
coccinea than all the compound diets, indicating the high dietary value of the
macroalgae reared in the IMTA system.
12. The inclusion of P. palmata was found to improve growth, condition index and
dietary protein utilization, while the use of L. digitata markedly reduced the
efficiency of dietary protein.
13. The elevated contents, relative to their feeds, of ARA in the abalone fed the
experimental diets and EPA in abalone fed the fresh algae, denoted the
presence of the respective elongases Δ4 and Δ5 desaturases. However, the low
content of DHA further suggested that this fatty acid is not essential in abalone
tissues.
Study IV: Grow out culture of abalone Haliotis tuberculata coccinea Reeve, fed
land-based IMTA produced macroalgae, in a combined fish/abalone offshore
mariculture system: Effect of stocking density.
16. Recommended stocking density for 30-45 mm abalone is 100 abalone m-2,
while for 45 mm abalone until commercial size is 30 abalone m-2.
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Desarrollo Sostenible de la Tecnología de Engorde de la Oreja de Mar
Haliotis tuberculata coccinea (Reeve) como Nueva Especie para la
Acuicultura en Canarias
RESUMEN EN ESPAÑOL
Spanish summary
9.1. INTRODUCCIÓN
153
Spanish summary
A pesar de que los mayores consumidores mundiales de oreja de mar han sido
tradicionalmente Japón y China (las primeras referencias de la pesca de abalón datan del
30 A.D.; Fig. 3), las pesquerías de este molusco también han sido una fuente tradicional
de desarrollo económico y social de otras poblaciones en diferentes países como
Estados Unidos de América, México, Nueva Zelanda, Francia, Australia o Sudáfrica
(Leighton, 1989; Guzmán del Proó, 1992; Schiel, 1992; Mercer et al., 1993; Freeman,
2001; Troell et al., 2006), con ciertas comunidades locales muy vinculadas a la
explotación de este recurso.
154
Spanish summary
155
Spanish summary
156
Spanish summary
Sudáfrica es el mayor productor de abalón (H. midae) fuera de Asia, con una
producción procedente tanto del sector pesquero como de la acuicultura. La producción
anual ronda las 3.000t, de las que 1.200t son aportadas por el sector acuicola, 150t por
las pesquerías legales, mientras que se estima que unas 1.500t son capturadas de forma
ilegal (Britz, 2012).
157
Spanish summary
reducción generalizada del precio de abalón (Qi et al., 2010). Por lo tanto, los
productores de abalón están encaminados a buscar vías para aumentar su productividad
a través del uso de sistemas de cultivos más eficientes, certificaciones internacionales de
calidad o diversificación de productos y mercados (Cook y Gordon, 2010).
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Sin embargo, a pesar de haber sido reconocida como especie candidata para la
acuicultura europea hace ya dos décadas (Mgaya y Mercer, 1994), su disponibilidad en
Europa es aún insuficiente debido a la escasez de suministro tanto del sector pesquero
como del acuícola (Dallimore, 2010). Si bien se han realizado ciertos intentos para
aumentar la producción acuícola, el avance ha sido lento, dificultado entre otro motivos,
por la escasez en la investigación o por problemas derivados de confusion en la
legislación del recurso (la oreja de mar está situada en la misma categoría que los
bivalvos). Además, aspectos nutricionales como el tipo de alimento y sus fuentes, así
como el desarrollo de tecnologías sostenibles de producción, han sido también
identificados como áreas claves en las que avanzar para alcanzar mejores crecimientos y
métodos de producción que redunden en la competitividad del sector productivo
(SUDEVAB, 2007).
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La almeja canaria ha sido explotada a nivel local durante las ultimas décadas, lo
que ha llevado a la sobreexplotación del recurso hasta su casi esquilmación (Pérez y
Moreno, 1991; Espino y Herrera, 2002). Como consecuencia, existe un público interés
en el desarrollo de la tecnología de cultivo de esta especie, tanto de cara al suministro de
la población local como para contribuir a la recuperación de las poblaciones naturales.
Es más, el potencial de esta especie para su producción en acuicultura, radica también
en la creciente demanda externa por ejemplares pequeños del denominado “tamaño
cocktail” (4-7 cm de longitud de concha) (Jarayabhand y Paphavasit, 1996; Najmudeen
y Victor, 2004), así como en el alto grado de desarrollo alcanzado en el cultivo de otras
species de la familia Haliotidae, en particular del ya mencionado abalón europeo
Haliotis tuberculata tuberculata L., de características biológicas muy parecidas.
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al., 2007, 2009, 2010, 2012a, b), han permitido tanto la reproducción de esta especie en
cautividad, como las técnicas de producción de semillas adaptadas a esta especie,
señalándola por tanto, como una buena candidata para la diversificación del sector
acuícola canario.
Sin embargo, apenas existen trabajos sobre las condiciones óptimas para el
cultivo de juveniles y adultos en las Islas Canarias (Toledo et al., 2000). Por tanto, para
desarrollar la tecnología de engorde adaptada a esta especie, es necesario investigar en
las areas de nutrición y alimentación, así como en las condiciones y sistemas de cultivo
idóneos para su implantación en las islas. Además, considerando que el cultivo de este
molusco frecuentemente require altas cantidades de macroalgas, no disponibles
localmente, para el desarrollo de la producción es también necesario evaluar otras
alternativas como fuentes de alimentación. Es más, los trabajos también deben estar
encaminados hacia el desarrollo de métodos de producción que aseguren la
sostenibilidad de la industria, ajustados a la cada vez más restrictiva legislación europea
para la producción de mariscos y también a la normativa para la producción
internacional de abalón (WWF, 2010).
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La talla de los ejemplares en cultivo ha sido señalada como uno de los factores
más influyentes en el crecimiento del abalón (Flemming y Hone, 1996; Wu et al.,
2009). Estas variaciones pueden deberse a diferencias genéticas relacionadas con el
tamaño de los ejemplares (Sun et al., 1993; Wu et al., 2009), con los requerimientos de
proteínas (Shipton y Britz, 2001), con la utilización de las proteínas y la energía (Britz y
Hecht, 1997; Shipton y Britz 2001; Green et al., 2011) o bien con diferencias en la
capacidad de la rádula para ramonear el alimento (Jonhston et al., 2005).
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El cultivo de la oreja de mar se caracteriza por necesitar una alta renovación del
medio (200% a 2.400% por día) para mantener la calidad del agua dentro de los
parámetros recomendados (Badillo et al., 2007; Naylor et al., 2011). Lo que es más, una
adecuada renovación influye positivamente sobre el factor de conversion del alimento
(FCR) mediante la estimulación de la actividad alimenticia (Higham et al., 1998),
aumentando por tanto el crecimiento del abalón (Shepherd, 1973; Mgaya y Mercer,
1995; Wassnig et al., 2010). Adicionalmente, el aumentar la renovación del agua puede
ser un medio eficiente de mitigar los efectos nocivos de las altas densidades de cultivo
contribuyendo a los beneficios de la actividad (Wassnig et al., 2010).
Además, Tissot (1992) estableció que para un crecimiento óptimo del abalón es
necesario una adecuada velocidad del agua que permita una circulación suficiente a
través del manto de los animales. Sin embargo, en el caso de los tanques poco
profundos (como los denominados tanques ‘slab’), muy extendidos en granjas
comerciales (Hutchinson y Vandepeer, 2004; Wassnig et al., 2010), una alta renovación
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1.4.2.1. Temperatura
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las subtropicales entre 14-26ºC y las tropicales entre los 16-30ºC. Gilroy y Edwards
(1998) establecieron que en general, la oreja de mar tiene una respuesta térmica
conservativa y poca capacidad de adaptación a los cambios termales, por lo tanto, la
temperatura del cultivo debería ser lo más cercana posible a la óptima de la especie.
1.4.2.2. Luz
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midae (Reddy-Lopata et al., 2006; Naylor et al., 2011), en los que de forma general se
concluye que, a pesar de que los abalones se pueden adaptar a niveles sub-letales de
amonio en el agua, sí tiene lugar una reducción sustancial del crecimiento, siendo por
tanto esencial el mantener niveles bajos de amonio. En los cultivos de oreja de mar, los
niveles de amonio se regulan a través de la renovación del agua, debiéndose además
lograr un equilibrio entre las demandas tanto fisiológicas como económicas (Ford y
Langdon, 2000).
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En las granjas en mar abierto, la corriente y el oleaje son los responsables del
intercambio de agua dentro las estructuras y por tanto, son las condiciones reinantes las
que afectan al crecimiento de los animales en cultivo (Nagler et al., 2003). Las ventajas
de este tipo de sistema para el cultivo de abalón incluyen una mejora potencial de las
condiciones generales del cultivo, menores costes de inversion y de funcionamiento, y
fácil acceso para la alimentación, mantenimiento y cosecha (Jarayabhand y Paphavasist,
1996; Leighton, 1989; Capinpin et al., 1999; Wu et al., 2009). Mientras que las
desventajas serían un mayor requerimiento de mano de obra para las labores de limpieza
de las unidades de cultivo, la falta de control sobre los parámetros medioambientales, la
escasez de emplazamientos adecuados para el engorde de las semillas o la mayor
inseguridad de las instalaciones (Hindrum et al., 1996; Preece y Mladenov, 1999; Wu y
Zhang, 2010, 2013).
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fácil manejo y bajo coste energético (Mortensen et al., 2007). Así, recientemente se han
probado en China jaulas sumergibles, mostrando uno crecimiento general de H. discus
hannai superior a los obtenidos con los sistemas tradicionales de cestas suspendidas
apiladas (Wu yd Zhang, 2013).
A modo de resúmen, se podría decir que los sistemas de cultivo en el mar para
el engorde del abalón se han convertido en los más extendidos a nivel mundial, debido a
un menor coste respecto a los tradicionales cultivos en tierra, mayor calidad de los
productos y mayor sostenibilidad a largo plazo (Ke et al., 2012; Park y Kim, 2013; Legg
et al., 2012).
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Figura 10. Cultivo del abalón europeo H. tuberculata en jaulas suspendidas en Bretaña
(Francia).
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Figura 11. Semillas de abalón (H. tuberculata coccinea) ramoneando sobre alga
verde.
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aumento del tamaño de la boca (Fleming et al., 1996), sino también a los cambios
morfológicos de la rádula conforme el animal crece (Steneck y Watling, 1982;
Kawamura et al., 2001; Daume y Ryan, 2004; Simental et al., 2004; Johnston et al.,
2005). Así mimo, los cambios en la dieta también son debidos a cambios en la flora
intestinal y en la actividad enzimática en el digestivo del animal según va creciendo, lo
que les permite digerir las macroalgas (Erasmus et al., 1997; Tanaka et al., 2003).
La oreja de mar puede consumir algas a una tasa cercana al 35% de su peso al
día (Tahil y Juinio-Menez, 1999), por lo que la biomasa algal requerida para sostener el
engorde del abalón es muy elevada (Fig.12). Sin embargo, la limitada disponibilidad de
algas adecuadas en el medio natural, además de su generalmente bajo contendido en
proteínas, suponen un impedimento importante para el cultivo intensivo de este molusco
a nivel mundial (Hahn, 1989). Es más, la abundancia y calidad nutricional de las algas
varía mucho en función del lugar y época de cosecha (Dawczynski et al., 2007; Courtois
de Viçose et al., 2012a), afectando por tanto a las tasas de crecimiento dificultando a los
granjeros una óptima gestión de la producción (Bautista-Teruel y Millamena, 1999).
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alimentación de la granja, han de tenerse en cuenta así mismo criterios económicos que
redunden en el éxito de la empresa.
De forma general, en las granjas de abalón los animales se alimentan 2-3 veces a
la semana o cada 2 días (Maguire et al., 1996).
Figura 12. Macrocystis pyrifera y Palmaria palmata cosechadas del medio natural para
alimentar al abalón rojo (A; Chile) y al europeo (B; Bretaña).
En el caso de las Islas Canarias, la biomasa algal del medio es mucho menos
abundante que en otras zonas costeras de aguas ricas en nutrientes, lo que hace inviable
su cosecha. Por lo tanto, para el desarrollo comercial de esta industria es necesario
reemplazar las algas extraídas del medio como fuente principal de la dieta, debiendo
basarse por tanto en el cultivo de algas y/o el uso de piensos compuestos.
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Tabla 2. Algas del medio y cultivadas, idóneas para el cultivo de distintas especies de abalón (Los números indican los trabajos abajo referenciados)
Especies de abalón
Macraolga H.
H. H. H. H. H. H. H. H. H. H. H. H.
discus
asinina roei midae corrugata rufescesn sorenseni laevigata rubra fulgens diversicolor iris tuberculata
hannai
Alga roja
Asparagopsis armata 1
Gelidium spp. 2
Gracilaria spp. 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Gracilariopsis spp. 10
Jeannerettia lobata 11
Palmaria spp. 12 13 14 15
Alga parda
Ecklonia maxima 16
Egregia menziesii 17
Eisenia spp 18
Laminaria spp. 19 20 21
Macrocistys pyrifera 22 23 24 25
Phyllospora comosa 26
Undaria pinnatifida 27
Alga verde
Ulva spp 28 29 30 31 32
1. Shepherd y Cannon, 1988.; 2. Troell et al., 2006 ; 3. Jackson et al.,2001 (G. edulis); 4. Sales y Britz, 2001 (G. gracilis); 5. Pang et al., 2006 (G. textorii); 6. Mcbride et al., 2001 (G.
conferta); 7. Liao et al., 2003 (G. tenuistipitata); 8. Allen et al., 2006; 9. Neori et al., 1998; Mcbride et al., 2001(G. conferta); 10. Capinpin y Corre, 1996 (G. heteroclada); Reyes y
Fermin, 2003 (G. bailinae); 11. Fleming, 1995; 12. Mercer et al., 1993 (P. palmata); Demetropoulos and Langdon, 2004 (P. mollis); 13 y 14. Demetropoulos and Langdon, 2004 (P.
mollis); 15. Mercer et al., 1993 (P. palmata); 16. Naidoo et al., 2006; 17. Nelson et al., 2002; 18. Uki et al., 1985a; 19. Troell et al., 2006 (L. pallida); 20. Qi et al., 2010 (L. japonica);
21. Mercer et al., 1993 (L. digitata); 22. Badillo et al., 2007; 23 y 24. Serviere-Zaragoza et al., 2001; 25. Allen et al., 2006; 26. Vandepeer y Van Barneveld 2003; 27. Sakata et al.,
1984; 28. Boarder y Shpigel, 2001 (U. rigida); 29. Naidoo et al., 2006; 30. Shuenhoff et al., 2003; 31 y 32. Mcbride et al., 2001 (U. lactuca)
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Entre los dintintos nutrientes, la oreja de mar require para un óptimo crecimiento
niveles adecuados de protenias de alta calidad (Uki et al., 1985a; Mai et al., 1995a, b;
Britz y Hecht, 1997; Bautista-Teruel y Millamena, 1999; Gómez-Montes et al., 2003;
Reyes y Fermín, 2003; Viana et al., 2007). En consecuencia, para el uso eficiente de
este componente dietético esencial pero caro, el abalón debe emplearlo para crecer y no
como fuente energética. Los factores más importantes que afectan a la utilización de la
proteína son su digestibilidad, el balance y disponibilidad de los aminoácidos, así como
la relación proteína-energía (Fleming et al., 1996).
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Referencias
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Proteínas 30 31 35 38 32 40 35 35 28 35 27 36 38 35 44
Carbohidratos 48 33 39 40 44 42 48 45 43
Fibra 6 4.3 1
Cenizas 3 11 8 9 6 16
Humedad 5 10 6
P: e ratio* 47 85 96
1. Uki et al., 1985b (Japón: H. discus hannai); 2. Mai et al., 1995b (Irlanda: H. tuberculata y H. discus
hannai); 3. Viana et al., 1993 (México: H. fulgens); 4. Guzmán y Viana, 1998 (México: H. fulgens); 5.
Bautista-Teruel y Millamena, 1999 (Filipinas: H.asinina); 6. Jackson et al., 2001 (Australia: H. asinina); 7.
Serviere-Zaragoza et al., 2001 (México: H. fulgens); 8. Shipton y Britz, 2001(Sudáfrica: H. midae); 9.
Bautista-Teruel et al., 2003 (Filipinas: H. asinina); 10. Gómez-Montes et al., 2003 (México: H. fulgens);
11. Reyes y Fermín, 2003 (Filipinas: H. asinina); 12. Sales et al., 2003 (Sudáfrica: H. midae); 13. Thongrod
et al., 2003 (Tailandia: H. asinina); 14. Naidoo et al., 2006 (Sudáfrica: H. midae); 15. Hernández et al.,
2009 (Chile: H. rufescens). * Ratio proteína: energía.
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de proteínas han sido ensilados de vísceras de peces o del propio abalón (Viana et al.,
1996; Guzmán y Viana, 1998). Además, en ocasiones, con el fin de aportar los
aminoácidos esenciales para estas species, las dietas deben ser suplementadas con
aporte de aminoácidos sintéticos tales como metionina, treonina o arginina (Mai et al.,
1995b; Guzmán y Viana, 1998; Serviere-Zaragoza et al., 2001; García-Esquivel et al.,
2007).
De entre todas las fuentes testadas, la harina de pescado es la única que da lugar a
un buen crecimiento cuando se incluye como única fuente proteica (Fleming et al.,
1996). Sin embargo, aspectos concernientes al uso sostenible de la harina de pescado en
la acuicultura, han llevado al Fondo Mundial para la Naturaleza a establecer
restricciones en cuanto a su uso dentro de la normativa para la producción internacional
de abalón (WWF, 2010). Así, para abalones alimentados con dietas que contengan
harina de pescado, dicha normativa establece que no debe emplearse más de un kilo de
pescado para producir un kilo de este molusco. Cabe añadir que hasta el momento, la
producción europea de oreja de mar está principalmente enfocadada hacia productos
orgánicos o con certificación ecológica, lo que implica que en su proceso de cultivo, no
se emplean harinas de pescado, medicamentos o fertilizantes. En este sentido, el
desarrollo de dietas compuestas para abalón que no contengan harina de pescado,
tendría ventajas comerciales no sólo para los consumidores europeos, cuya
preocupación por el medio ambiente es cada vez mayor, sino también para los
productores que podrían validar la sostenibilidad ambiental y social de su proceso
productivo (WWF, 2010).
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Tabla 4. Composición nutricional (% peso seco) de las dietas compuestas ensayadas para el abalón: Fuentes proteicas y niveles de inclusión
Nutriente Dieta
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Fuente proteica y contenido
Harina de pescado 47 41-71 44 9-62 40 7-17 30 12-48 20
Harina de soja 60 10 17 20 10 19-37 10
Caseína 32 8-41 32
Harina de langostino 7-20
Ensilaje 20
Spirulina spp. 43 15-30
Harinas de semillas de algodón 2 5
Harina de girasol 24-48 5
Levadura de tórula 57 24-40
Harinas vegetales 52
Harina de maiz 47 10 10 15
Harina de laminarias 12 10 12
Extracto d e aceite de soja 63
Albúmina de huevo 37
Huevos enteros 34
1. Uki et al., 1985b (Japón: H. discus hannai) ; 2. Mai et al., 1995b (Irlanda : H. tuberculata y H. discus hannai); 3. Britz et al, 1996a (Sudáfrica: H. midae); 4. Britz et
al, 1996b (Sudáfrica: H. midae); 5. Fleming et al,, 1996 (revisión); 6. Britz y Hecht, 1997 (Sudáfrica: H. midae); 7. Guzmán y Viana, 1998 (México: H. fulgens); 8.
Bautista-Teruel y Millamena, 1999 (Fipipinas: H. asinina); 9. Serviere-Zaragoza et al., 2001 (México: H. fulgens); 10. Shipton y Britz, 2001(Sudáfrica: H. midae); 11.
Sales y Britz, 2002 (Sudáfrica: H. midae).
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Tabla 4. (Continuación)
Dieta
Nutriente
12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Harina de soja 20 35 35 15 34 62 15 10
Caseína 4-48 35 16-19
Spirulina spp. 20 20 10 10
Proteína de soja aislada 9-17 5
Harina de lupino 10
Algas -
12. Bautista-Teruel et al., 2003 (Filipinas: H. asinina); 13. Gómez-Montes et al., 2003 (México: H. fulgens); 14. Reyes y Fermín, 2003 (Filipinas: H. asinina); 15. Sales et
al., 2003 (Sudáfrica: H. midae); 16. Thongrod et al., 2003 (Tailandia: H. asinina); 17. Vandepeer et al., 2003 (Australia: H. rubra y H. laevigata); 18. Naidoo et al., 2006
(Sudáfrica: H. midae); 19. Troell et al, 2006 (Sudáfrica: H. midae); 20. García-Esquivel et al, 2007 (México: H. fulgens); 21. Viana et al, 2007 (México: H. fulgens); 22.
Hernández et al., 2009 (Chile: H. rufescens); 23. Green et al., 2011 (Sudáfrica: H. midae).
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Los lídidos son un constituyente esencial de la dieta no sólo por su alto valor
energético y como fuente de ácidos grasos, imprescindibles para el metabolismo celular
y mantenimiento de la estructura de las membranas (Corraze, 2001), sino también como
fuente de vitaminas liposolubles (Fleming et al., 1996). Además, los lípidos
(especialmente los ácidos grasos ploiinsaturados de cadena larga) son determinantes en
el sabor y olor de los alimentos marinos. En consecuencia, se han llevado a cabo
numerosas investigaciones referentes a este nutriente para evaluar, entre otro aspectos,
la respuesta del abalón a distintos niveles de lípidos dietéticos (Uki et al., 1985a; 1986;
Mai et al., 1995a; Bautista-Teruel et al., 2011); la obtención de los lípidos necesarios
con la inclusion de aceite de pescado en las dietas (Dunstan et al, 1996); el efecto del
ratio proteína-energía sobre el crecimiento, indices nutricionales y composición corporal
(Britz y Hecht, 1997; Bautista-Teruel y Millamena, 1999; Gómez-Montes et al., 2003;
Green et al., 2011); el papel de los lípidos en el crecimiento y la maduración gonadal
(Nelson et al., 2002), la composición en ácidos grasos de los tejidos (Dunstan et al.,
1996; Grubert et al., 2004; Li et al., 2002; Durazo y Viana, 2013; Hernández et al.,
2013) o la influencia en el crecimiento del ratio lípidos: carbohidratos y la energía bruta
de las dietas de abalón (Thongrod et al., 2003).
En general, al igual que en otro moluscos y peces herbívoros, el requerimiento
lipídico de la oreja de mar es muy bajo (Mai et al., 1995a), lo que según diversos
autores está relacionado con el bajo uso de los lípidos como fuente energética derivado
de su baja tasa metabólica (Durazo-Beltrán et al., 2004). Y lo que es más, niveles altos
de lípidos en la dieta (>7%) parecen afectar de forma negativa al crecimiento del abalón
reduciendo la captación de otros nutrientes tal y como se ha visto para diversas especies
como H. laevigata (Van Barneveld et al., 1998); H. tuberculata y H. discus hannai
(Mai et al.,1995a); H. midae (Britz y Hecht, 1997; Green et al., 2011), H. fulgens
(Durazo-Beltran et al., 2003, 2004); H. asinina (Thongrod et al., 2003) o H. corrugata
(Montano-Vargas et al., 2005).
A pesar de que el rango de los niveles lipídicos testados en las dietas de abalón
ha sido muy amplio (2-19% PS; Tabla 5), en la mayoría de los casos los lípidos
constituyen unicamente un 3-5% de la dieta (Uki et al., 1985a).
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En cuanto a las fuentes, los lípidos en la dietas artificiales son aportados como
aceite de pescado/marina (Guzmán y Viana, 1998; Sales y Britz, 2002; Thongrod et al.,
2003; Green et al., 2011), aceite vegetal (Shipton y Britz, 2001) o una combinación de
ambas (Mai et al., 1995a; Britz, 1996a,b; Bautista-Teruel y Millamena, 1999; Shipton y
Britz, 2001; Bautista-Teruel et al., 2003; Gómez-Montes et al., 2003; Reyes y Fermín,
2003) (Tabla 5). En ocasiones, la misma grasa contenida en la harina de pescado es el
único aporte en la dieta. Para prevenir el enranciamiento del aceite, normalmente se le
añade vitamina E, (Uki et al., 1985a, b).
Son numerosos los trabajos que han encontrado que la composición en ácidos
grasos de los tejidos de los animales que se alimentan de algas, como el abalón, es muy
distintas de la de los carnívoros o aquellos que se alimentan de plancton, lo que se ha
relacionado como un reflejo de la diferente composición de sus respectivos regímenes
dietéticos (Dunstan et al., 1996; Grubert et al., 2004).
Uki y colaboradores (1985a) estimaron que el nivel de n-3 PUFA de una dieta
que contiene un 5% de lípidos debe ser aldedor del 1% (revisado por Uki y Watanabe,
1992) lo que representa un 20% del total de los lípidos.
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Tabla 5. Composición nutricional (% peso seco) de dietas artificiales testadas para el abalón: Fuentes lipídicas y niveles de inclusión
Dieta
Nutriente
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Fuente lipídica y contenido
Aceite de soja
1.5 0.5 1 1-5
Aceite de calamar
0.5
Lípidos totales 1.2-5 0.6-12 5y8 6-8 6 4-5 3-4 1.5-5 3 6-7 5 1-19 5.3 0-10
1. Uki et al., 1985a, b (Japón : H. discus hannai); 2. Mai et al., 1995a (Irlanda: H. tuberculata y H. discus hannai); 3. Britz, 1996a, b (Sudáfrica: H. midae); 4. Guzmán y
Viana, 1998 (México: H.fulgens); 5. Bautista-Teruel y Millamena, 1999 (Filipinas: H.asinina); 6. Shipton y Britz, 2001 (Sudáfrica: H. midae); 7. Sales y Britz, 2002
(Sudáfrica: H. midae); 8. Viana et al, 2002 (Revisión); 9. Bautista-Teruel et al., 2003 (Filipinas: H.asinina); 10. Gómez-Montes et al., 2003 (México: H.fulgens); 11. Reyes y
Fermín., 2003 (Filipinas: H.asinina); 12. Thongrod et al., 2003 (Tailandia: H. asinina); 13. Naidoo et al., 2006 (Sudáfrica: H. midae); 14. Bautista-Teruel et al., 2011
(Filipinas: H. asinina)
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Las fuentes más empleadas como aporte energético son los cereales tales como
harina de trigo o maíz, harina de soja y almidón de maíz o de arróz. En relación a los
almidones, en la mayoría de las dietas experimentales y también en las comerciales,
éstos juegan un importante doble papel no sólo como fuente de energía, sino también
como aglutinante (Tabla 6).
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de 2-3 días (Fleming et al., 1996), pudiendo perder entre un 30-40% de su peso seco tras
48 horas de inmersión (Maguire, 1996; Bautista- Teruel et al., 2003).
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Tabla 6. Composición nutricional (% peso seco) de las dietas artificales testadas para el abalón: Energía / aglutinantes fuentes y niveles
Nutriente Dieta
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Energía/aglutinantes fuentes y
niveles
Dextrina 32-43
Harina de soja * 15
Algas * 7 9 5 7
Alginato de sodio 18 4
Agar 20
Gelatina 5 6 6 5-6 6
Carbohidratos totales 47 40-50 33-47 47 46-50 28-82 42-44 21-49 31-48 39-47 43
Celulosa 5 4 5 2
1. Mai et al., 1995a (Irlanda: H. tuberculata y H. discus hannai); 2. Fleming et al., 1996 (revisión) ; 3. Guzmán y Viana, 1998 (México: H.fulgens); 4. Bautista-Teruel y Millamena, 1999
(Filipinas: H.asinina); 5. Serviere-Zaragoza et al., 2001(México: H.fulgens); 6. Shipton y Britz, 2001(Sudáfrica: H. midae); 7. Sales et al., 2003 (Sudáfrica: H. midae); 8. Bautista-Teruel et al.,
2003 (Filipinas: H.asinina); 9. Gómez-Montes et al., 2003 (México: H.fulgens); 10. Thongrod et al., 2003 (Tailandia: H. asinina); 11. Reyes y Fermín., 2003 (Filipinas: H. asinina); 12. Durazo-
Beltrán et al., 2004 (México: H. fulgens); 13. Naidoo et al., 2006 (Sudáfrica: H. midae); 14. García-Esquivel et al., 2007 (México: H.fulgens)
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Celulosa 45
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Tabla 8. Composición nutricional (% peso seco) de dietas artificiales testadas para el abalón. Ingredientes secundarios
Nutriente Dieta
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Vitaminas y minerales
Mezcla de vitaminas 1.5 2 2 3 1.7 3 0.4 3 1.5 1.3 1.3
Alfa-Tocoferol 0.01
Vitamina E 0.1
Fosfato dicálcico 3 3
Bentonita 15
1. Uki et al., 1985a,b (Japón: H. discus hannai); 2. Mai et al., 1995a (Irlanda: H. tuberculata y H. discus hannai); 3. Britz et al., 1997 (Sudáfrica: H. midae); 4. Guzmán y Viana, 1998
(México: H. fulgens); 5. Bautista-Teruel et al., 1999 (Filipinas: H. asinina); 6. Serviere-Zaragoza et al., 2001(México: H. fulgens); 7. Reyes y Fermín, 2003 (Filipinas: H. asinina); 8.Sales et
al., 2003 (Sudáfrica: H. midae); 9. Thongrod et al., 2003 (Tailandia: H. asinina); 10. Vandepeer et al., 2003 (Australia: H. rubra y H. laevigata); 11. Naidoo et al., 2006 (Sudáfrica: H.
midae); 12. García-Esquivel et al., 2007(México: H. fulgens); 13. Viana et al., 2007 (México: H. fulgens)
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Tabla 9. Resumen de varios estudios nutricionales en relación al crecimiento del abalón, durante las últimas 3 décadas de desarrollo del cultivo
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Tabla 9. Continuación
Composición proximal y contenido Consumo y eficacia de
Crecimiento y supervivencia
energético utilización del alimento
Autor Asunto Tª Días Especie Tratamiento DGSL WG
P L C E P/E WS FCR FI FCE PER T0 P0 SGR Superv. (%)
(μm d-1) (%)
25 0.6 4 75 0.6 93
25 3 4.2 80 0.8 95
Dietas 25 5 4.3 80 0.7 95
H.
artificiales 25 7 4.4 80 0.6 0.7 95
tuberculata
25 9 4.6 80 0.7 97
25 11.6 4.6 80 0.6 95
Mai et Niveles de P. palmata 18 4 3.7 0.9 97
al., lípidos 25 0.6 4 75 0.6 87
13 100
1995a 25 3 4.2 80 0.9 92
Dietas 25 5 4.3 80 0.9 98
H. discus artificiales 25 7 4.4 80 0.9 90
0.4
hannai 25 9 4.6 80 0.8 88
25 11.6 4.6 80 0.7 92
3.
P. palmata 18 4 1 98
7
Caseína 31 5 0.7 0.5 4.7 0.6 45
Harina
29 5 0.8 0.8 6.5 0.8 58
pescado
Fuentes Harina soja 32 5 1 0.6 3.4 0.6 41
Britz,
proteicas; 19 124 H. midae Spirulina spp. 19 5 0.8 0.8 3.9 21 1.8 0.8 65
1996b macroalgas Levadura
29 5 1 0.7 3.3 0.6 42
tórula
P. corallorhiza 20 2.8 1.3 2.2 0.4 29
E. maxima 10 3.4 2.8 3 0.6 54
H. midae 34 6 3.6 1.4 9.3 3.6 2.2 103
Britz y Proteína; 72 Almidón, 10 0.2
pequeño 44 6 3.6 1.2 9.4 2.3 2.1 108
Hetch, Energía 18 pescado,
H. midae 44 10 4 1.4 34 2.2 0.3 43
1997 ratio; Talla 142 celulosa 36 7.3
grande 44 6 3.6 1.2 35 2.5 0.5 58
Harina pescado 39 6 41 86 1 1.1 1 65
Guzmán Sustitución
22- Víscera, harina
y Viana, harina de 179 H. fulgens 36 8 40 76 1.6 1.8 7 1.1 71
15 de soja
1998 pescado
Abfeed 38 6 48 90 0.9 1.0 0.8 49
Harina pescado 22 6 47 3.2 2.3 2.2 0.5 222 252 85
Harina de
Bautista- Proteína / 27- 28 6 40 3.1 1.8 2.3 0.7 244 307 95
90 langostino
Teruel et Niveles 31 H. asinina 16 0.7
Harina soja 31 6 33 3 1.5 2.5 0.8 248 347 85
al., 1999 energía
Garcilariopsis
17 0.5 35 2.2 7 0.1 0.06 135 134 85
bailinae
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Autor Asunto Tª Días Especie Tratamiento Composición proximal y contenido Consumo y eficacia de Crecimiento y supervivencia
energético utilización del alimento
DGSL WG Superv..
P L C E P/E WS FCR FI FCE PER T0 P0 SGR
(μm d-1) (%) (%)
Eisenia
7.6 52 0.27 19 93
arborea
Macrocystis
Serviere- 12 63 0.7 46 93
Macroalgas pyrifera
Zaragoza
y dieta 20 106 H. fulgens Gelidium 17 0.4
et al., 18 33 0.32 23 89
artificial robustum
2001
Phyyospadix
16 30 0.45 25 95
torreyi
Dieta artificial 36 59 0.65 42 97
Carica papaya 25 5 41 3 6.0 40 14.7 1.8 71 59 80
Leucaena
Reyes y Fuentes de 25 5 47 3 13 37 14.7 0.9 47 28 100
leucocephala
Fermín, porteínas 28-
120 H. asinina Moringa
2003 terrestres 30 25 5 42 3 4 38 11.4 1.9 86 90 95
oliefera
Azolla pinnata 25 5 39 3 5 39 14 1.9 76 75 90
G. bailinae 13 1 38 38 40 15.3 2.1 61 84 90
Harina pescado 28 3 43 3 1 3.9 0.8 400 95
Fuentes de Harina de
Bautista- 27 3 42 3 1 4.2 0.9 454 95
proteínas 28- langostino
Teruel et 90 H. asinina 11 0.7
animales y 31
al., 2003 Harina soja 28 3 44 3 1 4.1 0.7 326 85
vegetales
Spirulina 27 3 42 3 1 4.6 0.9 421 85
26 6 1.6 4 62 1.6 76.4 3 1.3 61
Pescado, soja, 31 6 1.4 4 74 1.4 93 3 1.5 7
Gómez- Proteínas /
21 60 kelp, maíz
Montes et Niveles de H. fulgens 35 6 1.4 4 85 1.4 110 3.1 12 0.2 1.9 92
modificado,
al., 2003 energía 40 7 1.5 4 100 1.5 138 3.4 2.4 123
almidón
44 7 1.6 4 108 1.6 120 2.7 2.5 123
Soja, almidón 38 1 48 4.2 1.3 779 81
Thongrod Lípidos / Spirulina spp., 38 6 43 4.5 1.4 615 93
27- 11-
et al., 196 H. asinina aceite de 37 10 39 4.7 1.9 0.9 353 90
carbohidratos 30 12
2003 pescado,
36 15 36 4.9 3.2 223 75
Gracilaria
37 19 31 5.2 7.4 97 76
Durazo- Laminarias; 0.1 99.4 0.9 29 29
Niveles de
Beltrán et 20 60 H. fulgens soja; ensilado 39 4 36 6.4
lípidos 3 95.9 0.7 40 30
al., 2004 pescado
H. P. palmata 21 42 4.3 3.5 0.7 230
tuberculata P. palmata + 23 2
Legrand, 7- grande 24 41 5.6 3.6 0.6
Macroalgas 183 U. lactuca
2005 17 H. P. palmata 21 42 2 3.7 1.3
tuberculata 10 0.1
pequeña P. p+ U. l. 24 41 3.9 5.8 1.2
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193
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P= protenías; L= lípidos; C= carbohidratos; E= energía bruta (Kcalg-1); P/E= ratio proteína: energía; WS= Estabilidad en el agua (“Water Stability”) (Guzmán y Viana, 1998;
Hernández et al., 2009 (12 h inmersión); Mai, 1995a (48 h inmersion); FCR=Tasa de conversion del alimento (“Feed Conversion Ratio”); FI= Alimento ingerido (“Feed
intake”) expresado en % BW día-1 (Jackson, 2001) o por mg abalón día-1 (Fleming, 1995); FCE= Eficiencia de conversion del alimento (“Feed Conversion Efficiency”) (%);
PER = Tasa de eficiencia proteica (“Protein Efficiency Ratio”) ; T0 = talla inicial; P0 = peso inicial; SGR = Tasa específica de crecimiento (“Specific Growth Rate”); DGSL=
crecimiento diario en talla (“Daily Growth Rate, in shell lenght”; WG= Peso ganado (“Weight gain”); Superv.= Supervivencia.
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195
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peces o langostinos con algas, microalgas, mariscos y/o algas, pudiendo desarrollarse
tanto en aguas costeras como en estanques, siendo válida incluso para cultivos
superintensivos (Neori et al., 2004; Zhou et al., 2006; Cunha et al., 2012; Liping et al.,
2012).
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Así, en acuicultura marina, los géneros algales más comunmente utilizado como
organismos biofiltrantes son el género Ulva: U. lactuca (Cohen y Neori, 1991; Neori et
al., 1991, 2000, 2003; Shpigel et al., 1993; Schuenhoff et al., 2003; Vandermeulen y
Gordin, 1990, Naidoo et al., 2006; Robertson-Andersson et al., 2011; Ben-Ari et al.,
2012), U. reticulata (Msuya et al., 2006), U. rigida (Jiménez del Río et al., 1994, 1996;
García, 1999; Toledo et al., 2000; Viera et al., 2006, 2009b; Izquierdo et al., 2013) y
Gracilaria: G. lemaneiformis (Fei et al., 2000, 2002; Fei, 2004; Zhou et al., 2006;
Yongjian et al., 2008; Mao et al., 2009), G. chilensis (Buschmann et al., 1994, 1995,
1996, 2001; Chow et al., 2001; Marquardt et al., 2010), G. changii (Phang et al., 1996),
G. parvispora (Nelson et al., 2001; Nagler et al., 2003), G. tenuistipitata (Haglund y
Pedersen, 1993), G. gracilis (Anderson et al., 1999; Njobeni, 2005; Hansen et al., 2006;
Naidoo et al., 2006), G. textorii (Pang et al., 2006), G.lichenoides (Xu et al., 2008) o G.
cornea (Viera et al., 2006, 2009b; Izquierdo et al., 2013). Sin embargo, a pesar de que la
tecnología de cultivo industrial y la capacidad de captación de nutrientes del género
Ulva son de los mayores conocidos (Marínez-Aragón et al., 2002), el valor comercial de
la biomasa resultante es bajo. Por el contrario, de las especies del género Gracilaria, a
pesar de que presentan crecimientos generalmente menores (Marinho-Soriano et al.,
2002; Nagler et al., 2003), sí se obtienen bio-productos de altísimo valor commercial,
como es el caso del agar-agar (Neori et al., 2004).
Otros géneros de valor comercial como Porphyra (Chopin et al., 1999; Carmona
et al., 2001; Fei, 2001, Yarish et al., 2001), Palmaria (Demetropoulos y Langdon, 2004;
Matos et al., 2006), Hypnea (Langton et al., 1977; Viera et al., 2009b) o laminarias
(Laminaria and Macrocystis), también han sido satisfactoriamente integrados en
sistemas multitróficos (Chopin y Bastarache, 2002; Buschmann et al., 2008).
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9.2. OBJETIVOS
Dicho objetivo se abordó no sólo con el fin de identificar dietas idóneas para el
crecimiento de los animales, sino también para evaluar las ventajas del cultivo multi-
trófico de algas y H. tuberculata coccinea en sistemas integrados, que permitan tanto la
sostenibilidad de la futura producción de abalón como una mejora en el crecimiento.
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Figura 14. Fotografía desde satélite de las Islas Canarias y ubicación del ICCM (Foto del
Google Earth).
Tanto las instalaciones destinadas al cultivo del abalón del ICCM, como los
estudios realizados, han sido financiados por proyectos de Canarias (PI 2007/034),
España (JACUMAR Oreja de mar, 2005/07; JACUMAR Multitrófico, TR 2003/08) y
Europa (SUDEVAB: FP 7-SME-2007-1/BSG-SME).
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Figura 15. Acondicionamiento de reproductores (A); cultivo larvario (B); post-larvas y pre- B
engorde (C); cultivo de diatomeas (D); zona de engorde (E); zona experimental (F) producción
de macroalgas en el exterior (G, H).
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Figura 16. Hembra (A) y macho (B) de H. tuberculata coccinea en estadío 2-3 de
maduración gonadal.
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obtuvieron por separado con el fin de controlar el ratio de gametos empleado durante la
fecundación para así tener un mejor control sobre el proceso de fertilización (Fig. 17).
Durante la inducción al desove los recipientes se mantuvieron en oscuridad. Se
utilizaron dos métodos de inducción, el método del peróxido de hidrógeno (Morse et al.,
1977) y el del ultravioleta (Kikuchi y Uki, 1974).
3.2.3. Fertilización
Las distintas fases larvarias de la oreja de mar comienzan con la larva trocófora
y acaban con la formación del cuarto túbulo en los tentáculos cefálicos, si bien las larvas
se consideran preparadas para el asentamiento cuando el tercer túbulo aparece, y las
larvas empiezan a explorar la superficie (Fig. 19).
Figura19. Larva trocófora con cilios (A), aparición del tercer túbulo en los tentáculos cefálicos
(B) (Courtois de ViÇose et al., 2007).
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Figura 21. Especies de diatomeas suministradas a las postlarvas: Proschkinia sp. (A),
Navicula incerta (B), Amphora sp. (C) y Nitzschia sp. (D) (Courtois de ViÇose et al., 2012b).
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Los animales mantuvieron estas dietas durante 4-5 meses, cuando de forma
gradual, ya juveniles, se les comenzó a alimentar con macroalgas: Ulva rigida (Estudio
I); Ulva rigida, Hypnea spinella y Gracilaria cornea (Estudio II); o Ulva rigida y
Gracilaria cornea (Estudios III y IV).
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Figura 22. Tanques de peces y tanques semicirculares para el cultivo de algas (CBM-ULPGC).
En cuanto a los Estudios III y IV, las algas U. rigida y G. cornea fueron
cultivadas en el sistema de cultivo multitrófico integrado en las instalaciones de cultivo
del Grupo de Investigación en Acuicultura (GIA, Islas Canarias, España). En dicho
sistema, los efluentes generales de la nave fueron conducidos a un tanque de
sedimentación de 11 m3 para eliminar las material en suspension, y de allí bombeados a
tanques exteriores donde la radiación máxima es de alrededor de 1600 µmol fotones m-2
s-1. El cultivo de las algas se realizó en tanques plásticos circulars de 1.5 m3 de
volumen, y la aireación se suministró mediante manguera porosa circular situada en el
fondo del tanque (Fig. 23). Las algas se inocularon a una densidad de 1 y 4 g l-1 para U.
rigida y G. cornea, respectivamente. La tasa de renovación del agua de los tanques
algales fue de 12 vol día-1, y TAN (N-amonio total) que entró a los tanques osciló entre
los 10 y 30 µmoles.
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Figura 24. Biomasa algal producida en los biofiltros y centrífuga para el secado.
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Para preparar los tratamientos experimentales, una vez molidos todos los
ingredientes, se pesaron y mezclaron hasta homogeneizarlos. Las dietas se procesaron a
través de una máquina de pasta industrial (Parmigiana, RV3, Italia), de la que se
obtuvieron unas cintas de 2 mm de grosor, que se cortaron en cuadrados de
aproximadamente 0.5 x 0.5 cm. Una vez procesados, los piensos se secaron en una
estufa a 38ºC durante 24 h, se empaquetaron al vacío, y se almacenaron en una cámara a
4ºC hasta ser usados (Fig. 25 y 26). Se recogieron muestras para el análisis proximal y
se conservaron a -80ºC.
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Figura 25. Detalles del procesado de las dietas: ingredientes, preparación y secado.
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Figura 26. Producto final: dietas experimentales con ingredientes exclusivamente vegetales.
Los detalles tanto del diseño experimental como de los protocolos de muestreo
se describen de forma detallada en cada uno de los capítulos correspondientes a los
distintos experimentos. En esta sección, unicamente se describen, de forma general, los
materiales y métodos empleados en dichos estudios.
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Figura 28. Réplicas de las dietas algales: Estudios I y II (A), Estudio III (B) y Estudio IV (C);
o con dietas compuestas: Estudio IV (D).
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Para una estimación real del consumo de alimento, se usaron como control
unidades experimentales con alimento pero sin animales. En los experimentos en tierra,
los animales estuvieron bajo un fotoperíodo natural de aproximadamente 12 h L / 12 h
D.
Para evaluar el crecimiento, tanto en talla como en peso, se midió mensualmente
el SL y TFBW del 100% de la población de cada réplica.
En el experimento en el mar, las jaulas se limpiaron mensualmentede con el fin
de evitar la acumulación de fouling.
Figura 29. Unidad experimental y tanque empleado para el cultivo de los juveniles (Estudios I
y II).
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Figura 30. Sistema de cultivo empleado para los ejemplares de 30 - 45 mm (Estudio III).
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se suspendieron desde las estachas de las jaulas de peces (25 m Ø), situándose
aproximadamente a 10 m de la superficie del agua (Fig. 33-35).
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Figura 33. Diagrama de la instalación en el mar para el engorde de abalón. A: Planta de las
jaulas de peces. B: Detalle de la disposición de los ortacs.
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Figure 35. Imágenes de los ortacs sumergidos junto a las jaulas de peces (Fotos de Elodie
Turpin).
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La tasa de crecimiento en talla al día (μm d-1), se calculó para cada muestreo y al
final de cada uno de los ensayos mediante la siguiente ecuación:
(𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺 − 𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺)
𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 = 𝒙𝒙 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
𝒕𝒕
donde SL1 es la talla media inicial de los animales; SL2 es la talla media final al tiempo t
(días de cultivo).
(𝒘𝒘𝟐𝟐 − 𝒘𝒘𝟏𝟏 )
𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾 (%) = 𝒙𝒙 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
𝒘𝒘𝟏𝟏
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En el Estudio III, las dietas artificiales se suministraron por la tarde, en una sola
toma de lunes a sábado (ad libitum). El pienso sobrante se sifonaba todas las mañanas a
las 9:00 h, con excepción de los domingos. La estimación del consumo se hizo en peso
seco mediante la relación del peso seco del pienso sobrante con el peso seco del pienso
suministrado (Fig. 36). El dato del consumo se corrigió restándole la pérdida debida a la
lixiviación, que se estimó a partir de dejar el pienso durante el mismo período de 17-h
(16:00-9:00h), en las unidades de control sin animales, y secando la dieta sobrante hasta
peso constante.
En todos los ensayos, el consumo de alimento por individuo y día, se calculó
dividiendo el alimento ingerido cada semana entre el número de días y entre los
ejemplares de cada réplica.
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Figura 36. Secado del pienso sobrante para la estimación del consumo.
𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺
𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪 =
𝑺𝑺
Figura 37. Evaluación del índice de condición: disección y pesado del abalón.
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3.6.8. Supervivencia
(𝑷𝑷𝒊𝒊 − 𝑷𝑷𝒇𝒇)
% 𝑯𝑯 = 𝒙𝒙 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
𝑷𝑷𝒊𝒊
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𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷 𝒙𝒙 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
% 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 =
𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷
Siendo:
223
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224
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225
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9.4. CONCLUSIONES
10. El perfil de ácidos grasos de las algas estudiadas fue el característico de las
algas verdes y rojas siendo el ácido palmítico el más abundante, en la
clorofita Ulva rigida, predominaron los ácidos grasos poliinsaturados de C16
y C18 siendo mínimos los C20. Los niveles de DHA fueron muy bajos en todas
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las algas estudiadas, por tanto este ácido graso no parece ser esencial para H.
t. coccinea, ya que todas ellas dieron lugar a un óptimo crecimiento.
6. Las orejas de mar alimentadas con las algas cultivadas en efluentes de cultivos
marinos tuvieron un crecimiento mucho mayor que aquellas alimentadas con
las no enriquecidas, lo que sugiere que el nitrógeno puede ser un factor
limitante para el crecimiento de H. tuberculata coccinea.
7. Los animales alimentados con las dietas mixtas, tanto enriquecidas como sin
enriquecer, tuvieron un crecimiento mucho mayor que los alimentados con
dietas monoalgales, indicando que el abalón satisface sus requerimentos
nutricionales a partir de la ingesta de varias dietas, pudiendo verse limitados
cuando se suministra una unica dieta.
10. Los resultados indican de forma clara que la oreja de mar H. tuberculata
coccinea puede crecer de forma eficiente en un sistema de cultivo integrado,
sugiriendo que este tipo sistemas multitróficos algas-abalón, podría formar
parte del desarrollo de la producción industrial de este molusco en las Islas
Canarias.
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11. La alimentación con algas frescas dio lugar a un crecimiento mucho mayor que
el obtenido con cualquiera de los piensos compuestos, indicando el alto valor
nutricional de las algas producidas en el sistema integrado.
13. Los elevados contenidos, en relación a las dietas, de ARA en los animales
alimentados con las dietas experimentales y de EPA en los alimentados con
algas frescas, denotaron la presencia de las respectivas elongasas Δ4 y Δ5
desaturasas. Sin embargo el bajo contenido de DHA sugirió de nuevo la no
esencialidad de este ácido graso.
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229
Development of a Sustainable Grow-out Technology for Abalone
Haliotis tuberculata coccinea (Reeve) as a New Species for Aquaculture
Diversification in the Canary Islands
REFERENCES
References
10. REFERENCES
Alcántara, L., Noro, T., 2006. Growth of the abalone Haliotis diversicolor (Reeve) fed
with macroalgae in floating net cage and plastic tank. Journal of Shellfish
Research 37, 708-717.
Allen, V.J., Marsden, I.D., Ragg, N.L.C., Gieseg, S., 2006. The effect of tactile
stimulants on feeding, growth, behaviour, and meat quality of cultured blackfoot
abalone, Haliotis iris. Aquaculture 257, 294-308.
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