5 Aggregates

5.1 Introduction
The term ‘aggregate’ is derived from the Latin term ‘aggregātus’ meaning ‘collected’. In concrete
technology it refers to natural, processed, recycled or reclaimed material used with cementitious
material for making concrete or mortar. A large fraction of the volume of concrete is occupied by
aggregate. Although it normally functions as a chemically inert material, its characteristics have a
significant effect on the properties of concrete or mortar. Properties influenced by those of the
aggregate are summarised in Table 5.1. Currently, next to water, aggregate is the cheapest
component of concrete.
Table 5.1 – Properties of concrete influenced by the properties of aggregate
Concrete property Relevant aggregate property
Resistance to freezing and Sulfate soundness
thawing Resistance to freezing and thawing
Absorption
Porosity
Pore structure
Durability

Permeability
Texture, structure and lithology
Presence of clay and fines
Resistance to degradation
Abrasion resistance
Durability index
Alkali-aggregate reactivity Aggregate reactivity
Resistance to heating and cooling Coefficient of thermal expansion
Fire endurance Lithology
Quantity of fines
Strength Tensile strength
Compressive strength
Organic impurities
Particle shape
Clay lumps and friable particles
Maximum size
Volume change Grading and fineness modulus
Modulus of elasticity
Presence of fines
Presence of clay
Maximum size
Grading
Thermal characteristics Coefficient of thermal expansion
Modulus of elasticity
Specific heat
Thermal conductivity
Thermal diffusivity
47 CE 592 – Concrete Technology

Table 5.1 – Properties of concrete influenced by the properties of aggregate (continued.)

Concrete property Relevant aggregate property
Density Specific gravity
Particle shape
Grading
Fineness modulus
Maximum size
Light-weight particles
Density
Modulus of elasticity Modulus of elasticity
Poisson’s ratio
Strain capacity Strain capacity
Surface frictional properties Tendency to polish
Hardness, lithology
Particle shape and texture
Workability of freshly mixed concrete Grading
Fineness modulus
Particle shape and texture
Presence of fines
Presence of clay
Friable particles and degradation
Voids
Organic impurities
Economy Particle shape and texture
Grading
Maximum size
Required processing
Concrete making characteristics
Availability
Useful information regarding aggregates and some related US practices can be studied from ACI
Education Bulletin E1-07, which is a freely downloadable document from website:
http://www.concrete.org/Portals/0/Files/PDF/E1_07.PDF

5.2 Classification
Aggregates can be classified in many ways, and some are listed in Table 5.2.
Table 5.2 – Some forms of aggregate classification
Basis of classification Class
Source Natural
Artificial
Reclaimed
Recycled concrete
Mineral and rock type Igneous, e.g., granite
Metamorphic, e.g.; gneiss, marble
Sedimentary, e.g., limestone
Method of processing Uncrushed
Crushed
Blended
Manufactured (may involve thermal
processing as well)
48

Table 5.2 - Some forms of aggregate classification (continued.)

Basis of classification Class
Shape Rounded
Irregular
Angular
Flaky
Elongated
Flaky and elongated
Texture Glassy
Smooth
Rough
Crystalline
Granular
Honeycombed
Particle specific gravity Light-weight
Normal weight
Heavy
Particle size Coarse aggregate
Fine aggregate
Fines

Most of the traditional construction industry in Sri Lanka uses BS 812 series on testing of aggregates,
and BS 882 on the specifications for aggregate from natural sources for concrete. Many of the
BS 812 series specifications have been withdrawn by British Standards Institution (BSI) and replaced
by BS EN series. BS 882 was withdrawn by BSI on 1 June 2004 and replaced by BS EN 12620. Even
though withdrawn by BSI, the contents of those standards are worth studying. ASTM standards are
also being used by Sri Lankan construction industry.

5.3 Particle Shape and Texture

Shape and texture of aggregate particles influence the properties of concrete (Table 5.1). Some
classifications based on those properties of aggregate are listed in Table 5.2. Qualitative guidelines
on classification similar in line with BS 812 are given in Table 5.3.
Table 5.3 – Description of particle shapes
Classification Description Examples
Rounded Fully water-worn or completely River or seashore gravel;
shaped by attrition desert, seashore and wind-
blown sand
Irregular Naturally irregular, or partly Other gravels; land or
shaped by attrition and having excavated
rounded edges
Angular Possessing well-defined edges Crushed rocks of all types
formed at the intersection of
approximately plane faces
Flaky Material of which the thickness Laminated rock fragments
is small relative to the other
two dimensions
49 CE 592 – Concrete Technology

Table 5.3 – Description of particle shapes (continued.)

Classification Description Examples
Elongated Material, usually angular, in …
which the length is
considerably larger than the
other two dimensions
Flaky and elongated Material having the length …
considerably larger than the
width, and the width
considerably larger than the
thickness
An indication of the extent of angularity is given by the parameter angularity number, which is based
on the voids in a packed aggregate. Sphericity, flakiness index and elongation index are some other
indices related to shape.
Particle texture (Table 5.4) is the characteristic based on the profile of the surface of aggregate. The
texture influences the properties of interface zone or transition zone and those of fresh and
hardened concrete. The bond between aggregate and the surrounding cement paste depends
considerably on the texture of aggregate.
Table 5.4 – Classification of surface texture
Classification Description Examples
Glassy Conchoidal fracture Obsidian, glass
Smooth Water-worn, or smooth due to Marble
fracture of laminated or fine-
grained rock
Granular Fracture showing more or less Sandstone
uniform rounded grains
Rough Rough fracture of fine or Limestone
medium-grained rock
containing no easily visible
crystalline constituents
Crystalline Containing easily visible Granite, gneiss
crystalline constituents
Honeycombed With visible pore and cavities Pumice, foamed slag,
expanded clay
EN 933-6:2002 quantifies the surface characteristics of aggregate on the basis of an index parameter
called ‘flow coefficient’.

5.4 Particle Size and Grading

Depending on the nature of application, the suitable maximum size of aggregate and the distribution
of the amounts of particles of smaller sizes are decided. The distribution of the sizes of particles and
the respective amounts of each size present is called grading. It can be seen in Table 5.1 the
influence of particle size and grading of aggregates on the properties of both fresh and hardened
concrete, as well as the cost. Because of the significance of particle size and their grading, standard
specifications provide guidance.
Particle sizes and the proportion of sizes in an aggregate are commonly determined by a mechanical
procedure called sieve analysis using test sieves. Test sieves are measuring devices made of metallic
50

screens having precise openings or apertures. Sieves having large apertures and conforming to BS
and EN standards are made of perforated metal plate, whereas those having small apertures are
made of woven metallic wire cloth. The test sieves conforming to ASTM standards are woven wire
type, irrespective of the size of aperture. Test sieves, particularly those made of fine woven metallic
cloth, have to be used and cleaned with extreme care. Otherwise, the apertures will change and
hence precision of measurements will be lost.
Different standards prescribe different sieve sizes. Those covered by BS (already withdrawn), EN and
ASTM standards are shown in Table 5.5.
Table 5.5 – Sieve sizes specified by British, Euro and ASTM standards
EN 12620:2013
BS 812-103.1:1985 1 ASTM E11-13
EN 933-2: 1996
(mm)
125 125
100
75.0 75.0
63.0 63.0
56.0 A
50.0 50.0
A
45.0
40.0 B
37.5 37.5
31.5
28.0
25.0
A
22.4
20.0
19.0
16.0
14.0 14.0 B
12.5 B 12.5
11.2 A
10.0
9.5
8.00
6.30 6.3 B 6.30
5.6 A
5.00
4.75
4.00
3.35
2.36 2.36
2.00
1.70
1.18 1.18
1.00
51 CE 592 – Concrete Technology

Table 5.5 – Standard sieve sizes specified by British, Euro and ASTM standards (continued.)
EN 12620:2013
BS 812-103.1:1985 1 ASTM E11-13
EN 933-2: 1996
(μm) (mm) (μm)
850
600 600
0.500
425
300 300
0.250
212
150 150
0.125
75 75
0.063
A
Basic set plus set 1 (EN 12620)
B
Basic set plus set 2 (EN 12620)
Combination of sizes from set 1 and set 2 is not permitted
1
BS 812:103.1: 1985 was withdrawn on 1 January 2012 by BSI
5.4.1 Aggregate Size
Normally aggregate is a collection of particles of different sizes. The particle size of the collection is
indicated in different ways in different standards.
In EN 12620, aggregate size is indicated in the form, d/D, where d is the lower sieve size (smaller)
and D is the upper sieve size (larger). An example is 0/4, where the lower size is 0 mm and the upper
size is 4 mm. When d > 0, a limited proportion is allowed to be smaller than d (undersize) and larger
than D (oversize). Aggregate sizes shall have D/d ratio ≥ 1.4 (i.e., d/D ratio < 0.714). Based on the
particle size, aggregate is divided into three categories. Coarse aggregate is defined in EN 12620 as:
D > 4 mm, and d ≥ 1 mm.; fine aggregate is defined as: D ≤ 4 mm and d = 0; and fines are defined as
the particles smaller than 0.063 mm.
ASTM approach is different. ASTM C125 defines coarse aggregate as the particles predominantly
retained on the 4.75 mm sieve; or that portion of an aggregate retained on the 4.75 mm sieve. Fine
aggregate is defined as those passing the 9.5 mm sieve and almost entirely passing the 4.75 mm
sieve, and predominantly retained on the 75 µm sieve; or that portion of an aggregate passing the
4.75 mm sieve and retained on the 75 µm sieve.
5.4.2 Grading
Grading is the particle size distribution generally expressed as the percentage passing by mass, a set
of sieves. Experimental determination is mostly by sieve analysis, but there are other techniques
involving optical methods as well. EN 12620 designates grading by notation in the form:
GnX/Y.
Where, n is the type of grading as given below:
C – coarse
F – fine
NG – naturally graded
52

A – all-in
X: lower limit passing D; and
Y: upper limit passing d.
All-in aggregate consists of a mixture of coarse and fine aggregates with D > 4 mm and d = 0. This
type is produced without separating into coarse and fine fractions or by combining coarse and fine
aggregates. All-in aggregate is more susceptible to segregation.
Example of the notation designating a grading is GC90/10. The meaning of the designation is: it is a
coarse aggregate, with 90 % passing upper sieve size and 10 % passing the lower sieve size. Another
example: GF85. This describes a fine aggregate with 85 % passing the upper sieve size.
By combining the size and grading, an aggregate can be designated as d/D GnX/Y. An example:
4/16 GC90/10. That is upper sieve size is 16 mm, lower sieve size is 4 mm, coarse aggregate, 90 %
passing 16 mm sieve and 10 % passing 4 mm sieve. The requirements of grading are given in the
specification. A couple of rows of data extracted from Table 2 of EN 12620:2013 is presented in
Table 5.6.
Table 5.6 – An example of general grading requirement
Aggregate Size Percentage passing by mass Category
mm 2D 1.4D D d d/2 G
Coarse D>4 100 100 90 to 99 0 to 10 0 to 2 Gc90/10
d≥1 100 98 to 100 85 to 99 0 to 15 0 to 5 GC85/15
ASTM method of designation is different. Depending on the particle size distribution, coarse
aggregate is designated by ‘size number’ in ASTM C33/C33M-18. An example of a size number is
illustrated in Table 5.7 by extracting relevant columns of a row of data from Table 3 of that standard.
Table 5.7 – An example of size number and the corresponding grading requirement
Size Nominal size Amounts Finer than Each Laboratory Sieve (Square-Openings), Mass Percent
number ( sieve with 63 50 mm 37.5 25 mm 19 12.5 9.5 4.75
square opening) mm mm mm mm mm mm
357 50 to 4.75 mm 100 95 to 100 … 35 to 70 … 10 to 30 … 0 to 5

5.4.3 Sieve Analysis

For sieve analysis, like in any other test on aggregate, a representative sample of aggregate has to be
taken from the stockpile. This is done by taking number of small portions called increments from
different regions of the stockpile, and combining them to achieve uniformity. The minimum mass of
the sample to be taken depends on the size of aggregate, and is given in standards. Then, the sample
has to be sub-divided to get an unbiased portion that can be accommodated by sieves without
overloading. The process of sub-division is called sample reduction, which can be done by quartering
or using a riffle box or sample splitter.
The reduced sample has to be oven dried around 110 °C, before placing in the uppermost sieve of
the nest of sieves. Sieving can be done by shaking the sieves using an electrically operated
mechanical sieve shaker or manually. Even if sieving is done using an electrically operated
mechanical sieve shaker, the adequacy of sieving has to be checked at the end of mechanical sieving
by shaking each sieve manually to ensure that no further particles would pass the sieve. Then, the
mass of aggregate retained on each sieve, and on the bottom pan has to weighed and
recorded. Sieving for too long is undesirable as it could lead to fracturing of particles.
53 CE 592 – Concrete Technology

Fineness modulus is a single parameter representing the grading. For computation in accordance
with ASTM C33/C33M, the sieve sizes to be stacked for evaluating the fineness modulus are listed in
Table 5.8. Any other sieve sizes will NOT give the fineness modulus as defined by the standard.
Table 5.8 illustrates tabulations and computations involved in sieve analysis of a fine aggregate.
Results are plotted in Figure 5.1.
Table 5.8 – Sample calculation for sieve analysis using ASTM sieves
Sieve size Mass of Percentage Cumulative Cumulative ASTM C33
aggregate mass retained percentage percentage requirement
retained (g) mass retained passing
9.5 mm 0 0 0 100 100
4.75 mm 22.3 4 4 96 95-100
2.36 mm 62.6 13 17 83 80-100
1.18 mm 73.3 15 32 68 50-85
600 μm 114.6 23 55 45 25-60
300 μm 123.4 25 79 21 5-30
150 μm 97.8 20 99 1 0-10
Pan 5.4
Sum 500.3 Sum 286
Fineness modulus, FM 2.86

The sieve sizes specified in EN 12620 for calculation of fineness modulus are different. The sizes
specified therein are: 4 mm, 2 mm, 1 mm, 0.5 mm, 0.25 mm and 0.125 mm.
According to ASTM C33/C33M specification, fine aggregate shall have not more than 45 % passing
any sieve and retained on the next consecutive sieve of those listed in Table 5.8, and the fineness
modulus shall be between 2.3 and 3.1. Fine aggregate described in Table 5.8 satisfies those
requirements.
Fineness modulus is also used as a convenient measure for judging the variability of grading
between supplies. For example, ASTM sets a limit of 0.2 on the change of fineness modulus from the
base value in continuing shipments.

100
90
Cumulative percentage passing

80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
2.176091
150 μm 300 μm2.676091
600 μm 1.183.176091 3.676091
mm 2.36 mm 4.75 mm 9.5 mm
Sieve size
Figure 5.1 – Plot of grading given in Table 5.8
54

In EN, fine aggregate is divided into three categories based on the coarseness. Such division is
governed by percentage by mass passing 0.50 mm sieve or by the fineness modulus, but not the
both.
The information related to the fineness modulus is given in Table 5.9 (Table B.2 of EN 12620:2013).
Please note that there are overlaps of the categories.
Table 5.9 – Coarseness or fineness of fine aggregate based on fineness modulus
Fineness modulus
CF MF FF
4.0 to 2.4 2.8 to 1.5 2.1 to 0.6

5.4.4 Aggregate and Workability of Concrete

Shape, size, texture and grading control the packing of aggregate. Low void content portrays tight
packing of aggregate particles. Tightly packed aggregate is a requirement for low-workable concrete
like roller-compacted concrete, and for pre-placed aggregate concrete. The ability of combined
coarse and fine aggregate to pack tightly helps to reduce the requirement of paste volume to fill the
voids and also to increase the excess paste thickness in making high workable concrete. In that
sense, there is a significant value of a grading for tight packing.
Grading for the best packing of particles of size greater than 0.075 mm is given by the following
expression, which is an adaptation of Fuller’s curve:

P = d n − 0.075 n x100
n n

D − 0.075
where,
P = percent smaller than d
d = sieve aperture (mm)
D = the maximum particle size (mm)
n = the grading exponent (n=0.5 for rounded particles, and n=0.4 for angular particles)
Smaller the exponent n, the finer is the grading. Figure 5.2 shows an example for 20 mm aggregate.
100
90
Cumulative percentage passing

80
70
60 n = 0.30
50
40 n = 0.45
30
20
10
0
0.075 0.15 0.3 0.6 1.18 2.36 4.75 10 20
Sieve size (mm)

Figure 5.2 – Grading corresponding to Fuller’s equation

55 CE 592 – Concrete Technology

Aggregate of the preferred grading is obtained by combining a number of aggregate with different
size ranges, in suitable proportions. However, it is to be emphasized that there is nothing called
“ideal grading”. Not only continuously-graded aggregate, even gap-graded aggregate can be used to
produce good quality concrete.
There is an opinion based on observations that in a preferred continuous grading the sum of
material retained on any two consecutive sieves should not be less than 10% or greater than 35%.
With gap grading, where the amount of material on two consecutive sieves is less than 10%, can
result in increased packing density and reduced water or admixture demand. Aggregate having such
grading, however, should be used with caution because it may increase segregation potential.
Shape, size and grading of fine aggregate influence the consistence of concrete. When the fine
aggregate in concrete is deficient of particles passing the 300 μm and 150 μm sieves, particularly in
mixes with low cement content, the resulting fresh concrete is harsh causing pumping difficulties or
excessive bleeding. Such problems may be overcome by entraining air, or addition of an acceptable
fine material, reactive or inert, to compensate for the deficiency of fines.
Another important character is that, lower the angularity of fine aggregate, the lesser is the water
requirement for a targeted workability of concrete.
Even though one may postulate that the water requirement to achieve a workability increases with
the specific surface area of aggregate, it is interesting to note that it is not directly related to the
specific surface area, particularly of particles finer than 600 μm. Those fine particles act like ball
bearings enhancing mobility. This fact is highlighted by the concept of Murdock’s index (Table 5.10).
Table 5.10 – Relative values of surface area and Murdock’s surface index
Particle size fraction Relative surface area Murdock’s surface index
76.2-38.1 mm ½ ½
38.1-19.05 mm 1 1
19.05-9.52 mm 2 2
9.52-4.76 mm 4 4
4.76-2.40 mm 8 8
2.40-1.20 mm 16 12
1.20 mm-600 µm 32 15
600-300 µm 64 12
300-150 µm 128 10
<150 µm 1
According to Murdock’s surface index concept based on observations, the water demand for
workability is getting reduced with the presence of particles smaller than 600 μm.

5.5 Moisture Status

Information about the moisture status of aggregate is vital in proportioning and making concrete
mixes.
5.5.1 Definitions
Aggregates, like any other material are porous. The porosity causes to absorb moisture. Surface of
aggregate also adsorbs water. Absorption means seeping into the particles, whereas adsorption
means clinging molecules to the surface. Particles having adsorbed water in addition to absorbed
water are called, moist. When aggregate is free of surface moisture, but is fully saturated with
absorbed moisture, the status is called, saturated and surface-dry (SSD). When a particle is partially
56

saturated with absorbed water, it is called, air-dry, and when it is fully dry, it is called, bone-dry or
oven-dry. These different moisture conditions are schematically illustrated in Figure 5.3.
Saturated and surface-dry
Moist Air-dry Oven-dry
(SSD)

Free Moisture Absorbed Moisture

Figure 5.3 – Moisture status of aggregate

Air-dry and oven-dry particles absorb moisture when in contact with water, whereas moist particles
give water to the resulting concrete mix. Particles at SSD condition neither take nor give water to the
mix. Hence, SSD condition is considered as a datum in expressing mass of aggregate.
5.5.2 Effects of Moisture Status
Moisture status of aggregate shall be considered in deciding the amount of water available for
workability in a concrete mix. If the moisture content is equal to SSD condition, water added to a mix
becomes equal to the free water content available for the workability and strength, since such
condition neither absorbs nor contributes to the free water content. In contrast, when surface
moisture is present, that part of moisture shall be added to the mixing water to amount the total
free water available, and when the moisture content is less than that of SSD, then those particles
absorb part of the mixing water added, reducing the free water content.
It is clear that the mass of aggregate depends on the moisture status. When the aggregate is moist,
it is essential to find the mass of aggregate at SSD condition, as the total mass is composed not only
that of aggregate but the adsorbed water as well.
Apart from mass, the bulk volume of fine aggregate is increased with surface moisture up to a
certain extent. This increase is not caused by any expansion or swelling of particles, but due to
separation of particles as a result of the adsorbed moisture film. The volume increase associated
with adsorbed moisture is called ‘bulking’. Fine aggregates with finer grading show greater bulking
than those with coarser grading. Increase in adsorbed moisture increases thickness of moisture film,
which collapses upon reaching a critical thickness. These phenomena are illustrated in Figure 5.4.
Even though the volumetric proportioning of concrete is not encouraged, bulking and the volume of
adsorbed moisture have to be taken into account in volumetric proportioning of concrete mixes.
Increase in bulk volume

3
Fine
0 sand
2
0
Medium sand
1
0
0 8 22
Moisture content (%)
Figure 5.4 – Typical trend in bulking of fine aggregate
57 CE 592 – Concrete Technology

5.5.3 Measurement of Aggregate Moisture

The basic method of determining moisture content is through saturation and progressive drying of
aggregate and measuring the corresponding change of mass. The instant of reaching moist coarse
aggregate SSD condition is indicated by the disappearance of surface shine, whereas that for fine
aggregate is by the loss of adherence of particles to each other, or to something like a glass rod.
Apart from the direct techniques based on mass, there are methods based on volumetric
measurements by using Chapman flask. Electrical methods based on conductivity, and microwave
absorption quickly provide results for real time monitoring. However, the accuracy of those methods
depends on proper calibration.

5.6 Physical and Mechanical Properties

5.6.1 Physical Properties
Commonly measured physical properties are particle specific gravity, and bulk density. The
measurements depend on the moisture status. Therefore, the moisture status at which those were
measured shall be given. The preferred moisture status is SSD condition.
Thermal properties, like coefficient of expansion, specific heat, thermal conductivity and diffusivity,
are required in dealing with thermal endurance and thermal movements.
Dimensional stability, like shrinkage, is also measured.
5.6.2 Mechanical Properties
Among many of the mechanical properties of aggregate, their strength is of paramount significance.
The direct measurement of strength and elastic moduli are possible on cores drilled from samples of
rock. However, the strength or resistance to fragmentation under load, and attrition of coarse
aggregate is required to be gauged frequently. Some of the procedures applied are: aggregate
crushing value (ACV) test; ten percent fines value (TFV) test; aggregate impact value (AIV) test, and
Los Angeles abrasion value (LAV) test. The latter test is specified in both Euro and ASTM standards,
and the rest are available in British standards.
In the ACV test, oven-dried aggregate particles passing 14.0 mm sieve and retained on 10.0 mm are
placed in a standard cylindrical steel mould and compacted in a specified manner. Then the sample
is applied gradually a load up to 400 kN over the gross area of the specimen in a compression testing
machine using a steel plunger. Then, the quantity of crushed pieces passing through 2.36 mm sieve
is weighed and expressed as a percentage of the total mass of the sample. This is the ACV of the
tested material. Particle sizes used for TFV test are as same as those for ACV test. The difference in
TFV test is the measuring of load required to be applied to produce 10 % of the total sample
producing particles passing 2.36 mm sieve. The corresponding load in kN is the TFV of the sample. In
AIV test, the particle sizes as same those used for ACV and TFV tests are packed in a container
specified for the test and are subjected to 15 blows of a falling standard mass. There too, the mass
of particles finer than 2.36 mm produced by the impact in the test, is expressed as the percentage of
the total sample, and is called the AIV of the material. Stronger the material, the greater is the TFV;
whereas it is opposite for ACV and AIV.
ASTM C131/C131M-14 is one of the international standards specifying LAV test. LAV represents the
resistance to fragmentation. It is determined by turning a dried aggregate sample of a specified mass
with specified grading with a specified set of steel balls, a prescribed number of turns, in the rotating
drum with shelves. The loss of mass of the initial sample as a result of producing particles finer than
1.70 mm due to attrition is determined. The loss of mass expressed as a percentage of the mass of
58

the initial sample is reported as LAV. The limit specified in ASTM C33/C33M for concreting
applications is 50 %.
In micro Deval test, using a different apparatus having revolving drum, attrition loss under wet
condition is measured.
EN 12620 classifies aggregate, based on the level of fragmentation in LAV test (e.g., LA50 – where the
loss is ≤ 50 %), impact value test (e.g., SZ32 – where the fragmentation is ≤ 32 %), and micro-Deval
test (e.g., MDE10 – where the loss is ≤ 10 %). Recommendations for the properties of natural normal-
weight and heavy-weight aggregates and air-cooled blast furnace slag for concrete are given in
Table E.1 of Annex E of EN 206-1: 2013. For example, flakiness index ≤ FI50 or SI55 ; shell content of
aggregate of marine origin SC10; resistance to fragmentation ≤ LA50 or ≤ SZ32.
5.7 Harmful Substances and Durability Considerations
Not every type of particle in an aggregate behaves favourably in concrete. These harmful materials
are commonly called by the synonym deleterious substances. Some of the materials are harmful
because of their very low strength or low resistance to changes of physical conditions, such as
freezing and thawing, or contrastingly low density compared to other particles or having chemical
compounds causing adverse effects on hydration of cement or deterioration of hardened paste.
Clay lumps and particles which can be crushed easily by pressing between fingers (friable particles),
coal and lignite, very light particles, unsound particles, material finer than 75 μm, organic impurities,
shells, sulphates, chlorides, reactive aggregates are considered as harmful substances. Different
specifications set different limits on those. The limits depend on the application and the exposure
conditions of concrete.
Particles finer than around 75 μm are objectionable in concrete, mainly if those are composed of
clay. Generally, particles of that size in river sand are likely to contain clay. Whereas, in the case of
crushed fines or manufactured sand, those are unlikely to be of clay. Because of this fact, for river
sand, ASTM C33/C33M imposes a limit of 3 %, if sand is used for concrete applications subjected to
abrasion, and 5 % for other applications. Whereas, for crushed fines, the corresponding limits are
5 % and 7 %, respectively. Examination to ascertain the extent of clay content in fines may be done
by procedures such as methylene blue test and sand equivalent test.
Organic impurities interfere with hydration of cement. River sand normally contains soluble organic
matter such like humic acid formed by decomposed vegetation. The first level of screening is by the
colorimetric test conducted with NaOH solution. Material fails to satisfy the test need not be
rejected but has to be further investigated for suitability by comparing the strength of mortar
containing test sand and that of the mortar with clean sand.
Presence of mica in loose flaky form in fine aggregate increases the water demand for required
workability, and reduction of the strength of concrete.
Magnesium sulphate soundness and the degree of moisture absorptivity are also indications of the
vulnerability to freezing and thawing attack.
Petrographic examination is by microscopic examination of rock slices. This technique is used to
identify minerals in aggregate, with potential for alkali-aggregate reaction, which is of two forms:
alkali-silica reaction (ASR); and alkali-carbonate reaction (ACR).
Water and acid soluble sulphates and chlorides in aggregate may lead to harmful effects. EN 206
recommends acid-soluble sulfate in natural aggregates ≤ AS0,8, and in air-cooled blast furnace
slag ≤ AS1,0; total sulfur content in natural aggregates ≤ 1 % by mass, and in air-cooled blast furnace
slag ≤ 2 % by mass. Recycled aggregates have to be screened against further unacceptable
substances.
59 CE 592 – Concrete Technology

5.8 Recycled and Reclaimed Aggregate

In order to minimise depletion of the reserves of good quality aggregate, and also to reduce the high
transportation costs form distant quarries where good quality material is available, trends are being
established in using aggregates of marginal quality and those produced by recycling pre-used or
unused concrete. Relevant classifications and specifications are included in current standards.
Recycled aggregate is classified in different ways. Concrete – Complementary British Standard to BS
EN 206-1 – Part 2: Specification for constituent materials and concrete (BS 8500 - 2:2006) classifies
two types:
Recycled aggregate (RA) – aggregate resulting from the reprocessing of inorganic material
previously used in construction
Recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) – recycled aggregate mainly comprising crushed concrete
5.8.1 Coarse RCA (CCA -Crushed Concrete Aggregate) and RA
The requirements specified in BS 8500-2:2006 are given in Table 5.11.
Table 5.11 – Requirements for coarse RCA and coarse RA (Table 2 of BS 8500-2:2006)
Type of Requirement (given as percentage by mass)
aggregate Maximum Maximum Maximum Maximum Maximum Maximum
masonry fines lightweight asphalt other acid-
B
content material materials soluble
e.g., glass, sulfate
plastic, (SO3)
metals
A, C
RCA 5 5 0.5 5.0 1.0 1.0
RA 100 3 1.0 10.0 1.0 -D
A
Where the material to be used is obtained by crushing hardened concrete of known composition
that has not been in use, e.g., surplus precast units or returned fresh concrete, and not
contaminated during storage and processing, the only requirements are those for grading and
maximum fines.
B
Material with a density less than 1000 kg/m3.
C
The provisions for coarse RCA may be applied to mixtures of natural coarse aggregate blended
with the listed constituents.
D
The appropriate limit and test method needs to be determined on a case-by-case basis (see
Note 6 of BS 8500-2:2006).

5.8.2 Fine RCA and fine RA

This section contains extracts from Clause 4.3 Note 6 of BS 8500-2:2006.
“Provisions for the use of fine RCA and fine RA are not given in BS 8500, but this does not preclude
their use where it is demonstrated that, due to the source of material, significant quantities of
deleterious materials are not present and their use has been agreed. While some requirements for
coarse RA are specified, they are insufficient to form an adequate specification. As the potential
composition of RA is so wide, the additional specification requirements should be assessed on a case-
by-case basis taking into account the specific composition of RA. In particular, the project specification
for RA should include:
• maximum acid-soluble sulfate;
• method for determining the chloride content;
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• classification with respect to alkali-aggregate reactivity;

• method for determination of the alkali content;
• any limitations on use in concrete.
Commentary on fine RCA and fine RA
Clean fine RCA is suitable for use in concrete. However, it is known that some concrete elements have
been coated with gypsum plaster, and on crushing most of this gypsum plaster will finish in fine RCA.
Excess gypsum plaster can lead to delayed ettringite formation (DEF) and it is the judgement of BSI
that there is no practical sampling system that would detect localized high volumes of sulfate. In
addition, there was no information on possible stockpile segregation. For these reasons, the use of
fine RCA is left to the project specification, which can take account of the particular source of RCA.
Some fine RA might also be suitable for use in concrete, but because of the wide range of composition
and lack of detailed information, generic requirements cannot be given at present. The comment
above on gypsum in fine RCA also applies to some source of fine RA.”

5.8.3 Coarse RCA for concrete

Some specifications on the use of recycled concrete coarse aggregate for making new concrete are
given in Table 5.12.
Table 5.12 – Limitations on the use of RC coarse aggregate (Table 3 of BS 8500-2:2006)
Type of aggregate Limitations on use
Maximum strength class A Exposure classes B
RCA C40/50 X0, XC1, XC2, XC3, XC4, XF1,
DC-1
A
Material obtained by crushing hardened concrete of known composition that has not been in use
and not contaminated during storage and processing may be used in any strength class.
B
These aggregates may be used in other exposure classes provided it has been demonstrated that
the resulting concrete is suitable for the intended environment, e.g., freeze-thaw resisting, sulfate-
resisting.

5.8.4 Reclaimed Aggregate

Aggregate reclaimed from unused fresh concrete and wash water, or from crushed unused
hardened concrete may be used, subject to limits in producing new concrete. According to Clause
5.2.3.3 of EN 206-1:2013, reclaimed aggregate shall not be added in quantities greater than 5 %
by mass of the total aggregate, if they are undivided. Where the quantities of the reclaimed
washed aggregates are greater than 5 % by mass of the total aggregate, they shall be divided into
separate coarse and fine aggregates and conform to EN 12620. Where the quantities of the
reclaimed crushed aggregates are greater than 5 % by mass of the total aggregate they shall be
treated as recycled aggregates.

5.9 Handling of Aggregate

Aggregate has to be handled with care in order to minimise fracturing, segregation, contamination
and heating.
Some examples of acceptable and objectionable procedures for stockpiling of aggregate are
illustrated in Figure 5.5.
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Figure 5.5 – Procedures for stockpiling of aggregate (ACI 221R)

Figure 5.6 - Schematic diagram of reclaiming system (PCA-Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures)