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TABLE OF CONTENT
UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction 1.1
1.2 Electromagnetic model 1.1

1.3 Units and Constants 1.3
1.4 Review of Vector Algebra 1.5
1.4.1 Scalar and Vector 1.6
1.4.2 Vector Addition 1.7
1.4.3 Vector Subtraction 1.7
1.4.4 Vector addition and Subtraction in three dimensional axes: 1.7

1.4.5 Product of Vectors 1.8
1.4.6 Scalar or Dot Product: 1.9
1.4.7 Vector or Cross Product: 1.10
1.4.8 Vector Differentiation 1.11
1.4.9 Solenoidal and Irrotational Vectors 1.11
1.5 Coordinate systems 1.11

1.5.1 Rectangular / Cartesian coordinate system 1.11
1.5.2 Cylindrical coordinate system: 1.12
1.5.3 Spherical coordinate system: 1.13
1.5.4 Transformation between various coordinate systems 1.14
1.6 Coordinate systems 1.15
1.6.1 Line Integral 1.15

1.6.2 Surface Integral 1.16
1.6.3 Volume Integral 1.17
1.7 Gradient of a scalar field 1.17
1.8 Divergence of a vector field 1.17
1.9 Divergence theorem 1.18
1.10 Curl of a vector field 1.18
1.11 Stoke's theorem 1.19
1.12 Null identities 1.19
1.13 Helmholtz's theorem 1.20
UNIT 2 ELECTROSTATICS
2.1 Coulomb's law 2.1
2.2 Electric field 2.1
2.2.1 Principle of Superposition 2.2
2.3 Gauss's law and applications 2.2
2.3.1 Gauss Law in Point Form 2.3

2.3.2 Applications of Gauss Law 2.3
2.4 Electric potential 2.10
2.4.1 Absolute Electric Potential 2.11
2.4.2 Relative Potential 2.11
2.4.3 Relation between Potential & Electric Field 2.12
2.5 Conductors in static electric field 2.13

2.6 Dielectrics in Static electric field 2.13
2.7 Electric flux density and dielectric constant 2.13
2.7.1 Electric Flux Density 2.13
2.8 Boundary conditions 2.14
2.9 Capacitance- Parallel, cylindrical and spherical capacitors 2.17
2.10 Electrostatic energy and Energy density 2.18
2.10.1 Electrostatic Energy 2.27

2.11 Poisson's and Laplace's equations 2.29
2.12 Uniqueness of electrostatic solutions 2.31
2.13 Current density and Ohm's law 2.31
2.14 Equation of continuity and Kirchhoff's current law 2.34
2.15 Electromotive force and Kirchhoff's voltage law 2.34
UNIT 3 MAGNETOSTATICS
3.1 Lorentz force equation 3.1
3.2 Law of no magnetic monopoles 3.2
3.3 Ampere's Circuital law 3.2

3.4 Vector magnetic potential 3.2
3.4.1 Scalar magnetic potential 3.3
3.4.2 Magnetic Vector potential 3.3
3.5 Biot-Savart law 3.4
3.5.1 Applications of Biot Savart Law 3.5
3.6 Magnetic field 3.11

3.6.1 Magnetic flux 3.11
3.6.2 Magnetic flux density 3.11
3.6.3 Magnetic field intensity 3.11
3.6.4 Magnetization 3.11
3.6.5 Magnetic moment 3.12
3.6.6 Magnetic permeability 3.12
3.7 Magnetic Circuits 3.12
3.8 Behavior of magnetic materials 3.13
3.9 Magnetic Boundary conditions 3.14
3.10 Inductance and inductors 3.17
3.11 Energy stored in a magnetic field 3.21
3.11.1 Energy density 3.22

3.12 Force on a wire carrying a current I placed in a Magnetic Field 3.23
3.13 Torque on a loop carrying current I 3.24
UNIT 4 TIME-VARYING FIELDS AND MAXWELL's EQUATIONS
4.1 Maxwell's equations 4.1
4.1.1 Ampere ‘s law 4.1
4.1.2 Faraday's law 4.4
4.1.3 Electric Gauss’s law 4.5

4.1.4 Magnetic Gauss’s law 4.6
4.1.5 Time Varying Fields 4.7
4.2 Potential functions 4.8
4.3 Electromagnetic boundary conditions 4.9
4.3.1 Statements of Electromagnetic Boundary Conditions: 4.10
4.4 Solution of Wave equation 4.14

4.4.1 Wave equation for electric field 4.14
4.4.2 Wave equation for magnetic field 4.15
4.4.3 Wave equation for free space 4.16
4.4.3.1 Wave equation for free space in terms of electric field 4.16
4.4.3.2 Wave equation for free space in terms of magnetic field 4.17
4.5 Wave equation in phasor form 4.18
UNIT 5 PLANE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

5.1 Uniform Plane waves 5.1
5.2 Plane waves in lossy media (low-loss dielectrics and good conductors) 5.3
5.2.1 Wave propagation in a conducting medium 5.3
5.2.2 Wave propagation in good dielectrics 5.4
5.2.3 Wave propagation in good conductors 5.6
5.3 Group velocity 5.9

5.4 Poynting vector and the flow of power 5.9
5.5 Polarization 5.15
5.6 Normal incidence at a plane conducting boundary
(Reflection by a perfect conductor) 5.16
5.6.1 Normal incidence (Wave incident normally on a perfect
conductor) 5.16
5.7 Normal incidence at a plane dielectric boundary 5.17
5.7.1 Wave incident normally on a perfect dielectric 5.17
5.7.2 Wave incident obliquely on a perfect dielectric 5.20
INTRODUCTION
1
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Electromagnetic field theory deals with the study of charges that are at rest and in
motion which produces currents and electric-magnetic fields. Electromagnetic field is
useful in understanding, design, and operation of many practical systems using
antennas, scattering, microwave circuits and devices, radio-frequency and optical
communications, wireless communications, broadcasting, remote sensing, radar, radio
astronomy, quantum electronics, solid-state circuits and devices, electromechanical
energy conversion, and even computers. Circuit theory is also a special case of
electromagnetic theory which is valid when the physical dimensions of the circuit are
small compared to the wavelength. Circuit concepts, which deal primarily with lumped
elements, must be modified to include distributed elements and coupling phenomena
in studies of advanced systems such as electromagnetic fields. For example, signal
propagation, distortion, and coupling in microstrip lines used in the design of
sophisticated systems (such as computers and electronic packages of integrated
circuits) can be properly accounted only by understanding the electromagnetic field
interactions associated with them.
1.2 ELECTROMAGNETIC MODEL

Electromagnetic model with respect to Electromagnetic fields concept can be built by
involving three essential steps.
Amongst, the first step involves defining the basic quantities of electromagnetic.
The second steps are the use of rules of operation, which encompasses vector algebra
and vector calculus.
The third step is to deal with static electric fields, steady magnetic fields and
electromagnetic fields.
The quantities used are roughly divided into two types as source quantities and field
quantities. The source of an electromagnetic field is invariably electric charges at rest
or in motion. However, an electromagnetic field may cause a redistribution of charges,
1.2 Introduction
which will in turn change the field. Hence the separation between the cause and the
effect is not always so distinct. The symbol q is used to denote electric charge. Electric
charge is a fundamental property of matter and exists only in positive or negative
integral multiples of the charge on an electron
qe  1.60 X 1019 Coulomb
C is the abbreviation of the unit of charge Coulomb. One of the fundamental law of
physics is the principle of conservation of electric charge. It states that electric charge
is conserved it can neither be created nor be destroyed.
Electric charges can move from one place to another and can be redistributed under the
influence of an electromagnetic field. But the algebraic sum of the positive and
negative charges in a closed system remains unchanged. The principle of conservation
of electric charge must be satisfied at all times and under any circumstances.
Kirchoff’s Current Law in circuit theory states that the sum of all the currents leaving a
junction must be equal to sum of all currents entering the junction, is an assertion of
the conservation property of electric charge.
In a microscopic sense, an electric charge either does or does not exist at a point in a
discrete manner, these abrupt variations on an atomic scale are unimportant while
working with large aggregates of charges. We define a volume charge density  as a
source quantity
q
  lim
v 0 s
Where  q is the amount of charge in a very small volume v . For example, an

elemental cube with sides as small as 1 micron has a volume of 10 -18 m3, which will
still contain about 1011 (100 billion) atoms. A smoothed out function of space
coordinates  defined with such a small v is expected to yield accurate
macroscopic results for nearly all practical purposes. In some physical situations an
amount of charge  q may be identified with an element of surface s or an element of
line  . The surface charge density and line charge density are defined as
q
 s  lim
s 0 s
q
   lim
 0 l
Except for certain special situations, charge densities vary from point to point hence
 ,  s and   are in general point functions of space coordinates. For instance, current
is defined as the rate of change of charge with respect to time t
Electromagnetic Fields 1.3
dq
I
dt
where I itself may be time-dependent. A current must flow through a finite area, hence
it is not a point function. In electromagnetic, a volume current density J takes the form
of a vector point function which measures the amount of current flowing through a
unit area normal to the direction of current flow. For very good conductors, high
frequency alternating currents are confined in the surface layer as a current sheet
instead of flowing throughout the interior of the conductor. In such cases there is a
need to define a surface current density JS, which is current per unit width on the
conductor surface normal to the direction of current flow and has the unit of ampere
per meter.
There are four vector field quantities in electromagnetics namely electric field intensity
E, Electric flux density D, magnetic flux density B and magnetic field intensity H.
The electric field intensity E is the only vector useful to discuss about the effects of
stationary electric charges in free space, it is defined as the electric force on a unit test
charge. Electric displacement vector D is useful in the study of electric field in
material media. Magnetic flux density B is the only vector needed in discussing about
magneto statistics (effects of steady electric currents) in free space and is related to the
magnetic force acting on a charge moving with a given velocity. The magnetic field
intensity H is useful in the study of magnetic field in material media.
In case of no time variation (as in static, steady or stationary cases), the electric field
quantities E and D and the magnetic field quantities B and H form two separate vector
pairs. In time dependant cases, electric and magnetic field quantities are couple. That
is, time varying E and D will give rise to B and H and vice versa. All four quantities
are point functions, they are defined at every point in space and in general are
functions of space coordinates. Material properties determine the relations between E
and D and between B and H. These relations are called the constitutive relations of a
medium. The principle objective of studying electromagnetism is to understand the
interaction between charges and currents at a distance based on the electromagnetic
model. Fields and waves (time and space dependant fields) are basic conceptual
quantities of this model. Fundamental postulates will relate E, D, B, H and the source
quantities and derived relation will lead to explanation and prediction of
electromagnetic phenomena.
1.3 UNITS AND CONSTANTS
The SI (International System of Units) is an MKSA (Meter-Kilogram-Second-

Ampere) system built from the four fundamental units listed in the following table.
1.4 Introduction
S.No. Quantity Unit Abbreviation
1 Length Meter M
2 Mass Kilogram Kg
3 Time Second S
4 Current Ampere A
All other units used in electromagnetic are derived units expressible in terms of m, kg,
s and A. For example, the unit for charge, Coulomb (C) is ampere-second (A-s), the
unit for electric field intensity (V/m) is kg.m/A.s3 and the unit for magnetic flux
density, tesla(T) is kg/A.s2
In electromagnetic model, there are three universal constants, in addition to the field
quantities. They relate to the properties of the free space (vacuum). They are as
follows:
1. Velocity of electromagnetic wave (including light) in free space, c
2. Permittivity of free space,0
3. Permeability of free space, 0
The velocity of light can be given as c = 3 x 10 8 m/s
The other two constants  0 and 0 pertain to electric and magnetic phenomena
respectively: 0 is the proportionality constant between the electric flux density D and
the electric field intensity E in free space such that D  0E
0 is the proportionality constant between the magnetic flux density B and the
1
magnetic field intensity H in free space such that BH.
0
The values of  0 and 0 are determined by the choice of the unit system and they are
not independent. In the SI system, the permeability of free space is chosen to be
0  4  10 7 H/m
where H/m is Henry/meter. With the values of c and 0 fixed, the value of the
permittivity of free space is then derived by the following relations:
1
c m/s
 0 0
Or
1 1
    10 9  8.854  10 12 F/m
c 0
2
36
where F/m stands for Farad per meter

The three Universal constants and their values are summarized as:
Universal constants in SI units
S.No. Universal Constants Symbol Value Unit
1 Velocity of electromagnetic c 3 x 108 m/s

wave (including light) in free
space, c
2 Permittivity of free space 0 1

 10 9
F/m
36
3 Permeability of free space 0 4  10 7 H/m
1.4 REVIEW OF VECTOR ALGEBRA

When two or three space dimensions are involved in equations, the branch of
mathematics known as vector analysis is often utilized. As electromagnetic field
theory involves spatial relationships, vector analysis can be employed to express the
field equations in compact and meaningful form. In a three-dimensional space three
numbers are needed, and these numbers depend on the choice of a coordinate system.
Conversion of a given vector from one coordinate system to another will change these
numbers. However, physical laws and theorems relating various scalar and vector
quantities certainly must hold irrespective of the coordinate system. The general
expressions of the laws of electromagnetism, therefore, do not require the specification
of a coordinate system. A particular coordinate system is chosen only when a problem
of a given geometry is to be analyzed. For example, if we are to determine the
magnetic field at the center of a current- carrying wire loop, it is more convenient to
1.6 Introduction
use rectangular coordinates if the loop is rectangular, whereas polar coordinates (two
dimensional) will be more appropriate if the loop is circular in shape. The basic
electromagnetic relation governing the solution of such a problem is the same for both
geometries.Vector analysis covers the following attributes helpful to understand
electromagnetic fields are
1. Vector algebra-addition, subtraction, and multiplication of vectors.
2. Orthogonal coordinate systems-Cartesian, cylindrical, and spherical coordinates.
3. Vector calculus-differentiation and integration of vectors; line, surface, and
volume integrals; "del" operator; gradient, divergence, and curl operations.
1.4.1 SCALAR AND VECTOR

A scalar is a quantity that has magnitude but no direction, Examples of scalars are
temperature, energy, current, and electric charge density. A scalar point function, or
field, is present in a region having a scalar quantity associated with each of its points.
Examples of scalar fields are the temperature distribution throughout a solid and the
pressure distribution throughout the earth's atmosphere. Thus, we can specify, for
instance, a charge of - 1 C at a certain location at t = 0.
To say an example to understand the concept of Vector, let us consider a case where if
we walk 4 miles in the direction of north and the 3 miles in the direction of east as
shown in the figure 1.1 (a), then totally we might have travelled for about 7 miles. But
actually measuring from the point where we started is actually equal to 5 miles instead
of 7 miles. We need special arithmetic to add quantities like these which evidently do
not add in ordinary way. The reason is because the displacement quantities like these
have both magnitude (length) and direction. Such quantities are called as vectors. For
example acceleration, velocity, force and momentum are such type of quantities.
. 3 miles
4 miles
-A
5 miles
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1.1: (a) Travel in direction (b) Vector A (c) Vector -A
Both scalar and vector quantities are function of time and position. A field is a function
that specifies a particular quantity everywhere in a region. Depending upon the nature
of the quantity under consideration, the field may be a vector or a scalar field. Example
of scalar field is the electric potential in a region while electric or magnetic fields at
any point is the example of vector field.
1.4.2 Vector Addition

To understand the vector addition operation let’s consider two vectors A and B, which
are not in same direction nor in opposite direction in a plane, to be added to get
another vector C in the same plane. Vector addition is performed by following two
rules namely Parallelogram rule and Head-to-Tail rule.
(i) Parallelogram rule – Vector addition

When two vectors A and B are added, the resultant vector C is a diagonal vector
of the parallelogram formed by adding A and B drawn from the same point.
B -B
B
C A A
A+B A+B
A
(a) (b) (c)

Figure1.2 : (a) Parallelogram vector addition (b) Head to tail vector addition
(c) Vector subtraction
(ii) Head-to-tail rule – Vector addition
If the tail of the vector B is placed at the head of the vector A, then the sum A+B
is the vector from the tail of A to the head of B
1.4.3 Vector Subtraction:

Vector subtraction can be defined in terms of vector addition as shown in
Where –B is the negative of vector B, that is –B has the magnitude as B but its
direction is opposite to that of B. Thus
A+(-B) = C
1.4.4 Vector addition and Subtraction in three dimensional axes:
Let vectors A and B represented in three dimensional axes and Figure 1.3 shows the
vector A in 3D axis.
1.8 Introduction

Az a z
A 
Ay a y
y

Ax a x
x
Figure 1.3: Vector A in 3 dimensional axis

Vector A and B are given by
   
A  Ax a x  Ay a y  Az a z

 
Where ax , a y and a z are unit vectors in the direction of x, y and z respectively.
   
B  Bx bx  By by  Bz bz
Sum of the vectors A and B

    
A  B  ( Ax  Bx )ax  ( Ay  By )a y  ( Az  Bz )az
Difference of the vectors A and B

    
A  B  ( Ax  Bx )ax  ( Ay  By )a y  ( Az  Bz )az
1.4.5 Product of Vectors:

Multiplication of a vector A by a scalar a changes the magnitude of A by a times
without changing its direction, but if a is negative then the direction of vector A gets
reversed as shown in figure 1.4.
aA (if a =2)
A
Figure 1.4: Scalar - Vector multiplication

Multiplication operation of a vector A with scalar a is given by
a(A+B) = aA+aB
1.4.6 Scalar or Dot Product:

The scalar or dot product of two vectors A and B shown in figure 1.5 is defined by
A  B  ABCos
 B
Figure 1.5: Dot product of vectors
Where  is the angle they form when placed tail to tail. Note that A  B is itself a scalar
(hence the alternative name scalar product). Geometrically, A  B is the product of A
times the projection of B along A (or the product of B times the projection of A along
B). If the two vectors are parallel, then A  B  AB . In particular for any vector A,
then the scalar product of two similar vector of A is given by
A  A  A2
If suppose two vectors A and B are perpendicular
A B  0
Scalar or dot product in three dimensional axes. Let vectors A and B represented in
three dimensional axes.
   
A  Ax ax  Ay a y  Az az
   
B  Bxbx  By by  Bz bz
1.10 Introduction
 
Where a x , a y and a z are unit vectors in the direction of x,y and z respectively. Then
  
    
   
A  B  Ax ax  Ay a y  Az az  Bxbx  By by  Bz bz
= Ax Bx  Ay B y  Az Bz
     
 ax  ax  a y  a y  az  az  1
     
ax  a y  a y  az  az  ax  0
1.4.7 Vector or Cross Product:

The cross product of two vectors is defined by
A  B  AB Sin nˆ
Where n̂ is a unit vector (vector of length 1) pointing perpendicular to the plane of A

and B. There are two directions perpendicular to any plane “in” and “out”. The
ambiguity is resolved by the right hand rule. The resultant cross product points the
thumb finger and the index finger and middle finger rotates from A to B through the
angle  AB . As shown in figure 1.6, B Sin  is the height of the parallelogram formed
by the vectors A and B. Let vectors A and B represented in three dimensional axes.
   
A  Ax ax  Ay a y  Az az
   
B  Bxbx  By by  Bz bz

 
Where ax , a y and a z are unit vectors in the direction of x,y and z respectively. Then,
Figure 1.6: (a) Vector cross product (b) Right hand rule for vectors A and B
A  B  AB Sin 
  
ax ay az
A  B  Ax Ay Az
Bx By Bz
1.4.8 Vector Differentiation

The del or nabla is known as differential vector operator and is defined as
     
  ax  a y  az
x y z
Del is operated in three possible ways namely Gradient, Divergence and Curl.
1.4.9 Solenoidal and Irrotational Vectors


A vector A is said to be solenoidal if its divergence is zero. If
 
  A  0 , then A is said to be solenoidal.

A vector A is said to be irrotational if its divergence is zero. If
 
  A  0 , then A is said to be irrotational.
1.5 COORDINATE SYSTEMS

In general, the physical quantities used in the domain of electromagnetics are functions
of space and time. To ensure and describe the spatial variations of these quantities, it is
necessary to define all points suitably in space. This requires using an appropriate
coordinate system and also the laws of electromagnetism are invariant with coordinate
system. In a three dimensional space, a point can be located as the intersection of three
surfaces. When these three surfaces are mutually perpendicular to one another, then we
call it as orthogonal coordinate system. Moreover, coordinate system representation
helps to accurately describe the physical quantities in terms of vector components. The
most commonly used orthogonal coordinate systems are
1. Rectangular/Cartesian coordinate system
2. Cylindrical coordinate system

3. Spherical coordinate system
1.5.1 Rectangular / Cartesian coordinate system:

This system has three coordinate axes represented as x, y, z which are mutually at right
angles to each other. Three points or axes intersect at a common point is called origin
of the system. Consider a point P(x, y, z) in space at a distance ‘r’ from the origin. The
1.12 Introduction
  
vector ‘r’ can be represented as r  x a x  y a y  z a z where a x , a y , az are unit vectors
and x, y, z are component vectors. These component vectors have magnitude and
direction whereas unit vectors have unit magnitude and direction along the coordinate
axis. A unit vector in a given direction is defined as a vector in that direction divided
xa  ya y  za z
by its magnitude which can be represented by a r  r  x
r x2  y2  z2
Let us consider the points P(x,y,z) and Q(x+dx, y+dy, z+dz) in rectangular coordinate
system as shown in the figure 1.7. The differential length ‘dl’ from P to Q is given by
dl  dx 2  dy 2  dz 2 . The differential area is given by ds  dxdy  dydx  dzdx and
the differential volume is dv  dxdydz
Figure:1.7 Cartesian coordinate system
1.5.2 Cylindrical coordinate system:

Cylindrical coordinate system is the three dimensional version of the polar coordinates
of analytical geometry with  ,  , z as coordinates. In this system the unit vectors are
a  , a , a z as shown in figure 1.8. The differential volume element in the system may
be obtained by increasing  ,  , z by the differential increments d , d , dz . The shape
of this small volume is truncated wedge. As the volume element becomes very small,
its shape approaches that of a rectangular parallelopiped. The sides of this differential
elements are d , d , dz . The differential length, differential area and differential
volume is given by
dl  d 2  d 2  dz 2 ,

ds  dd  ddz  ddz
dv  dddz .
Figure:1.8 Cylindrical coordinate system

1.5.3 Spherical coordinate system:
In spherical coordinate system consider any point P as the point of intersection of
spherical surface (radius r = constant), conical surface (  angle between r and z =
constant) and plane surface (   constant angle). The coordinates of this system are
r , ,  . The differential volume element in the system may be obtained by increasing
r , ,  by the differential increments dr , d , d .The sides of the element are
dr , rd , r sin d .
 The differential length dl  dr 2  rd 2  r sin d 2

 The differential area ds  rdrd  r 2 sin dd  r sin drd
 The differential volume dv  r 2 sin drdd
Figure:1.9 Spherical coordinate system

1.14 Introduction
1.5.4 Transformation between various coordinate systems

I. Transformation from Cartesian to other (Cylindrical & Spherical)
coordinate systems
Given Transform
Cartesian coordinates Cylindrical coordinates Spherical coordinates
x   x2  y 2 r  x2  y2  z 2
 y  
  tan 1   z z
y x   cos1 2 2 2   cos1 
 x y z  r
 
 y
  tan 1  
z z  z x
II. Transformation from other (Cylindrical & Spherical) coordinate systems to

Cartesian coordinate system
Cylindrical coordinate system to Spherical coordinate system to

Cartesian coordinate system Cartesian coordinate system
Cylindrical Cartesian Spherical Cartesian

coordinates coordinates coordinates coordinates
 x   cos  r x  r sin  cos 
 y   sin   y  r sin  sin 
z z  z  z  r cos
COORDINATE SYSTEMS - SUMMARY
S.No. Coordinate Cartesian Cylindrical Spherical Coordinates

Variables Coordinates Coordinates
1 Coordinates x, y , z  , , z r,  , 
2 Vector Ax a x  Ay a y  Az a z A a   A a  Az a z Ar ar  A a  A a
representation
3 Magnitude A Ax2  Ay2  Az2 A2  A2  Az2 Ar2  A2  A2
4 Differential dl  a x dx  a y dy  a z dz dl  a  d  a d  a z dz dl  ar dr  a d  a d
Length (dl)
5 Differential dsx  ax dydz ds   a  ddz dsr  ar r 2 sin  d d

Surface area
(ds) ds y  a y dxdz ds  a ddz ds  a r sin  dr d
ds  a r dr d
ds z  az dxdy dsz  az dd
d d dz
6 Differential dx dy dz
r 2 sin dr d d
Volume (dv)
1.6 INTRODUCTION TO LINE, SURFACE AND VOLUME INTEGRALS

In Electromagnetic theory, a charge can exist in various forms such as point form,
line form, surface form and volume form. The analysis of such charge distributions,
the various types of integrals are required, they are,
o Line Integral
o Surface Integral
o Volume Integral
1.6.1 Line Integral

A line can exist as a straight line or it can be a distance travelled along a
curve. In general from mathematical point of view, a line is a curved path in a space.
1.16 Introduction
Figure:1.10 Line integral of curved path
𝑟
∫
⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 = ∫ |𝐹| 𝑑ℓ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
F
𝐿 𝑝
where 𝑑ℓ represents the elementary length . Line integral of 𝐹̅ around the curved
path ‘L’ represents an integral of the tangential component of 𝐹̅ along the path
‘L’.
∮ 𝐹̅ . 𝑑𝑙 → circular integral (“contour ”), Charge Q     d

L
where 𝜌ℓ → charge density along the curved path.
1.6.2 Surface Integral

In Electromagnetic field theory, a charge may exist as distributed form. If may be
spread over a surface a flux ɸ may pass through a surface, to analyze such
cases an integral is required called surface integral to be carried out over a
surface related to a vector field.
 = ∫𝑠 F⃗. 𝑑𝑠 = ∫
𝑠
|𝐹 |𝑑𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = ∫
𝑠
⃗ . a⃗𝑛. 𝑑𝑠
F
for a charge distribution, Q    S d

S
Fig:1.11 Surface integral of area

1.6.3 Volume Integral

If the charge distribution exists in a three dimensional volume form the volume
integral is required to calculate the total charge distribution by
Q   V d
V
Figure:1.12 Volume integral of area

1.7 GRADIENT OF A SCALAR FIELD ( V = grad V)
The gradient of any scalar function is the maximum space rate of change of that scalar
function. If the scalar V represents electric potential, ∇ V represents potential gradient.
Gradient of a scalar is a vector and is defined as
 V  V  V
V  a x  ay  az
x y z
Examples are gradient of temperature, gradient of electric potential and so on.
1.8 DIVERGENCE OF A VECTOR FIELD (   A = div A)
The divergence of a vector A at any point is defined as the limit of its surface
integrated per unit volume as the volume enclosed by the surface shrinks to zero.
1 
  A  Lt
v0 v 
S
A  n  ds
Divergence of a vector is a scalar and is defined as
       
 a z a x Ax  a y Ay  a z Az 
 
  A   a x  ay
 x y z 
Ax Ay Az

  A  divA   
x y z
1.18 Introduction
Divergence means the spreading or diverging of a quantity from a point. It is

applicable to vectors only. In other words, it is a measure of the difference between
outflow and inflow. The divergence of a vector is positive if the net flow is outward. It
is negative if the net flow is inward. Examples for divergence includes leaking of air
from a balloon which represents positive divergence and rushing of air into drum
under the carriage of a train which represents negative divergence. The fluid is said to
be incompressible if the divergence is zero, that is,   A =0 is the condition of
incompressibility.
Figure:1.13 Flux lines

The features of divergence are listed as,
(i) Divergence of electric flux density is equal to volume charge density or   D  v
(ii) Divergence of magnetic flux density is equal to zero, or   B  0
(iii) Divergence of gradient of scalar electric potential is equal to the laplacian of the
scalar, or   V   2V
1.9 DIVERGENCE THEOREM

The volume integral of the divergence of a vector field over a volume is equal
to the surface integral of the normal component of this vector over the surface
bounding the volume. ∭ ∇. 𝐴 𝑑𝑣 = ∯ 𝐴 . 𝑑𝑠
𝑣
1.10 CURL OF A VECTOR FIELD
The curl of a vector A at any point is defined as the limit of its surface integral of its
cross product with normal over a closed surface per unit volume as the volume shrinks
to zero.
1 
v  0 v 
curl A  Lt n  A  ds
S
  
ax ay az
  
It can be expressed as  A 
x y z
Ax Ay Az
 A Ay    Ax Az    Ay Ax 

  A   z  a x    a y    a z
 y z   z x   x z 
Curl is a measure of the tendency of a vector quantity to rotate or twist or curl. In other
words, the rate of rotation or angular velocity at a point is the measure of curl. As the
curl of a vector represents rotation, it is also written as
curl A    A  rot A
It may be noted that curl (gradient of a scalar) = ∇ × (∇V) is zero.This means that the
gradient of fields is irrotational. Also div (curl) = 0. To highlight an example for curl
operation, when a leaf floats in sea water and its rotation is about the z-axis, curl of
velocity V is in the z-direction. When (∇ × V)z is positive, it represents rotation
from x to y. Moreover, for a rotating rigid body, the curl of velocity is in the direction
of the axis of rotation. Its magnitude is equal to twice the angular speed of rotation.
1.11 STOKE’S THEOREM

The line integral of a vector around a closed path is equal to the surface integral
of the normal component of its curl over any closed surface.
∮ 𝐴. 𝑑𝑙 = ∬ ∇x 𝐴 𝑑𝑠
𝑠
Figure:1.14 Stokes Theorem

1.12 NULL IDENTITIES
 
For any vector field A , the divergence of the curl of that vector field A is zero. That
is given by
1.20 Introduction

  A  0
For any scalar field V, the curl of the gradient of that scalar field V is zero. That is
given by
  V  0
1.13 HELMHOLTZ’S THEOREM
From the previous topics, it is clearly shown that a divergence less filed is solenoidal
and a curl free field is irrotational. Generally we can classify vector fields in
accordance with their being solenoidal and irrotational. With respect to above
requirements we can describe the properties of vector field F is given
1. In case of a static electric field in a charge free region remains solenoidal and
irrotational if   F  0 and   F  0
2. In case of a steady magnetic field in a current carrying conduction remains
solenoidal but not irrotational if   F  0 and   F  0
3. In case of a static electric field in a charged region remains irrotational but not
solenoidal if   F  0 and   F  0
4. In case of an electric field in a charged medium with a time-varying magnetic
field behaves neither solenoidal nor irrotational if   F  0 and   F  0
The most general vector field then has both a nonzero divergence and a nonzero curl,
and can be considered as the sum of a solenoidal field and an irrotational field.
1.13.1 Helmholtz’s Theorem

A vector field (vector point function) is determined to within an additive constant if
both its divergence and its curl are specified everywhere. In an unbounded region we
assume that both the divergence and the curl of the vector field vanish at infinity. If the
vector field is confined within a region bounded by a surface, then it is determined if
its divergence and curl throughout the region, as well as the normal component of the
vector over the bounding surface, are given. Here we assume that the vector function is
single-valued and that its derivatives are finite and continuous. Helmholtz’s theorem
can be proved as a mathematical theorem in a general way. For our purposes, we
remind ourselves that the divergence of a vector is a measure of the strength of the
flow source and that the curl of a vector is a measure of the strength of the vortex
source. When the strengths of both the flow source and the vortex source are specified,
we expect that the vector field will be determined. Thus, we can decompose a general
vector field F into an irrotational part Fi and a solenoidal part FS .
F  Fi  FS
  Fi  0
With 
  Fi  g
   FS  0
And 
  FS  G
Where g and G are assumed to be known. We have
  F    Fi  g and
  F    FS  G
Helmholtz’s theorem asserts that when g and G are specified, the vector function F is
determined. Since   and   are differential operators, F must be obtained by
integrating g and G in some manner, which will lead to constants of integration. The
determination of these additive constants requires the knowledge of some boundary
conditions. The procedure for obtaining F from given g and G is not obvious at this
time, it will be developed in stages.
The fact that Fi is irrotational enables us to define a scalar (potential) function V , such
that
Fi  V
Similarly, the definition of a vector (potential) function A can be given as

FS    A
Helmholtz’s theorem states that a general vector function F can be written as the sum
of the gradient of a scalar function and the curl of a vector function. Thus
F  V    A
UNIT 1
INTRODUCTION
Problems :
1. Obtain Spherical Co-ordinates of 10 ax at the point.
P [x = –3, y = 2, z = 4]
Given :
A = 10ax Formula :
P, x = −3 θ = cos −1 ( z / x)
y=2 θ = tan −1 ( y / x)
z=4
Solution:
Spherical → [ r ,θ , φ ]
A = Ar ar + Aθ aθ + Aφ aφ
A → Ar , Aθ , Aφ
To find Ar :-
Ar = A .ar
10 ax.ar
Ar = 10sin θ cos − − − − − −(1)
To find sin θ :-
z
θ = cos −1  
r 
(∴ r = x2 + y 2 + z 2 )
z
= cos −1 ( sub x, y, z value)
x + y2 + z2
2
4
= cos −1
(−3) + (2)2 + (4) 2
2
θ = 42.03110 → (2) sin θ ⇒ sin(42.0311)

To find cos φ : − sin θ = 0.6695
( )
φ = tan −1 y x cos θ ⇒ cos (42.0311)
( −3 )
= tan −1 2 cos θ = 0.7428
φ = −33.6900 → (3) ∴ x → −ve, y → +ve
(−3) (2)
sub(2) & (3)in(1) so add 180 (φ → 900 to 1800 )
0
Ar = 10sin θ cos φ ∴φ = −33 − 690 + 1800

= 10 × 0.6695 × (−0.832) φ = 146.310
Ar = −5.5702 sin φ ⇒ sin (146.310 )
To find Aθ : − sin φ = 0.5547
Aθ = A.aθ cos φ ⇒ cos (146.310 )
= 10ax.aθ cos φ = −0.832
= 10 cos θ cos φ
(∴ from table (2) )
= 10 × 0.7428 × ( −0.832 )
Aθ = −6.18
To find Aφ : −
Aφ = A.aφ
= 10ax.aφ
= 10(− sin φ )
= 10 × ( −0.5547 )
Aθ = −5.547
sub Aθ , Aφ , Ar in ( A) eqn.
( A) ⇒ Ar ar + Aθ aθ , Aφ aφ
= −5.5702ar + (−6.18)aθ , −5.547 aφ
A = −5.5702ar − 6.18 aθ − 5.547 aφ
( Spherical )
2. Express B = r 2 ar + sin θ aφ in Cartesian co-ordinates. Hence obtain at P (1, 2, 3).
P [x = –3, y = 2, z = 4]
Given:
Solution:
To Find Bx:
We know that
Sub these eqen s in eqn (1)

Bx at P(1, 2,3), x = 1, y = 2, z = 3
Bx = 3.207
To find By:
By at P(1, 2,3), x = 1, y = 2, z = 3
By=7.7504
To Find Bz:
B = 3.207 a x + 7.750 a y + 11.2248 a z (Cartesian)
3. Give the Cartesian co-ordinates of the vector field H = 20ar − 10aφ + 3a z at point
P (x = 5, y = 2, z = –1)
Formula:
Solution: Cartesian Hx,Hy,Hz

To find Hy :-
To find Hz :-
sub Hx, Hy, Hz in (A)

4. Transform the Vector field W=10 ax−8 ay+6 az to cylindrical co-ordinate system,
at point P (10, –8, 6).
Given :
Solution:
To find Wr :-
To find φ :-
To find Wφ :-
To find Wz :-
10
5. Express Vector B in Cartesian systems. Given, B = ar + r cos θ aθ + aφ
r
Then find at (–3, 4, 0) and (5, π/2, –2).
Given :
Solution:
Cartesian System
[x, y, z]
To find Bx :-
We know that,
sub in eqn (1)

Sub
150
6. Find curl F = ar + 10aφ + 5az
r2
Solution:
150
From the given victor Fr = Fφ = 10 Fz = 5
r2
∴ so, the nature of the field is Irrotational.
7. Find curl H , if H = 2 ρ cos φ a ρ − 4 ρ sin φ + 3a z
Given :
Formula :
Solution :
8. Determine the divergence and curl of the given field F = 30 ax + 2 xy a y + 4 xz 2 az
at (1, 1, –0.2) and hence state the nature of the field
Given :
Formula :
Solution :
∴ It is not zero, so it is not irrotational

∴ It is solenoidal field in nature.
9. Given A = (y cos ax) ax + (y + ex ) az. Find ∇× A at the origin

Given :
Formula :
Solution :
10. If 2 vectors are expressed in cylindrical co-ordinates as A = 2ax + π ay + az,
3π
B = −ax + ay − 2az, compute a unit vector perpendicular to the plane
2
containing A and B.
Given :
Formula :
1) Perpendicular vector to plane containing cross product
2) Unit Vector
Solution :
4
11. If V 2 x 2 y + 20 z − v, find E and D at P (6, –2.5, 3).
x + y2
2
Formula :
Solution :
60sin
12. If V = 2
V, Find V and E at point P (3, 600, 2500) where V → Electric
R
potential, E → Electric field Intensity.
Given :
Formula :
Solution :
13. The Electric potential near the origin of a system of co-ordinates is
V= ax2 +by2+ cz2. Find the electric field at (1,2,3).
Given :
Formula :
E = −∇V
Solution:
ELECTROSTATICS
2
2.1 COULOMB’S LAW
The force of attraction or repulsion between two point charges is directly
proportional to the product of two charges and inversely proportional to the square
of the distance between them.
Figure: 2.1 Coulomb's law

𝑄1 𝑄2
𝐹∝
𝑟2
𝑄 𝑄
F = 4 𝜋1 𝜀 𝑟2 2
𝑄 𝑄
1 2
In the form of vector, the same law is represented as F = 4 𝜋𝜀 ar where
⃗⃗⃗
𝑟2
𝜀 represents permittivity, 𝜀 = 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 represents relative permittivity and 𝜀𝑜 represents
Permittivity in space, air = 8.854 x 10-12 F/m.
2.2 ELECTRIC FIELD

Electric field is a force field that can act upon a charge. Direction of electric field
vector and force field vector are parallel to each other.
2.2 Electrostatics
Electric Field Intensity

Electric field Intensity is defined as the electric force per unit charge.
𝑄
E = F/q = 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑟 V/m
4 𝜋 𝜀 𝑟2
2.2.1 PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION

The total resultant field at a point is a vector sum of the individual component
field at that point. Let us consider an array of charges 𝑄1 , 𝑄2 , 𝑄𝑛 the field intensity at
any point ‘P’ by the application of superposition principle.
Figure: 2.2 Point charge
𝑄1 𝑄2
𝐸1 = a⃗ ; 𝐸2 = 𝑎2
4 𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟1 2 1 4 𝜋𝜀0 𝑟2 2
𝑄𝑁
𝐸𝑁 = a⃗𝑁
4 𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟𝑁 2
∴ The resultant field intensity is given by

𝑄1 𝑄2 𝑄𝑁
𝐸= a⃗1 + a⃗2 + . . . . a⃗ 𝑁
4 𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟1 2 4 𝜋 𝜀1 𝑟2 2 4 𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟𝑁 2
𝑁
𝑄
𝐸= ∑ 4 𝜋𝜀 𝑀𝑟 2 a⃗ 𝑚
𝑜 𝑚
𝑚=1
2.3 GAUSS LAW
The electric flux passing through any closed surface is equal to the total charged
enclosed by the surface.
2.3.1 Gauss Law in Point Form

The divergence of electric flux density is equal to the volume charge density
∇ . D = 𝜌𝑣
PROOF
Consider a small element ‘ds’ in a plane surface having a charge ‘Q’ and ‘P’
be a point in a element. Let ‘Ds’ make an angle 𝜃 with ds. The flux crossing ds is
then the product of the normal component of Ds and ds is given by,
𝑑𝑥 = 𝐷𝑠 normal 𝑑𝑠 = 𝐷𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝑥 = 𝐷𝑠. 𝑑𝑠
Figure :2.3 Closed surface having Q

The total flux passing through the closed surface is given by
𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∮ 𝐷𝑠. 𝑑𝑠
𝑐
𝑥 =Q
for volume charge density
𝑥 = ∫ 𝜌𝑑𝑣 = 𝑄
𝑣
2.3.2 APPLICATIONS OF GAUSS LAW
 used to determine the electric field intensity in several cases.
 to find 𝐸⃗ we construct imaginary surface called Gaussian surface

 applicable only if the surface completely enclosed by the volume.
 At each point Ds is either normal or tangential to the closed surface
2.4 Electrostatics
 DSnormal.ds is either D.ds or zero.
 D has same value at all points of the surface where D is normal.
 use in symmetry case.
Example(1) : Electric field due to discrete / point charge

Consider a charge Q at the origin of a spherical coordinate system. Whose
coordinates are r, θ, φ. The radius of the sphere is ‘r’.
Figure:2.4 Surface element ds in spherical coordinate system

𝑄
The electric field due to the charge Q is 𝐸 = 4𝜋𝜀𝑟 2 𝑎𝑟. Consider a small
element of area ‘ds’ on the surface the sphere at a distance ‘r’ from the origin
as shown in the figure.2.3
𝑑𝑠 = 𝑟. 𝑑𝜃 . 𝑟 sin 𝜃. 𝑑ɸ
= 𝑟 2 . sin𝜃 𝑑𝜃. 𝑑 ɸ
The elelctric flux 𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∮ 𝐷. 𝑑𝑠
= ∫
𝑄
. 𝑑𝑠
𝑠 4𝜋𝑟 2
2𝜋 𝜋 𝑄 2
= ∫ ∫ 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃. 𝑑ɸφ
4𝜋𝑟 2
ɸφ = 0 𝜃 = 0
2𝜋 𝜋
𝑄
= 4𝜋 ∫ ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃. 𝑑ɸφ
ɸφ = 0 𝜃 = 0
2𝜋
𝑄
= 4𝜋 ∫ (−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)𝜋𝑜 𝑑ɸφ
ɸφ = 0
2𝜋
𝑄
= 4𝜋
∫ 2 𝑑ɸφ
𝑜
𝑄 𝑄
= 2𝜋 (φɸ)2𝜋
𝑜 = . 2𝜋
2𝜋
𝑥 =𝑄
Example (2) : Electric Field due to Charges Distributed Uniformly on an Infinite
and Finite Line
Consider a uniformly charges time of length ‘ℓ’ whose linear charge density is
ρ𝑙 c/m. Consider a small element ‘𝑑ℓ’ at a distance ‘𝑟’ form any point ‘P’ at
which electric field has to be distance as shown.
Figure:2.5 Line charge distribution
Let 𝑑𝐸 be the electric field at point ‘p’ due to the charge element ℓℓ . 𝑑ℓ.
𝜌 𝑑ℓ
𝑙
𝑑𝐸 = 4 𝜋𝜀𝑟 2 → (1)
The 𝑥 & 𝑦 components of electric field 𝑑𝐸 are given by
𝑑𝐸𝑥 = 𝑑𝐸 sin 𝜃 → (2)
𝑑𝐸𝑦 = 𝑑𝐸 cos 𝜃 → (3)

𝜌𝑙 𝑑ℓ
Equation (2) becomes 𝑑𝐸𝑥 = sinθ → (4)
4 𝜋𝜀𝑟 2
2.6 Electrostatics
From the figure 2.4
𝐿1 − ℓ = ℎ cot 𝜃
- 𝑑ℓ = −ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃. 𝑑𝜃 → (5)
sin 𝜃 = ℎ/ 𝑟
𝑟 = ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃 → (6)
sub (5) & (6) in (4)

ρ𝑙 𝑑𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
we get, 𝑑𝐸𝑥 = → (7)
4 𝜋𝜀ℎ
The electric field Ex due to the entire length of line charge is given by.
𝜋 −∝2
ρ𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝐸𝑥 = ∫ 4 𝜋𝜀ℎ
∝1
Note:
Cos (180- θ) = - cos θ
d(sin θ) = cos θ
ρ𝑙
d (cos θ) = sin θ = ⌊−𝑐𝑜𝑠θ⌋𝜋−∝
∝1
2
4 𝜋𝜀ℎ
Note: ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ = − cos θ
∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ = sin θ
ρ𝑙
= ⌊− cos(𝜋 −∝2 ) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∝1 ⌋
4 𝜋𝜀ℎ
ρ𝑙 𝑙 ρ
𝐸𝑥 = [− (−cos ∝2 ) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∝1 ] = 4 𝜋𝜀ℎ (𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∝1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∝2 )𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑟 → (8)
4 𝜋𝜀ℎ
Similarly, for 𝑦 component of E sub (3) in (1)

ρ𝑙
𝑑𝐸𝑦 = . 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
4𝜋𝜀ℎ
π −∝2
ρ𝑙
𝐸𝑦 = ∫ cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 Note: sin (180 − 𝜃) = sin 𝜃
4𝜋𝜀ℎ
∝1
ρ𝑙 𝜋 −∝2
= (sin 𝜃 )
4𝜋𝜀ℎ ∝1
ρ𝑙
𝐸𝑦 = sin(𝜋−∝2 ) − sin ∝1
4𝜋𝜀ℎ
ρ𝑙
𝐸𝑦 = (sin ∝2 − sin ∝1 )𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑟 → (9)
4𝜋𝜀ℎ
Case (i) : If the point P is at bisector of a line
∝1 = ∝2 = ∝
𝐸𝑦 = 0
Figure:2.5(a) Bisect of point P

𝐸 becomes 𝐸𝑥
ρ𝑙
Let 𝐸𝑥 = ( cos ∝1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∝2 )
4𝜋𝜀ℎ
ρ𝑙
∝1 = ∝2 =∝ ⇒ 𝐸 = 2cos ∝
4𝜋𝜀ℎ
ρ𝑙 . cos∝
𝐸= 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑟 → (10)
2𝜋𝜀ℎ
Case (ii) : If the line is infinitely long then ∝ = 0
∝1 = ∝2 = ∝ = 0, 𝐸𝑦 = 0, then 𝐸𝑥 becomes 𝐸
Figure :2.5(b)Infinitely long line

ρ𝑙
∴ 𝐸= . cos ∝1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∝2
4𝜋𝜀ℎ
ρ𝑙
𝐸= (cos 0 + cos 0)
4𝜋𝜀ℎ
ρ𝑙
𝐸= (1+1)
4𝜋𝜀ℎ
2.8 Electrostatics
ρ𝑙 𝑣
𝐸= .𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑟
2𝜋𝜀ℎ 𝑚
Potential V = - ∫ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑟
𝑜
ρ𝑙
= - 2𝜋𝜀ℎ ∫ 𝑑𝑟
ℓ
ρ𝑙
= - . −ℓ
2𝜋𝜀ℎ
𝑙ρ
V = 2𝜋𝜀ℎ 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑟 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
Example (3) Electric Field on the axis of a Uniformly Charged Disc

Consider a circular disc of radius ‘R’ is charged uniformly with a charge
density of 𝜌𝑠 𝑐/𝑚2 . Let ‘P’ be any point on the axis of the disc at a distance
from the centre. Consider an annular ring of radius ‘r’ and of radial thickness
‘dr’ as shown in figure.2.5 The area of the annular ring is
𝑑𝑠 = 2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟 (1)
The field intensity at point P due to the charged annular ring is given by,
𝜌𝑠 .𝑑𝑠
dE = (2)
4𝜋𝜀𝑑2
Figure:2.6 Charged circular disc

Therefore, the horizontal component of electric field intensity is zero, the
vertical component is given by
𝜌𝑠 .𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝐸𝑦 = . cosθ (3)
4𝜋𝜀𝑑2
Sub (1) in (3) we get

𝜌𝑠 .2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ
𝑑𝐸𝑦 = (4)
4𝜋𝜀𝑑2
From the Figure 2.5 𝑟 = ℎ 𝑡𝑎𝑛θ
𝑑𝑟 = ℎ sec 2 θ 𝑑θ (5)
𝑟
𝑆𝑖𝑛 θ = 𝑑 ; 𝑑 = 𝑟/𝑠𝑖𝑛θ (6)
Sub (5) & (6) in (4)

𝜌𝑠 2𝜋𝑟 ℎ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
then (4) becomes 𝑑𝐸𝑦 = 4𝜋𝜀𝑟 2/ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜃
𝜌𝑠 ℎ 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝐸𝑦 = (𝑟/ℎ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃)
2𝜀𝑟
𝜌𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝐸𝑦 =
2𝜀 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
𝜌𝑠 . 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝐸𝑦 = .𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑟
2𝜀
The total field due to the charged disc.
∝ ∝
𝜌𝑠
𝐸 = ∫ 𝑑𝐸𝑦 = ∫ . 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃
2𝜀
𝜃=0 𝑜
𝜌𝑠
= ( −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)∝𝑜
2𝜀
𝜌𝑠
= (1 − cos ∝) 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑟 . 𝑉/𝑚
2𝜀
ℎ
From the figure, cos ∝ = √ℎ2
+𝑅2
𝜌𝑠 ℎ
𝐸 = [1 − ] 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑟 . 𝑟/𝑚
2𝜀 √ℎ 2+𝑅2
𝑜
Potential 𝑉 = − ∫ 𝐸. dr
𝑜
𝑜
𝜌𝑠 ℎ
= - 2𝜀 ⌈1 − √ℎ2 2 ⌉ ∫ 𝑟
+𝑅
𝑑
+𝜌𝑠 ℎ
= 𝑑 [1 − √ℎ2 ]
2𝜀 +𝑅2
𝜌𝑠
= [1 − √ℎ2 + 𝑅2 ] 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑟 . 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
2𝜀
2.10 Electrostatics
Example (4) Electric Field due to an Infinitely Uniformly Charged Sheet :

Consider an infinite plane sheet which is uniformly charged with charge
density 𝜌𝑠 𝑐/𝑚2 . The field intensity at any point ‘P’ due to infinite sheet can be
evaluated by applying expressions of charged circular disc.
Figure:2.7 Infinite plane sheet of charge

𝜌𝑠
∴ 𝐸 = 2𝜀
(1 − cos ∝) → (1)
Let ∝= 900
𝜌𝑠
𝐸 = (1 − 0)
2𝜀
𝜌𝑠
𝐸 = 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑟 𝑉/𝑚
2𝜀
𝑜
Potential 𝑉 = − ∫ 𝐸. dr
𝑑
𝑜
−𝜌𝑠
V = ∫ d𝑟
2𝜀
𝑑
−𝜌𝑠 𝜌𝑠
= (−d) = d
2𝜀 2𝜀
ℓ𝑠
v = d volts
2.4 ELECTRIC
2𝜀 SCALAR POTENTIAL
An electric charge produces an electric field around if and if a test charge is
brought into this region, it experiences a force. Hence some work or energy is
required to mere the test charge from one point to another against the field.
Absolute electric potential is a scalar quantity and is equal to the work done
per coulomb in morning a test charge from one point to another against the
field infinity upto the given location. In the case of uniform field.
Work done = Force x Distance = E qd joules
Where 𝑞 is the test charge and ‘d’ is the distance of movement. Hence, work
done per coulomb charge is given by E qd joules / coulomb at a point ‘P’
which is at a distance of ‘d’ in from the initial location.
𝑑𝑤 𝐸q𝑑
𝑉 = = = 𝐸𝑑
𝑞 q
𝑉 = Potential difference across the two points.
2.4.1 Absolute Electric Potential

𝑑𝑤
Absolute electric potential at a given point is defined 𝑉 = ; where 𝑑𝑤 is
𝑞
work done is morning a positive test charge ′𝑞′ from inifinity upto the given
point 𝑉 is expressed in volts, 𝑑𝑤 in joules and 𝑞 in coulomb’s.
2.4.2 Relative Potential

The work per unit charge required to more the test charge from one point to
another point is called potential difference. Consider a positive charge Q at
origin O. This produces a non - uniform, radial field around it. The work done
per coulomb of positive test charge in morning the test charge from P 2 to P1
along the x – axis equals the potential rise from P2 to P1 denoted as V21.
𝑟2 𝑟1 [ - ve sign is on account of the field directed a long
𝑉21 = ∫ dV = - ∫ E. dr positive x – axis and movement of test charge
𝑟1 𝑟2 being in the opposite direction]
This is the potential difference form positive 2 to positive 1.

Eqdr
dV = − = −𝐸. dr
q
𝐸⃗ = 𝑄/4𝜋𝜀𝑟 2
Figure:2.8 Potential
2.12 Electrostatics
𝑟1
𝑄
V21 = 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 =∫ dr
4𝜋𝜀𝑟 2
𝑟2
𝑟1
𝑄 dr
= ∫ [− ]
4𝜋𝜀𝑟 2 𝑟2
𝑟2
𝑄 1 1
= 4𝜋𝜀 [− 𝑟 + ]
2 𝑟1
𝑄 1 1
𝑉21 = [ − ]𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑟
4𝜋𝜀 𝑟1 𝑟2
𝑄
V1 = 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑟 , Absolute potential at position 1
4𝜋𝜀𝑟1
𝑄
V2 = 4𝜋𝜀𝑟2
𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑟 , Absolute potential at position 2
dq
dv =
4𝜋𝜀𝑟
𝑄
𝑉= 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
4𝜋𝜀𝑟 𝑟
2.4.3 Relation between Potential & Electric Field
If two points are separated by an infinite serial distance ‘𝑑𝑟 ’ the work done by
on external force is moving a unit positive charge from one point to another
will be,
dw = dv = −𝐸. dr
Therefore the scalar potential ‘V’ is a function of x, y, z the above equation can
be re-written as,
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
( ⃗⃗⃗
ax + a⃗⃗⃗⃗y + a⃗⃗⃗z ). ( ⃗⃗⃗
ax 𝑑𝑥 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
ay 𝑑𝑦 + a⃗⃗⃗z 𝑑𝑧 ) = 𝐸. 𝑑𝑟
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
V 𝑑𝑟 = − 𝐸. 𝑑𝑟
E  V
Thus the electric strength at any point is just the negative of the potential
gradient at that point.
2.5 CONDUCTORS
Conductor is one in which the outer electrons of an atom is easily detachable and
migrate with application of weak Electric field.
2.6 DIELECTRICS IN STATIC ELECTRIC FIELD:
 Nothing but an Insulators.
 are the substances which do not contain free electrons or the number of
such electrons is too low to constitute the electric current.
 here the electrons are lightly bound to the nucleus of the atom and capable
of energy strong for a short duration
 eg. Mica, glass, plastic etc.
 charge on the capacitor with dielectrics is greater than without dielectric.
The dielectric helps in the following ways.
* helps in maintaining two large metal plates at very small separation.
* increases the potential difference which a capacitor can withstand without
breakdown.ie. increases capacitance of capacitor.
2.7 ELECTRIC FLUX
If the test charge is moved towards the charge Q, the test charge will experience
force due to the main charge Q. The lines of force can be designated as electric
flux which is equal to the charge itself. The electric flux emanates from electric
charge.
χ=Q
2.7.1 Electric Flux Denisty
Electric flux density or displacement density is defined as the electric flux per
Q
unit area. 𝐷 = 𝐶/𝑚2
A
For a sphere, surface area 𝐴 = 4𝜋𝑟 2

𝑄
𝐷 = 4𝜋𝑟 2 𝑎𝑟 𝐶/𝑚2
We know that the relation between field intensity & flux density is given by
𝑄
𝐸 = 4𝜋𝜀𝑟 2
𝑄
𝐷 = 4𝜋𝜀𝑟 2 , We can say, 𝐷 = 𝜀𝐸
2.14 Electrostatics
2.8 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS FOR ELECTRIC FIELDS:

The solution of Poisson or Laplace equation should always satisfy certain
conditions at the boundaries between different media in the field. These
conditions pertaining to normal component of the displacement, tangential
component the electric field intensity and refraction lines of forces are called
boundary conditions. The tangential components of electric field E is continuous
at the surface, E remains same in both outside the surface and inside the
surface. The normal component of electric flux density is continuous if there is
no surface density. Otherwise D is discontinuous by an amount equal to the surface
charge density.
Boundary Condition 1:
Consider an interface or boundary between two dielectrics of dielectric
constants 𝜀1 & 𝜀2 in an electric field.
Figure: 2.9 Boundary surface between two dielectric media

Figure shows the boundary surface between two dielectric mediums. Consider a
rectangle of length ∆y and width ∆x at the boundary of two dielectric media. In
an electrostatic field the voltage around any closed path must be zero,
𝑉 = ∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑙 = 0
Apply this to the rectangular path ABCD, in which AB is first inside medium 1
and CD is inside another medium 2.
∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑙 = 𝐸𝑡1 ∆𝑦 + 𝐸𝑛2 ∆𝑥 − 𝐸𝑡2 ∆𝑦 − 𝐸𝑛2 ∆𝑥

Where 𝐸𝑡1 and 𝐸𝑡2 are the average tangential components of E along the paths
AB and CD. where 𝐸𝑛1 & 𝐸𝑛2 are average normal components of E along the
paths BC and AD. The sides AB and CD are brought closer together, the lengths
BC and AD approach zero that is ∆ x → 0
Then, 𝐸𝑡1 ∆𝑦 − 𝐸𝑡2 ∆𝑦 = ∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑙 = 0
𝐸𝑡1 = 𝐸𝑡2
The tangential component of E is continuous at the boundary.
Boundary Condition 2 :
Consider pill box at the boundary of two dielectrics of dielectric constants
𝐸1 and 𝐸2 in an electric field, and it is assumed that there are no free charges
in the boundary surface.
Figure: 2.10 Pill box at the boundary surface between two dielectric media
By applying Gauss law to the pill box at the boundary since there are no
charges enclosed by the pill box, the surface integral of electric flux density
over the pill box surface is zero.
∫ 𝐷 𝑑𝑠 −∫ 𝐷 𝑑𝑠 = 0
𝑛1 𝑛2
𝑠
Where, 𝐷𝑛1 is electric flux density in medium 1.
𝐷𝑛2 is electric flux density in medium 2.
𝑑𝑠 is the surface area of pill box
Dn1 = Dn2
2.16 Electrostatics
The normal components of electric displacements or flux densities are

continuous across the boundary b/w two media (is) they are equal. If the charges
are enclosed by the pill box, the surface integral of electric flux displacement
(flux density) over the pill box surface is,
∫ 𝐷 𝑑𝑠 − ∫ 𝐷 𝑑𝑠 = ∫ 𝜌 𝑑𝑣
𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑣
𝑠 𝑠
= ∫ 𝜌𝑣 𝛥𝑥𝑑𝑠 ( 𝑔𝑢𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑤)
𝐷𝑛1 𝑑𝑠 − 𝐷𝑛2 𝑑𝑠 = 𝜌𝑣 𝛥𝑥𝑑𝑠
Where 𝜌𝑣 → volume charge density enclosed by the pill box
𝛥𝑥 → height of the pill box
If the height 𝛥𝑥 is reduced to zero across the boundary 𝛥𝑥 → 0

𝐿𝑡
𝜌 𝛥𝑥 = 𝑑𝑠 (Surface charge density)
𝛥𝑥 → 0 𝑣
Then
𝐷𝑛1 − 𝐷𝑛2 = 𝜌𝑠
The normal component of flux density is discontinuous across the surface by
the amount of the surface charge density.
Boundary Condition 3 :
Consider two dielectric medium 1 and 2 separated by a charge free boundary.
𝐸̅ intensity E1 is incident in medium 1 at an angle of 𝜃1 and E2 is the reflected
electric field in medium 2 with an angle of 𝜃2 . Simiilarly D1 is incident electric
displacement in medium 1 and D2 is reflected electric displacement in medium 2.
Figure: 2.11 Reflection and Refraction at the boundaries

The normal components of D are given below,
𝐷𝑛1 = 𝐷1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃1
𝐷𝑛2 = 𝐷2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃2
The tangential components of E are give below,
𝐸𝑡1 = 𝐸1 𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝜃1
𝐸𝑡2 = 𝐸2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃2
Where 𝜃1 and 𝜃2 are incident angle and refracted angle respectively. Apply the
boundary conditions.
𝐷𝑛1 = 𝐷𝑛2 ; 𝐸𝑡1 = 𝐸𝑡2
𝐷1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃1 = 𝐷2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃2
𝐸1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃1 = 𝐸2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃2
𝐸1 𝐸2
÷ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃1 = tan 𝜃2
𝐷1 𝐷2
But 𝐷1 = 𝜀1 𝐸1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷2 = 𝜀2 𝐸2
𝐸1 𝐸2
Then, 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃1 = tan 𝜃2
𝜀1 𝐸1 𝜀2 𝐸2
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃1 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃2 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃1 𝜀1

= 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 =
𝜀1 𝜀2 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃2 𝜀2
2.9 DEFINITION OF CAPACITANCE :

Capacitor :
 A capacitor is an electric device which consists of the conductors separated by

a dielectric medium
Capacitance :
 The property of capacitor to “store the electricity” may be called its

capacitance. The capacitances of a capacitor is defined as “the amount of
charge required to create a unit potential difference between its plates.
𝑄 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
𝐶 = =
𝑣 𝑃𝑜𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
2.18 Electrostatics
2.10 Capacitance of various geometries using Laplace’s equation :-
Capacitance of an Isolated sphere :

Let the sphere of radius ‘x’ metric having a charge ‘q’ coulombs, then by
assuming a second conductor of infinite radius and zero potential, the
formation of capacitor may be,
Electric flux density at a distance ‘x’ meters from the centre of the sphere is,
Figure: 2.12 Spherical Capacitor

𝑞
𝐷
4𝜋𝑥 2
𝐷 𝑞
𝐸= =
𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 4𝜋𝑥 2
𝑏 𝑏 𝑞
We Know that, V = - ∫𝑎 𝐸. 𝑑𝑥 = - ∫𝑎 4𝜋𝜀𝑜𝜀𝑟 𝑥 2
If the charge is brought from infinity to a distance x, from the centre of

sphere, potential at that point is,
𝑥
𝑑𝑥
V =- 𝑞∫
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 𝑥 2
∞
𝑞 −1 𝑥
= − ⁄4𝜋𝜀 [ 𝑥 ]
𝑟 ∞
Potential difference between the two points may be defined as the work done in
moving the charge from one point to the other.
C = Q/V
𝑞
∴ C of the sphere = 𝑞/4𝜋𝜀𝑟
= 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 𝑥 Farads
Capacitance of concentric spheres :

Consider two concentric spheres of inner radius ‘a’ and outer radius ‘b’ Let
𝜀𝑟 be the permittivity of dielectric medium between the inner & outer spheres,
Figure: 2.13 Concentric Sphere

If the charge Q is distributed uniformly over the outer surface of the inner
sphere, there will be equal & opposite charge induced on their inner surface of t
he inner equal, the electric field intensity at any point in between inner sphere
and outer sphere (𝑎 ≤ 𝑟 ≤ 𝑏) is given by,
𝑄
𝐸= (𝑎 ≤ 𝑟 ≤ 𝑏)
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 𝑥 2
The potential differences between the sphere is,

𝑎 𝑄
𝑉 = − ∫𝑏 𝑑𝑟
4𝜋𝜀𝑥 2
= - 𝑄⁄4𝜋𝜀 ∫𝑏
𝑎 𝑑𝑟
𝑟2
𝑄 1 𝑎 𝑄 1 1
= 4𝜋𝜀 (𝑟) = (𝑎 − 𝑏 )
𝑏 4𝜋𝜀
𝑄 𝑏−𝑎
= ( 𝑎𝑏 )
4𝜋𝜀
The capacitance of the concentric sphere is,

𝑄 𝑎𝑏
𝐶 = 𝑉 = 4𝜋𝜀 (𝑏−𝑎 )
𝑎𝑏
𝐶 = 4𝜋𝜀 (𝑏−𝑎) Farads
2.20 Electrostatics
Capacitance of co-axial cables (cylinders) :
Consider a coaxial cable of inner radius ‘a’ and outer radius ‘b’. The 𝜀𝑟 of
dielectric field in b/w two co-axial cylinder is 𝜀𝑟 . A potential difference V is
applied in between two cylinders. The two cylinders are charged at the rate of
𝜌𝑙 c/m. It is assumed that inner cylinder has charge of 𝜌𝑙 c/m of outer cylinder
has charge of −𝜌𝑙 c/m. By gauss law, the electric field E at any distance r
from the axis of cylinder is given by.
𝜌𝑙
𝐸=
2𝜋ℇ𝑟
Figure: 2.14 Coaxial Cable

The potential difference between two co-axial cable is,
𝑎
𝑉 = − ∫ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑟
𝑏
𝜌𝑙 𝑎 𝑑𝑟 𝜌𝑙 𝑏
= - ∫𝑏 ⇒ - ℓ𝑛 ( 𝑎 )
2𝜋𝜀 𝑟 2𝜋𝜀
The capacitance of co-axial cable / unit length is,

𝜌𝑙 2𝜋𝜀
𝐶 = = Farad / metre
𝑣 𝑙𝑛 (𝑏/𝑎)
2𝜋𝜀
𝐶 = = Farad / metre
𝑙𝑛 (𝑏/𝑎)
Capacitance of parallel conductor (Transmission Lines) :

Consider a two parallel conductor of radius ‘a’ separated by a distance ‘d’. If the
conductor A has charge of 𝜌𝑙 𝑐/𝑚 along its length, this will induce charge of
-𝜌𝑙 c/m on the and B,
Figure: 2.15 Transmission Lines
The electric field intensity at any point P with a distance 𝑟 from the
conductor A is algebraic sum of electric field intensity at P due to conductors A
& B.
𝜌𝑙 𝜌𝑙
𝐸 = +
2𝜋𝜀𝑟 2𝜋𝜀(𝑑 − 𝑟)
𝜌𝑙 1 1
= ( + )
2𝜋𝜀 𝑟 𝑑−𝑟
Potential difference between conductor
𝑉 = −∫ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑟
𝑎
𝜌𝑙 1 1
= ∫ ( + ) 𝑑𝑟
2𝜋𝜀 𝑑 − 𝑎 𝑟 𝑑−𝑟
𝜌𝑙 𝑎
= [𝑙𝑛 𝑟 − 𝑙𝑛 (𝑑 − 𝑟]𝑑_𝑎
2𝜋𝜀
𝜌𝑙 𝑎 𝑑−𝑎
= − [𝑙𝑛 . ]
2𝜋𝜀 𝑑−𝑎 𝑎
𝜌𝑙 𝑎 𝑎
=− [𝑙𝑛 + 𝑙𝑛 ]
2𝜋𝜀 𝑑−𝑎 𝑑−𝑎
2.22 Electrostatics
𝜌𝑙 𝑎
= − [2𝑙𝑛 ]
2𝜋𝜀 𝑑−𝑎
𝜌𝑙 𝑑−𝑎
𝑉= 𝑙𝑛 ( )
𝜋𝜀 𝑎
Capacitance / unit length,
𝜌 𝜋𝜀
𝐶 = 𝑣𝑙 = 𝑑−𝑎 Farad / metre
𝑙𝑛( )
𝑎
𝐼𝑓 𝑑 ≫ 𝑎
𝜋𝜀
𝐶= Farad / metre
𝑙𝑛(𝑑⁄𝑎 )
Serial and parallel combination of capacitors :

The capacitors are connected in series. If voltage is applied across the two
capacitors, V1 & V2 are the potential difference of capacitors C1 & C2
respectively.
V = V1 + V 2
Figure: 2.16 Capacitors in Series

Since the charge acquired by each capacitor in same, there
𝑄 𝑄
𝑉= +
𝐶1 𝐶2
The equivalent capacitance, C is given by,
𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
= +
𝐶 𝐶1 𝐶2
1 1 1
= +
𝐶 𝐶1 𝐶2
𝑁
1 1
= ∑ .
𝑐 𝐶𝑛
𝑛=1
If N number of capacitors are connected in series the equivalent capacitance is

given by,
1 1 1 1
= + +. . . .
𝐶1 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶𝑁
The two capacitance of value C1 & C2 in parallel. The voltage source V is
applied to this combination . The total charge acquired by the equivalent
capacitor is the sum of the changes an individual capacitors.
Figure: 2.17 Capacitors in Parallel
𝑄 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2
= 𝐶1 𝑉 + 𝐶2 𝑉
𝐶𝑣 = 𝐶1 𝑉 + 𝐶2 𝑉
𝐶 = 𝐶1 = 𝐶2
𝐶 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + . . . 𝐶𝑣
𝑁
𝐶 = ∑ 𝐶𝑛
𝑛=1
2.24 Electrostatics
Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor having single dielectric media

Consider a capacitor composed of two conducting plates of area ‘A’ separated
by a dielectric medium where permittivity is ‘ℇ’, The space separation between
the plates is ‘d’ if potential ‘V’ is applied across the plates, the positive charge
Q is deposited on other plate. The net charge is zero.
Figure: 2.18 Capacitors separated by single dielectric media

The capacitance of two conducting plates is defined as the ratio of magnitude of
charge on either of the conductor to the potential difference between conductors,
Q
C
V
Assume that there is a uniform charge density D over the plates and dielectric
medium,
𝐷 = 𝑄⁄𝐴 𝐶 ⁄𝑚2
Also taken as, 𝐷 =ε𝐸

𝑄
= ε𝐸
𝐴
𝑄 =𝐴ε 𝐸
We know that, 𝐸̅ field is given by,

𝑉
𝐸 = 𝑣/𝑚
𝑑
Substitute the value of E is Q we get,
ε 𝐴𝑉
𝑄=
𝑑
𝑄 ε 𝐴
= ,
𝑉 𝑑
𝐴𝜀𝑜𝜀𝑟
𝐶 = Farads
𝑑
Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor having two dielectric media

Consider a parallel plate capacitor exists of two dielectrics,
Figure: 2.19 Capacitors separated by two dielectric media

The permittivity of dielectric medium 1 & medium 2 are 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 respectively. If the
potential across the capacitor is V, the potential difference across medium 1 &
medium 2 are V1 and V2 respectively
V = V 1 + V2
Let E1 & E2 be the field intensities in the mode I & medium 2 resly, then,
V1 = E1 d1
V2 = E2 (d-d1)
V = V 1 + V2
= E1 d1 + E2 (d-d1)
𝑄
The electric flux density D = 𝐴 will be same in both the media. The 𝐸̅ electric
field intensities for both the media are given by,
2.26 Electrostatics
𝐷 𝑄
𝐸1 = =
𝜀𝑟1 𝐴 ε 𝑟1 𝜀𝑜
𝐷 𝑄
𝐸2 = =
𝜀𝑟2 𝐴 ε 𝑟2 𝜀𝑜
The applied potential V = E1d1 + E2 (d - d1)
𝑄 𝑑1 𝑑 − 𝑑1
𝑉 = ( + )
𝐴𝜀𝑜 ε 𝑟1 ε 𝑟2
C = 𝑄⁄𝑣 =
𝐴𝜀𝑜
𝑑1 𝑑1−𝑑2
+
ε 𝑟1 ε 𝑟2
𝐴𝜀𝑜
C = 𝑑1 𝑑−𝑑1
+
ε 𝑟1 ε 𝑟21
𝐴𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟1 𝜀𝑟2

∴ 𝐶 = 𝑑1 𝜀𝑟2 + 𝜀𝑟1 (𝑑−𝑑1 )
If medium 1 is air, 𝜀𝑟1 = 1 and for medium 2 𝜀𝑟2 = 𝜀𝑟 . The capacitance of

capacitor is,
𝐴 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟
𝐶=
𝑑1 𝜀𝑟 + (𝑑 − 𝑑1 )
Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor having three dielectric media
Consider a parallel plate capacitor consists of three dielectrics . Let 𝜀𝑟1 , 𝜀𝑟2 , 𝜀𝑑3
be the relative permittivity & thickness 𝑑1 , 𝑑2 & 𝑑3 of the medium 1,
medium 2 & medium 3 respectively,
Figure: 2.20 Capacitors separated by three dielectric media

If 𝐸1 , 𝐸2 & 𝐸3 are the electric field intensity of the medium 1, 2 & 3

respectively, the corresponding applied potential is
𝑉 = 𝑣1 , + 𝑣2 + 𝑣1
𝑉 = 𝐸2 𝑑2 + 𝐸3 𝑑3
Since the flux density 𝐷 = 𝑄⁄𝐴 is the same in three media, the electric field
intensity.
𝐷 𝑄
𝐸1 = =
𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟1 𝐴𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟1
𝑄
𝐸2 =
𝐴𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟2
𝑄
𝐸3 =
𝐴𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟3
𝑄 𝑄
Then 𝑉 = 𝑑1 + 𝑑2
𝐴𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟1 𝐴𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟2
𝑄 𝑑1 𝑑2 𝑑3
𝑉 = [ + + ]
Aε0 𝜀𝑟1 𝜀𝑟2 𝜀𝑟3
𝑄 𝐴𝜀𝑜
= 𝑑1 𝑑2 𝑑
𝑉 + + 3
𝜀𝑟1 𝜀𝑟2 𝜀𝑟3
The capacitance is given by,

𝐴𝜀𝑜
𝐶=
𝑑1 𝑑2 𝑑3
𝜀𝑟1 + 𝜀𝑟2 + 𝜀𝑟3
2.10 Electrostatic Energy and Energy Density :
2.10.1 Electrostatic Energy :
The capacitor stores the electrostatic energy equal to work done to build up the
charge. If a voltage source is connected across the capacitor, the capacitance
charges and this potential is defined as the work done per unit charge.
𝑑𝑊
𝑉 =
𝑑𝑄
The work done dW = V. dQ
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑉 = 𝑄/𝐶
2.28 Electrostatics
𝑄
𝑑𝑊 = . 𝑑𝑄
𝐶
The capacitor is changed to the value of Q, the total work done is,
𝑄
𝑄
𝑊= ∫ 𝑑𝑄
𝑜 𝐶
𝑄
1 𝑄2
= [ ]
𝐶 2 𝑜
𝑄2
𝑊=
2𝐶
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉
𝑊 = 1⁄2 𝐶𝑉 2
𝑊 = 1⁄2 𝑄𝑉 Joules.
2.11 Energy Density:

Consider an elementary cube of side ∆ d parallel to the plates of a capacitor.
Figure: 2.21 Elementary cube as Capacitor

The capacitance of elemental capacitor is,

ℇA
∆𝐶 = ∆𝑑
ℇ (∆𝑑 )2
=
∆𝑑
= ℇ∆d
Energy stored in the elemental capacitor is,
∆𝑊 = 1⁄2 ∆𝐶 (∆𝑣)2
But potential difference across the elementary cube is,
∆𝑉 = 𝐸. ∆𝑑
where E is the electric field exist in the cube,
∆𝐶 = ℇ. ∆𝑑
The stored energy ∆𝑊 = 1⁄2 (ℇ . ∆𝑑 ) (𝐸. ∆ 𝑑 )2
= 1⁄2 ℇ 𝐸 2 (∆ 𝑑 )3
= 1⁄2 ℇ 𝐸 2 ∆v
Where ∆v = (∆ 𝑑 )3 is elementary volume. The energy density is given by

∆W
= 1⁄2 ℇ 𝐸 2
∆V
∴ D=ℇ𝐸
∆W
= 1⁄2 𝐷. 𝐸 Joules / m3.
∆V
2.11 Poisson’s and Laplace’s equation :-

According to gauss’s law in point form, the divergence of electric flux density
is equal to the volume charge density.
∇ . D = r (1)
We know that, D=ℇ 𝐸
𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐷 𝑖𝑛 (1)
∇. (ℇ 𝐸) =  r
2.30 Electrostatics
ℇ ∇. 𝐸 = r
r
∇. 𝐸 = (2)

We know that, 𝐸 = −∇ V (3)
Substituting (3) in (2)
r
∇. (−∇V) =

r
∇. ∇V = −

r
∇2 V = −

The above relation represents the Poisson’s equation. For Cartesian co-ordinate
system,
∂ ∂v ∂ ∂v ∂ ∂y
∇. ∇V = ( )+ ( )+ ( )
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z
𝜕2𝑣 𝜕2𝑣 𝜕2𝑣
= + 𝜕𝑦 2 +
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑧 2
The Poisson equation for Cartesian co-ordinate system can be written as,
2
𝜕2𝑣 𝜕2 𝑣 𝜕2𝑣 
∇ V = + 2 + = − r
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 2

For Cylindrical co-ordinate system
1 ∂ 𝜕𝑣 1 𝜕2𝑣 𝜕2𝑣
∇2 V = + (ρ ) + 2 ( 2) + 2
Q ∂ρ 𝜕ρ Q 𝜕φ 𝜕𝑧
For spherical coordinate system,
2
1 ∂ 2
∂v 1 ∂ ∂𝑣 𝜕2𝑣 𝜕2𝑣 
∇ v = 2 + (r )+ 2 (sinθ )+ 2 2 =− r
r ∂r ∂r r sinθ ∂θ 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 sin θ 𝜕φ 2

If the charge volume density (𝜌𝑟 ) is zero, then the Laplace equation is given by
∇2 V = 0
Where ∇2 → Laplacian operator

2.12 UNIQUENESS OF ELECTROSTATIC SOLUTIONS

The solution of Poisson’s equation that satisfies the given boundary conditions is a
unique solution. This is the statement of Uniqueness theorem.
(i.e.,) any solution of Laplace’s equation that satisfies the same boundary conditions
must be the only solution regardless of the method used.
The theorem applies to any solution of Poisson’s or Laplace’s equation in a given
region or closed surface.
Proof:
The theorem is proved by contradiction. Consider a volume  is bounded outside by a
surface S0, which may be a surface at infinity. There are a number of charged
conducting bodies with surfaces S1, S2,………., Sn inside the closed surface S0 at
specified intervals.
Assumption:
Assume contrary to the uniqueness theorem, that there are two solutions V 1 and V2 to
Poisson’s equation in 
2V1  0 ,  2V2  0 , V1  V2 on the boundary --------------(A)
Also assume that both V1 and V2 satisfy the same boundary conditions on S1, S2,……,
Sn and S0. Let the new difference potential can be defined as
Vd  V1  V2
which obeys  Vd   V2   V1  0 , Vd  0
2 2 2
on the boundary --------------(B)
From Divergence theorem,
 . Adv   A.dS
v s
---------------------(1)
where S is the surface surrounding volume v and is the boundary of the original
A  Vd Vd
problem. Let and use a vector identity
. A  .Vd Vd   Vd  2Vd  Vd .Vd
 2Vd  0
But , therefore
. A  Vd .Vd ---------------------(2)
Substituting (2) in (1),

2.32 Electrostatics
 .V .V dv   V .V .dS --------------(3)

v
d d
s
d d
From equations (A) and (B), it is clear that the right hand side of equation (3) vanishes.
Hence
 V dv  0
2
d
v
Since the integration is always positive,
Vd  0 (or) Vd  V1  V2  constant everywhere in v.
Hence Vd  0 or V1  V2 everywhere, showing that V1 and V2 cannot be different

solutions of the same problem.
2.13 Electric Current :

Flow of electrons constitute an electric current (or) when a charge flows in a
conductor from one place to another place, these flow of charge is called as
electric current. The electric current is measured by the rate of flow of charge.
I = q/t Amperes.
Current density:
Current density is defined as current per unit area. It is denoted by the letter J. It is
given by
J = I/A Amp/m2
Where J represents current density, I represents current and A represents Area
Point form of ohm’s law :

Point form of ohm’s law states that the field strength within a conductor is
proportional to the current density
J E
𝐽=𝜎𝐸
where 𝜎 represents the conductivity of the material .
Continuity equation of current:

Current is defined as the rate of movement of charge passing a given reference
point.
𝑑𝑄
I= 𝑑𝑡
The increment of current ∆ I crossing an increment surface ∆s is given by,

∆I = J. ∆s
Where J is the current density A/m2.Total current is obtained by integrating
I = ∫ J. ds
𝑠
Consider a region bounded by a closed surface, is,
I = ∮ J. ds
and this outward flow of positive charge must be balanced by a decrease of
positive charge within the closed surface. If the charge inside the closed surface
𝑑𝑄
is denoted by Q, then the rate of decrease is - 𝑑𝑡 and the principle of
conservation of charge requires,
𝑑𝑄
I = ∮ J. ds = - 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑄
∮ J. ds = -
𝑑𝑡
The above relation is the Integral form of continuity equation. The differential ∮ or
point form is obtained by changing the surface integral in a volume integral by
using divergence theorems.
∮ 𝐽. 𝑑𝑠 = ∫ (∇ . 𝐽) 𝑑 , ∫ (∇ . 𝐽) 𝑑 = 𝑑𝑄/𝑑𝑡
𝑣 𝑣
𝑠 𝑣 𝑣
=-
𝑑 ∫ ℓ 𝑑
𝑑𝑡 𝑟 𝑣
𝑣
[∵ Q = ∫ ℓ𝑟 𝑑𝑣 ]
𝑣
∫ ∇. J 𝑑 = - ∫ 𝜕ℓ𝑣 𝑑
𝑣 𝑑𝑡 𝑣
𝑣
𝜕ℓ𝑣
∇. J = - 𝑑𝑡
The above relation is the Differential or point from of continuity equation.

2.34 Electrostatics
2.14 EQUATION OF CONTINUITY AND KIRCHOFFS CURRENT LAW

Consider an arbitrary volume V bounded by surface S. A net charge Q exists within
this region. If a net current I flows across the surface out of this region, the charge in
the volume must decrease at a rate that equals the current. Conversely if a net current
flows across the surface into the region, the charge in the volume must increase at a
rate equal to the current. The current leaving the region is the total outward flux of the
current density vector through the surface S. So we have
dQ d
I   J  ds      dv
S
dt dt v
Divergence theorem may be invoked to convert the surface integral of J to the volume

integral of   J  
t
This point relationship derived from the principle of conservation of charge is called
the equation of continuity. For steady currents, charge density does not vary with time,
 t  0 .
 J  0
Thus steady electric currents are divergence-less or solenoidal. The above equation is a
point relationship and holds also at points where   0 (no flow source). It means that
the field lines or streamlines of steady currents close upon themselves, unlike those of
electrostatic field intensity that originate and end on charges. Over any enclosed
surface, the equation leads to the following integral form
 J  ds  0
S
which can be written as I

j
j 0
This equation is an expression of Kirchoff’s current law. It states that the algebraic
sum of all the currents flowing out of a junction in an electric circuit is zero. KCL is
the basis for node analysis in circuit theory.
2.15 ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE AND KIRCHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW
It is a known fact that the static electric field is conservative and that the scalar line
integral of static electric intensity around any closed path is zero, that is
 E  d  0
C
For an ohmic material, the relationship of J  E becomes

1
C 
J  d  0
A steady current cannot be maintained in the same direction in a closed circuit by an

electrostatic field. A steady current in a circuit is the result of the motion of charge
carriers, which, in their paths, collide with atoms and dissipate energy in the circuit.
This energy must come from a non conservative field, since a charge carrier
completing a closed circuit in a conservative field neither gains nor loses energy. The
source of the non conservative field may be electric batteries (Conversion of chemical
energy to electric energy), electric generators (conversion of mechanical energy to
electric energy), thermocouples (conversion of thermal energy to electric energy),
photovoltaic cells(conversion of light energy to electric energy) or other devices.
These electrical energy sources, when connected in an electric circuit, provide a
driving force for the charge carriers. This force manifests itself as an equivalent
impressed electric field intensity E i .
Consider an electric battery with electrodes 1 and 2. Chemical action creates a

cumulation of positive and negative charges at electrodes 1 and 2 respectively. These
charges give rise to an electrostatic field intensity E both inside and outside the
battery. Inside the battery, E must be equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to
the nonconservative E i produced by chemical reaction, since no current flows in the
open-circuited battery and the net force acting on the charge carriers must vanish. The
E
line integral of the impressed field intensity i from the negative to the positive
electrode inside the battery is customarily called the electromotive force (emf) of the
battery. The SI unit for emf is volt, and an emf is not a force in newtons. Denoted by
 , the electromotive force is a measure of the strength of the nonconservative source.
We have
1 1
   Ei  d    E  d
2 2
Inside the
Source
The conservative electrostatic field intensity E satisfies

2 1
 E  d  
C
1
E  d   E  d  0
2
Outside Inside
theSource theSource
We have
2
   E  d
1
Outside
theSource
  V12  V1  V2
In the above equation we expressed the emf of the source as a line integral of the
conservative E and interpreted it as a voltage rise. In spite of the nonconservative
2.36 Electrostatics
nature of E i , the emf can be expreseed as a potential difference between the positive
and negative terminals.
When a resistor is connected between terminals 1 and 2 of the battery, completing the
circuit, the total electric field intensity must be used in the point form of Ohm’s law.
J   ( E  Ei )
Where E i exists inside the battery only, while E has a nonzero value both inside and
outside the source. So we obtain
J
E  Ei 

The scalar line integral of the above equation around the closed circuit yields.
   E  Ei   d   J  d
1
C C

If the resistor has a conductivity  , length  and uniform cross section S, J  I S and
the right side of the equation becomes RI.
We have
  RI
If there are more than one source of electromotive force and more than one resistor in
the closed path, we generalize

j
j   RK I K The above equation is an expression of Kirchoff’s voltage law. It
K
states that around a closed path in an electric circuit, the algebraic sum of the emf’s is
equal to the algebraic sum of the voltage drops across the resistances.
It applies to any closed path in a network. The direction of tracing the path can be
arbitrarily assigned, and the currents in the different resistances need not be the same.
KVL is the basis for loop analysis in circuit theory.
UNIT 2
ELECTROSTATICS
1. Find the capacitance of parallel plate capacitor having stored energy of 10μJ.
with a voltage between the plates of 5V.
Answer: C=0.8 μF
2. Find the capacitance three capacitor each connected in series of 3μF.
Solution:
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
     
Cs C1 C2 C3 3 3 3
Cs  1 F
3. Find the total capacitance from figure.
Solution:
CP  C1  C2  C3
  2  12  10   F
CP  24 F
4. If C1 = 100 mF ; C2 = 50 mF, cal. the joint capacitance and total energy stored
with a potential difference of 1000 V are in parallel
Solution:
CP  150 mF
1
E  CV 2
2
 150 103  103 
1 2
2
5. 3 capacitors of 10, 25, & 50 μF are in (a) series (b) parallel. Find equivalent
capacitance and energy stored in a capacitor connected across 500 V.
Solution:
 1 1 1 1
(a) Cs  6.25 F     
 Cs C1 C2 C3 
1 1
E  CsV 2   6.25 106   500 
2
2 2
E  0.781J
(b) C p  85 F  C p  C1  C2  C3 
1 1
E  C pV 2   85 106   500 
2
2 2
E  10.625 J
6. Find the charge whose point is 1000 V having 221 nF.

Solution:
 Q
Q  CV  C  
 V
Q  221.0 C
7. A parallel plate capacitor is of area 1m2 under separation of 1mm. The space
between the plate is filled with dielectric ∈r = 25. If 1000 V is applied. Find the
capacitance & total charge.
Solution:
 A  0  rA
C 
d d
8.854 1012  25 1
  2.2135 107
1103
C  0.221 F
Q
C  Q  CV
V
Q  0.221 1000
Q  0.221mC
8. A parallel plate capacitor having area 1m2 distance between the plate is 0.01 m.
Thickness of the wood is 0.002 m in a relative dielectric constant of wood is 6
times that of the air. Calculate the capacitor of the system.
Solution:
 0  rA
Cair 
d2
Cair  1.10675 10  9 F
 0  rA 8.854 1012  6 1
Cwood  
d1 0.002
 26.562 nF
Cair Cwood
Ctot   1.0624 nF
Cair  Cwood
Ctot  1.0624 nF
9. Determine capacitance of parallel plate capacitor, composed of thin foil sheets 9.
25cm2, separated a glass of 0.5 cm thickness with ∈r = 6.
Solution:
 0  rA 1.328 1013
C 
d  0.5 102 
C  26.562  F
10. A parallel plate capacitor has area 0.8 cm2. Separation between the plates 0.1 mm
Dielectric ∈r = 1000 and a field of 106 v/m. Calculate C & V.
Solution:
 0  rA
C  70.83 106 F
d
C  70.8 F
We know,
V  E.d
E V / d
| V  106  0.1103
 0.1103
V  100V
Answer :
C  70.8 F
V  100V
11. A metallic sphere of radius 10cm has surface charge density 10nC/m2. Calculate
energy stored in the system.
Solution:
Q   sA
  s.4 r 2
 10 109  4  3.14 10 102 
2
Q  1.256nC
4 o 4 oa
C
11
C   one rad 
1
ab
C  4  3.14  8.854 1012 10 102
C  11.12  F
Answer:
Q  1.256nC
C  11.12  F
12. Radius of 2 sphere differ by 4cm capacity of spherical condenser is 53.33 ρF.
Outer sphere is earth. Calculate radius assuming air is dielectric.
Solution:
a  b  4 102  b  a
C  53.33 109 F
4 o 4 oa
C C 
1 1
 ba
a b
4  3.14  8.85 1012  ab
53.33 1012 
4 102
ab  19.182 103
b   4 102   a
19.182 103
b   4 102  
b
b   4  10  b  19.182 10 3  0
2 2
b  0.1599 m
a  0.1199 m
13. A pair of 200 mm long cylindrical conductor of rad 50 mm & 100 mm is filled
with a dielectric of ∈ = 10∈o. Voltage is applied b/w conductors which establishes
 106 
E .ar Cal (i) 'C'. (ii) Voltage. app (iii) Energy stored.
r
Solution:
1  200mm, a  50mm, b  100mm,
 o / o
 106 
E .ar
r
2  l
(i ) C
b
in  
a
a 
(ii ) V    Edl
b
1
(iii ) E  CV 2
2
2   10 o 200  1003

(i ) C
 100 
ln  
 50 
C  0.16 nF
50103
106   
(ii ) V  
 3  r  ar . drar 
10010
50103
 106  1 dr  106 l nr 100103
r
 693.14 KV
 106  0.693   693.14 KV
1
 0.16 109  693.14 103 
2
(iii ) E
2
E  38.435 J
14. A capacitor with 2 dielectric is as follows. Plate area is 100 cm2. Dielectric – 1,
thickness 3mm, ∈r1 = 3 ; Dielectric – 2 thickness = 2 mm, ∈r2 = 2 ; If potential of
100 V is app across the plates, Find the energy stored in each dielectric and
potential gradient in each dielectric.
Solution:
1
WE1  C1V12
2
1
WE2  C2V2 2
2
 o  r1 A  o  r2 A
C1  ; C2 
d1 d2
C1C2
Ceq 
C1  C2
8.854 10 12  3 100 10 4
C1 
3  103
C1  88  F  C2  88  F
Ceq  4.425 10 11
Ceq  44.25  F
Q  Ceq V
 44.25 10 10 100
Q  44.25 10 10 C
Q Q
V1  V2 
C1 C1
44.25 10 10

88.54 10 12
V1  49.977 V  50V
V2  50V
1
WE1  WE2   88.5  50 
2
2
WE1  0.1106  J , WE2  0.1106  J
V1 50
E1    16.66 KV
d1 3  103
V2 50
E2    25 KV
d 2 2 103
E1  16.66 KV
E2  25 KV
(i ) C1  C2  8.854 1011 F
(ii ) Ceq  4.427 1011 F
(iii ) Q  44.25 109 C

(iv) V1  50V
(v ) V2  50V
(vi ) Energy (WE )  WE2  WE1  0.11 J
(vii ) E1  16 KV
(viii ) E2  25KV
15. Check whether the given is Laplace or not. (i) V = r cos 15. φ + z.
Solution:
1  r V  1  V   2V
2
L.H .S .:  2V  0   2   2  0
  r 
   
2
 z
1     1  2  2
 r  r cos   z    2   2
r  r cos   z    z 2  r cos   z 
r r  r  r  
1  1    
  r cos    2   r sin    [1]
r r r    z
1
  cos   
 r cos    0
r r2
cos  cos 
  0
r r
∴ It satisfies Laplacian equation.
50sin 
(ii) V
r2
Solution:
 2V  0
1  rV  1   2V   2V
     0
  r   2   2  z 2
1   2  1    v   1  2V
r  2    sin    0
 
r r  r  r sin 
2
     r 2 sin   2
L.H .S .:
1   2   50sin   1     50sin   1   2  50sin  
 2 r    2 sin     2 2   2  r 2 
r r  r  r 2 
  r sin      r 2   r sin    
1   2  100sin    1    50sin    1   (0) 
  r    2   sin  r 2    r 2 sin 2    
r r   r   r sin   
2 3
  
1  (100) sin   1    sin 2  50  
 2 
    2  
r   r sin     2  r  
3 2
r
100sin  50 cos 2
  4
r4 r sin 
50  cos 2 
 4  2sin  
r  sin  
50  2sin   cos 2 
 4 
r  sin 
50  2sin   2sin 2   1 
 4 
r  sin  
50
 0
r sin 
4
∴ Therefore itdoesnotsatisfy Laplace's.eqn.

(iii) V  r cos    ; (iv) x 2  y 2  z 2
16. Find the . is a circular conductor of radius 4mm with a current density of
104 
az A / m2 .
r
Solution:

   J .ds
 104   
 
 r

az  rdr d az


2 2
104
 
0
0 r (r ) dr d
2
 104   4m  d  4o  2   80
0
  251.2 A
(iii)
V  r cos   
 V 0
2
1   2 v  1   v  1   2v 
 r   2
r r  r  r sin 
2   sin     r 2 sin 2    2   0
 
LHS .:
1   r 2  1   2v 
  r cos       2 2   2   0
r r  r  r sin 
2
 
1  2

 2 2  2  r cos     
r sin    
1  2 1   
  r  cos     2 2  sin    r sin  
r r
2
r sin    
1   (1) 
 2 2 
r sin    
1 (r )
 2r cos   2 2  2sin  .cos    0
r 2
r sin 
2 r
 cos   2  2 cos    0
r r
∴ It satisfies the Laplacian eqn.
(iv)
V  x2  y2  z 2
 2V  0
 2v  2v  2v
  0
x 2 y 2 z 2
LHS .:
2 2 2 2

2 
x 2
 y 2
 z 2

 
 x 2
 y 2
 z 2

    x  y 2  z 2 
2 
x y z
2
  
 (2 x)  (2 y ) (2 z )
x y z
 222  2  0
It does not satisfy Laplacian eqn.

MAGNETOSTATICS
3
3.1 LORENTZ FORCE EQUATION
The Lorentz force equation for a moving charge:

In electrostatics, the two principal field quantities are electric field intensity E
and Electric flux density D. In magnetics, the vector quantities B and H.
Figure : 3.1 Force on a moving charge

Suppose, we have an uniform magnetic field with flux density B and an electric charge
element is moving in that region we know that the charge experiences a force. Let v
be the velocity of the charge element d𝑄.
The force experienced is there given by
dF  dQvB Sin(v, B)
where (v, B ) is the angle between the velocity and field vectors. Figure given above
shows the three vectors dF, v and B respectively. The derivative of the force is
perpendicular to the plane containing the vector v and B and is given by applying
the right-hand rule. The vector relations is may intensity / flux density. The force
experienced by dF = dQ v x B the test charge called Lorentz force is Q maximum
if the derivative of movement of charge perpendicular to the orientation of the
field lines.
3.2 Magnetostatics
3.2 LAW OF NO MAGNETIC MONOPOLES

Gauss’s law for magnetism states that no magnetic monopoles exists and that the total
flux through a c`losed surface must be zero.
 B.ds  0
S
where B is magnetic flux density
The equation states that there is no net magnetic flux (which can be thought of as the
number of magnetic field lines through an area) that passes through an arbitrary closed
surface. This means the number of magnetic field lines that enter and exit through this
closed surface is the same.
This is explained by the concept of a magnet that has a north and a south pole, where
the strength of the north pole is equal to the strength of the south pole.
Figure : 3.2 Subdivision of a magnet

This is equivalent to saying that a magnetic monopole, meaning a solitary north or
south pole does not exist because for every positive magnetic pole, there must be an
equal amount of negative magnetic poles.
3.3 AMPERE’S CIRCUITAL LAW:

Ampere’s circuital law states that the line integral of magnetic field intensity H
about any closed path is exactly equal to the direct current enclosed by that path.
∮ 𝐻. 𝑑𝑙 = 𝐼
3.4 MAGNETIC POTENTIAL:

There exists two types of magnetic potential
 Scalar magnetic potential
 Vector magnetic potential
3.4.1 Scalar magnetic potential

Ampere’s law states that the line integral of the field ‘H’ around a closed
path is equal to the current enclosed.
∮ 𝐻. 𝑑𝑙 = I
If there is no current that is J = 0, then
∮ 𝐻. 𝑑𝑙 = 0
Magnetic field H can be expressed as negative gradient of a scalar function
𝐻 = −∇Vm where Vm → scalar magnetic potential
Vm = −∫ H. dℓ
It satisfies Laplace equation,
∇.B = 0
In case of free space,
𝜇o ∇. H = 0
We know
𝐻 = −∇Vm
∴ 𝜇o ∇. (-∇Vm) = 0
𝜇o ∇2 Vm = 0
∇2 Vm = 0
3.4.2 Magnetic Vector Potential:
Scalar magnetic potential exists if there is no current enclosed that is ∮ H. 𝑑ℓ =

0. If current is enclosed, the potential which depends upon current element
(Vector quantity) is no more scalar but it is vector quantity. Since the divergence of
a vector is a scalar, vector potential is expressed in curl.
∇.B = 0
B=∇xA where A is magnetic vector potential.
Take curl on both sides.
∇xB= ∇x∇xA
By the identity,
∇ x ∇ x A = ∇ (∇.A) - ∇2 A
But ∇ x B = 𝜇J
3.4 Magnetostatics
∴ ∇ (∇.A) - ∇2 A = 𝜇J.
For the steady dc, (∇.A) = 0
and hence - ∇2 A = 𝜇J
then, 𝑥⃗ ∇2 𝐴𝑥 + 𝑦⃗ ∇2 𝐴𝑦 + 𝑧⃗ ∇2 𝐴𝑧 = − 𝜇 (𝑥⃗𝐽𝑥 + 𝑦⃗ 𝐽𝑦 + 𝑧⃗ 𝐽𝑧 )
Equating,
∇2 𝐴𝑥 = −𝜇 𝐽𝑥
∇2 𝐴𝑦 = −𝜇 𝐽𝑦
∇2 𝐴𝑧 = −𝜇 𝐽𝑧
They are in the form of Poisson’s equation.
From the above equations, magnetic vector potential can be written as,
𝐴𝑥 =
𝜇 ∫ (𝐽𝑥) dv
4𝜋 𝑣 𝑟
𝐴𝑦 =
𝜇 ∫ (𝐽𝑦) dv
4𝜋 𝑣 𝑟
𝐴𝑧 =
𝜇 ∫ (𝐽𝑧 ) dv
4𝜋 𝑣 𝑟
In general, magnetic vector potential ℓ can be expressed as,
𝜇 𝐽
𝐴= ∭ dv
4𝜋 𝑟
3.5 BIOT – SAVART LAW
The magnetic flux density produced by a current element at any point in a magnetic
field is proportional to the current element and inversely proportional to square of
the distance between them.
Figure: 3.3. Current element

The magnetic flux density at any point P due to current element 𝐼𝑑𝑙 is given by,
𝐼𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝐵 ∝
𝑟2
𝜇𝐼𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝐵 ∝ 𝑎⃑
4𝜋𝑟 2
𝜇
The proportionality constant for magnetic field is characterized by , where 𝜇 =
4𝜋
𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 is permeability of the medium, 𝐼𝑑𝑙 is the current element, 𝑟 is the distance
between the point P and current element, 𝑎⃑ is the unit vector.
Its magnetic field is given by,

𝜇𝐼𝑑𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑑𝐵 =
4𝜋𝑟 2
The magnetic field intensity is given by,
𝐼𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝐻 = 𝑎⃑ ∵ B = μH
4𝜋𝑟 2
Its magnitude is
𝐼𝑑𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑑𝐻 =
4𝜋𝑟 2
3.5.1 Applications of Biot Savart Law

Example (1): Magnetic flux density and magnetic field intensity at any point
due to finite and infinite wire carrying current I.
Consider a conductor of finite length carrying current I and consider a small
current element 𝐼𝑑𝑙 in the conductor at a distance 𝑟 from the point P where
magnetic field is to be determined.
By Biot-Savart law, the flux density at ‘P’ due to the current element 𝐼𝑑𝑙 is
given by
𝜇𝑜 Idl sin 𝜃
𝑑𝐵 =
4𝜋𝑟 2
3.6 Magnetostatics
Figure: 3.4 Finite & Infinite wire carrying a current I
From the figure, 𝑟𝑑 𝜃 = 𝑑𝑙sin𝜃 (arc)

𝑑
= sin𝜃
𝑟
𝑑
𝑟=
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Substitute the value of 𝑟 in above equation
𝜇𝑜 Ird𝜃
𝑑𝐵 =
4𝜋𝑟 2
𝜇𝑜 Id𝜃 𝜇𝑜 Isin𝜃
= = . 𝑑𝜃
4𝜋𝑟 4𝜋𝑑
The total flux density is
  2
[−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ]π−𝜃
𝜇𝑜 I 𝜇𝑜 I
𝐵=
4𝜋𝑑  sin  d

=
4𝜋𝑑 𝜃1
2
𝜇𝑜 I
= [− cos(π − 𝜃2 ) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 ]
4𝜋𝑑
𝜇𝑜 I
= [cos𝜃1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 ]
4𝜋𝑑
If it is infinitely long, 𝜽𝟏 = 𝜽𝟐 = 𝟎
𝜇o I
∴B = ×2
4πd
𝜇oI
The magnetic flux density due to finite conductor B = 𝑊𝑏/𝑚 2
2πd
The magnetic field intensity is given by
𝐼
𝐻 = A/m
2𝜋𝑑
Example (2): Magnetic field intensity & Magnetic flux density on the axis of a
circular coil carrying a current I.
Figure: 3.5 Circular coil carrying a current I

Consider a circular coil of radius ‘a’ carrying a current I and also consider a
current element Idl . Let P be any pt at a distance ‘d’ from the centre of the
coil. The magnetic flux density at P due to the current element is
𝜇𝑜 Idl
𝑑𝐵 = → (1)
4𝜋𝑟 2
From ∆ AOP, 𝑟 2 = 𝑑2 + 𝑎2 → (2)
𝑑𝐵 = 𝑑𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑎
= 𝑑𝐵 .
√𝑎 2+𝑑2
𝜇𝑜 Idl 𝑎
Substituting (1) and (2) in the above equation, dB =
4𝜋(𝑎 2+𝑑2) √𝑎 2+𝑑2
𝜇𝑜 aIdl
𝑑𝐵 =
4𝜋(𝑎 2+𝑑2 )3/2
The magnetic flux density due to circular coil is given by,

𝜇𝑜 aI
𝐵 = ∫ 𝑑𝑙
4𝜋(𝑎 2+𝑑2)3/2
𝜇𝑜 aI
= 2𝜋𝑎
4𝜋(𝑎 2+𝑑2)3/2
𝜇𝑜 a2I
𝐵 = webers /m2
2(𝑎 2+𝑑2)3/2
The magnetic field intensity is

3.8 Magnetostatics
Ia2
𝐻 = A/m
2(𝑎 2+𝑑2)3/2
If d = 0, the field is at the Centre

𝜇𝑜 a2I
Here flux density 𝐵 =
2𝑎 3
𝜇𝑜 I
𝐵 = Weber /m2
2𝑎
I
Also, magnetic field intensity 𝐻 = A/m
2𝑎
Example (3): Magnetic field intensity & Magnetic flux density on the axis of
Solenoid
A solenoid is a cylindrical shaped coil consisting of a large number of turns
wound on a non - magnetic frame. Consider a solenoid which has N number of
turns of length ℓ whose mean raduis is ‘a’ carrying a current I. Let P be any
point on the axis of the solenoid where flux density is to be determined.
Figure: 3.6 Solenoid

Consider an elemental length 𝑑𝑙 of the solenoid at a distance ‘r’ from P
𝑁𝐼
carrying the current 𝑑ℓ. The flux density due to the circular current element at
ℓ
point P is given by
𝜇𝑜 𝑎2 𝑁𝐼
𝑑𝐵 = . 𝑑ℓ
2𝑟 3 ℓ
𝑎
From the above figure, = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑟
𝑟 = 𝑎/ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝜇𝑜 𝑎 2 𝑁𝐼
Then 𝑑𝐵 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3 𝜃 . 𝑑ℓ
2𝑎 3 ℓ
𝜇𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝜃 𝑁𝐼
= . 𝑑ℓ
2a ℓ
From the above figure, 𝑟𝑑𝜃 = 𝑑ℓ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

𝑟𝑑𝜃
∴ 𝑑ℓ = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 = 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Substitute the value of 𝑑ℓ & a in 𝑑𝐵

𝜇𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝜃 𝑁𝐼 𝑟𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝐵 = .
2𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ℓ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝜇𝑜 𝑁𝐼 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
=
2ℓ
Therefore the total magnetic flux density at P due to rectangular coil or

solenoid is
𝜃2
𝜇𝑜 𝑁𝐼
𝐵 = ∫ sin 𝜃 𝑑 𝜃
2ℓ
𝜃1
𝜇𝑜 𝑁𝐼
= [−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ]𝜃𝜃2
2ℓ 1
𝜇𝑜 𝑁𝐼
𝐵 = [𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 ] W/m
2ℓ

𝑁𝐼
𝐻 = [𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 ] A/m
2ℓ
Case (i): If the point ‘P’ is on the middle of the axis, then 𝜃1 = 𝜃2
Figure: 3.7 Point P on the middle of the axis

3.10 Magnetostatics
The magnetic flux density at midpoint ‘P’ on the axis is

𝜇𝑜 𝑁𝐼
𝐵 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1
2ℓ
𝜇𝑜 𝑁𝐼
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1
ℓ
ℓ/2
where 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 =
√(ℓ/2)2+𝑎 2
𝜇𝑜 𝑁𝐼
∴B = w/m.
2√(ℓ/2)2 +𝑎 2

𝑁𝐼
H = A/m
2√(ℓ/2)2+𝑎 2
Case (ii) If the point ‘P’ is at the end of the axis, then 𝜃2 = 900
Figure: 3.8 Point P at the end of the axis

The magnetic flux density at end point P on the axis of solenoid is given by,
𝜇𝑜 𝑁𝐼
B= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1
2ℓ
𝑙
where 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 =
√ℓ2 + 𝑎 2
𝜇𝑜 𝑁𝐼
∴ 𝐵=
2√ℓ2 + 𝑎2
The magnetic field intensity due to solenoid is
𝑁𝐼
𝐻= 2
2√ℓ + 𝑎 2
3.6 MAGNETIC FIELD

Static magnetic field can originate from either a constant current or a permanent
magnet.
Electric charges in motion (ie.,) the flow of current produces magnetic field.
3.6.1 Magnetic flux (ɸ)
Magnetic flux is defined as the flux  passing through any area.
   B.ds
In a closed path, the total flux is zero which can be represented as

∇. B = 0
The total magnetic flux passing through any closed surface is equal to zero.
3.6.2 Magnetic flux density (B)
Magnetic flux density is defined as the magnetic flux passing per unit area. Its unit is
Weber/metre or Tesla.
If Webers is total flux passing through an area of A m 2, then flux density is
given by,
ɸ
𝐵= 𝑤𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 /𝑚 2
𝐴
Also it is defined as, B = 𝜇𝐻
where 𝜇 represents permeability and H is magnetic field intensity.
𝜇 is given by 𝜇 = 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝐻/𝑚
and 𝜇𝑜 = 4𝜋 × 10−7
3.6.3 Magnetic field intensity (H):

The degree to which a magnetic field can magnetize a material is expressed by
means of a vector H called Magnetic Field Intensity. It is defined as the force
experienced by a unit north pole placed at a point in the field. The unit of H is
AT/ m.
3.6.4 Magnetization:
When a magnetic substance is placed in a magnetic field the material acquires a
magnetic momentum M. The magnetic moment per unit volume of the substance is
called as Magnetization. It is also defined as the ratio of dipole moment to the volume
𝑄𝑚 𝑄𝑚
𝑀= (or) 𝑀= A/m
𝑉 𝐴
3.12 Magnetostatics
Here Qm represents dipole moment / unit volume.
If A is the area of cross – section of the bar magnet and ℓ its axial length, the
volume of the magnet is A ℓ and dipole moment of the bar magnet Qm ℓ
𝑄𝑚ℓ 𝑄𝑚
∴ 𝑀= ⇒
𝐴ℓ 𝐴
3.6.5 Magnetic moment:

Magnetic dipole
A small bar magnet with pole strength Qm and length ℓ may be treated as magnetic
dipole whose magnetic moment is Qmℓ. The product of the magnetic pole strength
and the length is called Magnetic moment.
3.6.6 Magnetic permeability:
Magnetic permeability is defined as the ratio of magnetic flux density (B) to magnetic
field intensity (H). 𝜇 = 𝐵/𝐻
3.7 MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

An electric circuit forms a closed path or circuit through which the current flows.
Magnetic flux are continuous and forms closed path. Hence a single magnetic line is a
magnetic circuit.
The magnetic flux through magnetic circuit is defined as the ratio of magnetomotive
force (mmf) to the reluctance of the magnetic circuit.
mmf
Magnetic flux 
Re luc tan ce
Magnetomotive force of a magnetic circuit is equal to the line integral of magnetic
field H around the closed circuit.
mmf   H .dl  NI Amp  turns
Reluctance is defined as the ratio of total mmf of magnetic circuit to the flux through
it.
mmf
Re luc tan ce 
Magnetic flux

 H .dl  Hl 
Hl
BA BA HA
l
 Henry 1
A
Reciprocal of reluctance is called permeance
1 A
P  Henry
 l
3.8 BEHAVIOUR OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS:

Magnetic field is present around a current carrying conductors. It also exists around
magnet. A electron revolving around the nucleus of its atom and its orbit form
a tiny electric current loop. This current loop produces a magnetic field. Some
substances exhibit magnetic effects and some other substances are magnetically weak.
Depending on their magnetic behavior, substances can be classified into three groups.
They are,
1. Diamagnetic materials
2. Paramagnetic materials
3. Ferromagnetic materials
1. Diamagnetic materials
The metals and other elements having slight magnetic properties are called
diamagnetic materials in which the magnetization is opposite to the applied
field.
2. Paramagnetic materials
If magnetization is in the same direction as the applied field, such materials
are called paramagnetic materials.
Paramagnetic & Diamagnetic have feeble magnetic effects are called non-magnetic
materials.
3. Ferromagnetic materials
Ferromagnetic materials show very strong magnetic effects. For instance Iron, steel,
cobalt, nickel are ferromagnetic materials. Moreover relative permeability decides
the materials, which belongs to diamagnetic, paramagnetic & ferromagnetic.
Vacuum is taken as reference medium (For vacuum, 𝜇𝑟 = 1)
If 𝜇𝑟 ≤ 1, the material is diamagnetic
𝜇𝑟 ≥ 1, the material is paramagnetic
𝜇𝑟 ≫ 1, the material is ferromagnetic

3.14 Magnetostatics
Various substances can be classified according to their 𝜇𝑟 values as illustrated below
Substance Magnetic type Relative permeability (𝜇𝑟 )
Silver Diamagnetic 0.999
Copper Diamagnetic 0.991
Vaccum Non-magnetic 1
Aluminum Paramagnetic 1.0002
Palladium Paramagnetic 1.008
Cobalt Ferromagnetic 250
Nickel Ferromagnetic 600
Summary
Inductance per unit

S. No. Material Inductance
length
 N 2 A
1 Solenoid L  -
I 
N 2 A N 2 h   2 
2 Toroid L  ln   -
2 2  1 
  b   b 
L ln L'  ln
2  a  2  a 
3 Coaxial cable
Parallel wire transmission   1  d  a   1  d  a 

L   ln   L'    ln  
 a    a  
4
line  4  4
3.9 MAGNETIC BOUNDARY CONDITIONS :

The boundary conditions between two different magnetic materials are given below
1. The tangential component of magnetic field intensity is continuous across the

boundary.
2. The normal component of magnetic flux density is continuous across the

boundary.
Bpundary Condition 1:
Consider a boundary between two isotropic homogenous media with
permeabilities 𝜇1 and 𝜇2
Figure: 3.9 Boundary between two magnetic media

Consider a small rectangle of width x and length  y at the boundary of the
two media. Let H𝑡1 be the tangential component of magnetic field in medium 1
and H𝑡2 be the tangential component of magnetic field in medium 2.
According to Ampere’s law,
∮ 𝐻. 𝑑 ℓ = 𝐼
If there is no current enclosed by the path, then
∮ 𝐻. 𝑑ℓ = 0
(i.e.,) H𝑡1 ∆𝑦 − H𝑡2 ∆𝑦 = 0
H𝑡1 = H𝑡2
The tangential component of H in medium 1 is same as medium 2 (i.e.,) the
tangential component of it is continuous.
Consider a pill box of surface area ds across the boundary between two isotropic
homogenous media.
3.16 Magnetostatics
Figure: 3.10 Pill box at the boundary of two magnetic media

Let B n1 be the normal component of magnitude flux density in medium 1 and
Bn2 be the normal component of magnetic flux density in medium 2.
By Gauss’ law for magnetic field,
 B.ds  0
S
Bn1ds  Bn 2 ds  0
Bn1  Bn 2
The normal component of B is continuous across the boundary.
Consider the magnetic lines away from the normal across the boundary
Figure: 3.11 Boundary surface between two magnetic media

From figure,
𝐵𝑛1 = 𝐵1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1
𝐵𝑛2 = 𝐵2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2
We know the boundary condition, 𝐵𝑛1 = 𝐵𝑛2
∴ 𝐵1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 = 𝐵2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 → (1)

𝐵𝑡1
Also we know 𝐻𝑡1 =
𝜇1
𝐵𝑡2
𝐻𝑡2 =
𝜇2
The boundary condition in terms of H is expressed as 𝐻𝑡1 = 𝐻𝑡2

𝐵𝑡1 𝐵𝑡2
∴ =
𝜇1 𝜇2
𝜇2 𝐵𝑡1 = 𝜇1 𝐵𝑡2
From the figure,
𝐵𝑡1 = 𝐵1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1
𝐵𝑡2 = 𝐵2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2
Substituting these values in above equation,
𝜇2 𝐵1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃1 = 𝜇1 𝐵2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃2 → (2)
On dividing equation (2) by (1)

𝜇2 𝐵1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃1 𝜇1 𝐵2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃2
=
𝐵1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃1 𝐵2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃2
𝜇2 tan 𝜃1 = 𝜇1 tan 𝜃2
tan 𝜃1 𝜇1
∴ =
tan 𝜃2 𝜇2
3.10 INDUCTANCE AND INDUCTORS

Definition of lnductance:
It is the property of the circuit element which allow energy to be stored in
magnetic flux filed
Definition of lnductors
* Components are called inductors that are made of many turns of fine wire
after wound on a magnetic material that it is capable of staring more energy.
* Inductor is a two terminal element.
* The inductance of a particular coil is called self-inductance
3.18 Magnetostatics
* The inductance between two coils is called mutual inductance.

Self Inductance :
Self inductance of a circuit is the property of the circuit by which changing current
induces emf in the circuit to oppose the changing current
N
L
i
where N - Number of turns
Inductance is defined as the ratio of total magnetic flux linkage to the current through
the coil
Mutual Inductance :
The inductance between two coils are called mutual inductance.
Example l : Consider two coils 1 and 2 are magnetically coupled together. The
changing current i1 produces a flux ɸ1 . If a second coil is placed near the first
coil, same of the flux links coil 2, say ɸ12 . The induced emf in coil 2 is given
by,
𝑑ɸ12
𝑉2 = 𝑁2 =
𝑑𝑡
Figure: 3.12 Coupled circuit

Since flux ɸ12 is produced by first coil current 𝑖1 , the induced emf 𝑣2 in coil 2 is
proportional to the rate of charge of current 𝑖1 .
𝑑𝑖1
𝑣2 ∝
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖1
𝑣2 = M
𝑑𝑡
where M is the mutual inductance between the two coils.
Equating these two equations,

𝑑𝑖1 𝑑ɸ12
𝑀 = 𝑁2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑ɸ12
𝑀 = 𝑁2
𝑑𝑖1
If the permeability is constant,
𝑁2 ɸ12
𝑀=
𝑖𝑖
Similarly, if the flux ɸ21 is produced by second coil current 𝑖2 , the induced emf
𝑣1 , in coil 1 is proportional is the rate of charge of current i 2
𝑑𝑖2
𝑣1 ∝
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖2
𝑣1 = M
𝑑𝑡
From Faraday’s law,

𝑑ɸ21
𝑣1 = 𝑁1
𝑑𝑡
Equating these two equations,
𝑑ɸ21
𝑀 = 𝑁1
𝑑𝑖2
If the permeability is constant,
ɸ21
𝑀 = 𝑁1
𝑖2
The mutual inductance between two coils is defined or the rate of induced
magnetic flux linkage in one coil to the current through in other coil.
Inductance of loops and solenoids

Inductance of loops :
 Series aiding
 Series opposing
 Parallel aiding
 Parallel opposing
3.20 Magnetostatics
Series aiding
Figure: 3.13 Series aiding
Equivalent inductance of series aiding 𝐿 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 2𝑀
Series opposing
Figure: 3.14 Series opposing
Equivalent inductance of series opposing 𝐿 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 − 2𝑀
Parallel aiding
Figure: 3.15 Parallel aiding

𝐿1 𝐿2 −M2
Equivalent inductance of parallel aiding 𝐿=
𝐿1+ 𝐿2−2𝑀
Parallel opposing
Figure: 3.16 Parallel opposing

Equivalent inductance of parallel aiding
𝐿1 𝐿2 − M 2
𝐿=
𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 2𝑀
Inductance of solenoid :
Consider a solenoid of N turns carrying the current I. If B is the flux density and
A is the area of cross – section of the solenoid, then flux linkage through the
solenoid is Nɸ = 𝑁𝐵𝐴 (∵ɸ = 𝐵𝐴)
Nɸ
𝐿=
I
NBA
L=
I
But for long solenoid

𝜇𝑜 𝑁𝐼
𝐵=
ℓ
Substituting the value of B in the above equation
𝑁𝐴 𝜇𝑜 𝑁𝐼 𝜇𝑜 𝑁 2𝐴
L= .( ) ⇒ L=
𝐼 ℓ 𝐼
3.11 ENERGY STORED IN A MAGNETIC FIELD :

When a current through an inductor is increased from O to I with the potential
difference across the inductor is 𝑣, then the energy supplied by the source in time
dt is given by,
dW = 𝑣 𝑖𝑑𝑡
Energy stored in magnetic field is given by
3.22 Magnetostatics
𝐼
𝑊 = ∫ 𝑣 𝑖 𝑑𝑡
𝑜
𝐼
𝑑𝑖
= ∫𝐿 . 𝑖 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑜
𝐼
= 𝐿 ∫ 𝑖 𝑑𝑖
𝑜
1
𝑊 = 𝐿 𝐼2
2
3.11.1 Energy density :
The energy stored in a magnetic field is given by
1
𝑊 = 𝐿 𝐼2 → (1)
2
The inductance of the solenoid (for example) is given by,

𝜇𝑜 𝑁 2 𝐴
𝐿= → (2)
ℓ

1 𝜇𝑜 𝑁 2 𝐴 2
𝑊 = .𝐼
2 ℓ
1 𝑁𝐼 2
𝑊 = 𝜇𝑜 ( ) ℓ 𝐴
2 ℓ
𝑣𝑣
Substituting the value of magnetic field intensity H = in the above equation,
ℓ
1
𝑊 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐻2 ℓ𝐴
2
Energy stored per unit volume is,
1
𝑊 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐻2 J/m3 [𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = ℓ 𝐴 ]
2
1
𝑊 = (𝜇 𝐻 )𝐻
2 𝑜
Magnetic energy density,
1
𝑊 = 𝐵𝐻 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 /𝑚 3
2
3.12 FORCE ON A WIRE CARRYING A CURRENT I PLACED IN A

MAGNETIC FIELD
Consider two straight, long parallel conductors P and Q separated by a distance
‘d’. Let I1 and I2 be the currents flowing in conductors P and Q respectively.
Figure: 3.17 Parallel Conductors

Consider a conductor P produces a magnetic field whose flux density is B at conductor
Q.
μo I 1
𝐵=
2𝜋𝑑
The force on conductor Q due to P,
𝐹 = 𝐵I2 𝑙
where ℓ is the length of the conductor

𝜇𝑜 I1
𝐹= I 𝑙
2𝜋𝑑 2
If currents of conductors P and Q are flowing in same direction, there is a force
of attraction.
If currents are flowing in opposite direction, there is a force of repulsion.
However the magnitude of force is same.
𝜇𝑜 I1I2𝑙
𝐹= 𝑁
2𝜋𝑑
If the conductors are infinitely long, the force per unit length is given by
𝜇𝑜 I1 I2
𝐹 ⁄𝑙 = N/m
2𝜋𝑑
3.24 Magnetostatics
3.13 TORQUE ON A LOOP CARRYING CURRENT I :

When a current loop is placed parallel to a magnetic field, forces act on the
loop that tend to rotate it. The tangential force multiplied by the radial distance at
which it acts is called Torque or mechanical moments on the loop.
Consider the rectangular loop of length ‘ℓ’ and breadth ‘𝑣’ carrying a current I in
a uniform magnetic field of flux density B. The loop makes an angle 𝑣 with respect
to magnetic flux density B.
Figure: 3.18. Current loop

Current loop
The force acting on the loop,
F = 𝐵𝐼ℓ sin 𝜃
If the loop plane is parallel to the magnetic field, the total torque on the loop,
T = 2 x Torque on each side
= 2 x Force x Distance
𝑏
= 2 𝐵𝐼ℓ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝐵𝐼ℓ𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
2
T = 𝐵𝐼𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 Area ⇒ A= 𝐼ℓ
The magnetic moment of loop is IA.

The magnetic moment is a vector with the direction given by the unit normal n to the

plane of the loop m = IA n

𝑇 = 𝑚𝐵 sin 𝜃 n
In vector form, torque can be expressed ass
T=mxB
m = T/B
The magnetic moment is defined as the maximum torque on loop per unit
magnetic induction.
UNIT 3
MAGNETOSTATICS
Problems :
1. A ferrite material has μr = 28, B = 0.00287T. Find H.
Solution:
B   H  o  r H
B
H
o  r
o  4 107 H / m
0.00287
H
4 107  28
H  81.608 A / m
 
 Idl  a  Idl.sin 
dH  R
( or ) dH 
4 R 2 4 R 2
  
2. Find mag. field intensity at origin due to ct. element 3  ax  2a y  3az  Am at the
point (3, 4, 5) in free space.
Solution:
  
 3ax  4a y  5az
ar 
32  42  52
   
ar  0.424ax  0.5656a y  0.7071az
  
Idl  3  ax  a y  az 
  
ax ay az

 Idl  ar  3 6 9
0.4242 0.5656 0.7071
  
 ax  13.32  15.986  a y  6.660  11.9897   az  5.328  7.993
   
Idl  ar  2.666 ax  5.3297 a y  2.665 az

Idl  ar
dH 
4  R 2 
R  50
  
 
 dH  4.24ax  8.48a y  4.24az 103 A / m
3. Find the mag. field strength at P2 due to ct. element 2π (dz ) Am at P1 the co ord
of P1 & P2 are (4, 0, 0) and (0, 3, 0) respectively.
Solution:

 Idl  a
dH r  r
4 R 2
 
 4ax  3a y  
ar   0.8ax  0.6a y
42  32
  
ax a y az

Idl  ar  0 0 2
0.8 0.6 0
  
 ax  0  1.2   a y  0  1.6   az  0
  
Idl  ar  1.2 ax  1.6 a y
 
1.2 ax  1.6 a y
dH 
 
2
4  3.14  25
 
dH   0.012 ax  0.016 a y A / M
  H
 
 H  j

 H  B
  
ax ay az

 Idl  ar  3 6 9
0.4242 0.5656 0.7071
  
 ax  13.32  15.986  a y  6.660  11.9897   az  5.328  7.993
   
Idl  ar  2.666 ax  5.3297 a y  2.665 az

Idl  ar
dH 
4  R 2 
R  50
  

 dH  4.24ax  8.48a y  4.24az 103 A / m
  
4. H  y cos ax ax  ( y  e x )az . Find J on yz plane (x = 0).
Solution:
 
 H  J
  
ax ay az

J   
x y z
y cos ax 0 y  ex
  
 ax 1  0  a y e x  0   az  0  cos ax 
  x  
J  ax  e a y  cos ax az . A / m 2
   
J in yz plane  ax  a y  az A / m 2
( x  0)
5. In cylindrical coordination A = 50ρ2 az w / m . Find (i) H (ii) B (iii) j .
Solution:
 
 A  B
  
a  a az
 1
B   
   z
A  A Az
  
a  a az
1   

   z
0 0 2
1  
  a [0]   a [100  ]x 

 
B  100  a T

 B 
H  79.617  106  a
0
 
H  79.6  106  a A / m
 
J   H
  
a  a az
 1
J    
   z
0 79.6 /106 0
1 
  az  79.61 106  

 79.61 106 
J  az A / m 2

6. Vector magnetic potential A=(3y−3)ax +2xyaz wb/n in a free space (i) check
  
whether  A  0 . (ii) Find magnetic flux density  B  &  H  at (2, 1,3).
Solution:
(i) To prove:
          
 x y z 

 A   ax  a y  az  .  3 y  3 ax 2 xya y 

 A  0  2x

 A  2x
 
(ii) B   A
  
ax ay az

B   
x y z
3 y  3 2 xy 0
  
 ax (0)  a y (0  0)  az (2 y  3)

 az (2 y  3)Tes / a.
 
B  5QzT

 B
(iii) H 

 0
H  3.980 106 A / m

7. At a point P, the components of vector magnetic potential A is given as
Ax = 4x + 3y + 2z, Ay = 5x + 6y + 3z, Az = 2x + 3y + 5z. Dt. B
Solution:
 
B   A
  
ax ay az

B   
x y z
4 x  3 y  2 z 5 x  6 y  3z 2 x  3 y  5 z
  
 ax 3  3  a y  2  2  az 5  3
 
B  2a zT

8. Find the H at the point P (0.01, 0, 0)m. If the current through the coaxial cable is
6A along z axis of a = 3mm, b = 9mm & c = 11mm.
Solution:
Region b/w b & c 0.01  r lies b / w b & c 
   c 2  r 2  
H
2 r  c 2  b 2 
a A / m
 11103 2   0.012  

6   a

2 (0.01)  11103 2   9 103 2 
 
 6   2.110   
5

H   a  50.159 a  A/ m
2    0.01   4 105  

 
   x  2 y 
9. Given B  2.5sin   e ax wb / m . Find total flux crossing the reg. z = 0, y ≥ 0,
2
 2 
α x < 2.
Solution:

10. A magnetic field H=3.cos xax +2cosay A / m. Find J on the conductor.
Solution:

11. A circular loop located on x2 + y2 = 4 carries a ct. of 7A. Find H at (0, 0, –5).
Solution:
12. A Charge of –40 m with the velocity 6 × 106 m/s having a unit vector of
      
0.48ax  0.6 ay  0.64 ax with the mag. Field given as B  2 ax  3 ay  5 az
Tesla.
13. Find the maximum torque of 85 turns rectangular coil with dimension 0.2 × 0.3 m
carrying act of 5A is a magnetic field B = 6.5 T.
Solution:
  
14. A long conductor ith ct. 5A is in z direction. If B  4i  4 j Find the force/unit
length.
Solution:
F  BIl
F
 BI
l
 
 
 4i  4 j 5
 
  20i  20 j  N / m
F
l
15. Act of 2A flows in an inductor with, inductance 100 mH cal. The energy stored is
the inductor.
Solution:
1 2
E LI
2
1
 100 103  22  0.2 J
2
16. Find the permeability of mat whose mag susceptibility is
Solution:
17. Calculate the inductance of solenoid 8cm length, 2cm radius, μr = 100, carrying
900 turns of wire
Solution:
18. An air core toroid has cross sectional radius 4mm, mean radius 20 mm. Find the
inductance if there are 2500 turns.
Solution:
 oN 2 r 2
L  3.14mH
2R
19. Determine Inductance of solenoid 2500 turns wound uniformly over length of
0.25 m on a cylindrical vapour tube of 4cm. The medium is air
Solution:
 oN 2 A 4   107  (2500)2   (9 102 ) 2

L 
l 0.25
L  0.1577 H
20. Calculate Inductance for a solenoid of 200 turns would together on a cylinder
tube of 6cm diameter, the length of tube is 60 cm of the solenoid is in air.
Solution:
 oN 2 A
L  0.236 mH
l
21. A solenoid has an ind 20mH if length of solenoid is increased by 2 times and
radius is decreased to half of the original value. Find the new inductance.
Solution:
Lnew  2.50 mH
22. An air core toroid with rect. cross section has 700 turns with inner rad of 1cm
and outer radius of 2cm and At is 1.5 cm. Find the inductance using (i) Formula
for square cross section of torroid (ii) The appropriate formula for toroid is
assume a uniform H at mean radius.
Solution:
TIME-VARYING FIELDS AND
4
MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS
4.1 MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS Time-Varying Fields And Maxwell's Equations
Michael Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction states that the electric fields can
be produced not only by charges but also by changing magnetic fields . Maxwell’s
theory states that magnetic fields can be produced by changing electric fields. James
Clerk Maxwell devised four equations which are used to study time varying
electromagnetic phenomena.
1. Maxwell’s equation I derived from Ampere’s Circuital law
2. Maxwell’s equation II derived from Faraday’s Law
3. Maxwell’s equation III derived from Electric Gauss’ Law
4. Maxwell’s equation IV derived from Magnetic Gauss’ Law
MAXWELL’S EQUATION – I
4.1.1 From Ampere’s circuital law :

Ampere’s law states that the line integral of magnetic field intensity H on any
closed path is equal to the net current enclosed by the same closed path.
∮ 𝐻. 𝑑𝑙 = I = ∯ 𝐽 𝑑𝑠
𝑆
Here the net current is equal to the surface integral of both conduction and
displacement current densities over the surface bounded by the same closed path. This
statement is valid only for time varying fields. However if the field is static, only
4.2 Time-Varying Fields and Maxwell’s Equations
conduction current exists. Current flowing through a resistive element is called

conduction current and similarly current through a capacitive element is called
displacement current.
Conduction current density:

According to Ohm’s law, the current through a conductor of resistance R is
given by,
𝐼𝑐 = 𝑉⁄𝑅
𝜌 ℓ⁄
But R = 𝐴
where 𝜌 represents resistivity , ℓ represents length of the conductor, A represents
area of cross section of aconductor.
Also R = ℓ⁄𝜎𝐴 where 𝜎 represents conductivity (𝜎 = 1⁄𝜌)
On substituting R in 𝐼𝑐 , we get
𝑉𝜎𝐴
𝐼𝑐 =
ℓ
If E is the electric field, then voltage V = Eℓ

𝐸ℓ𝜎𝐴
𝐼𝑐 = ℓ
𝐼𝑐 = 𝐸𝜎𝐴
𝐼𝑐
= 𝜎𝐸
𝐴
𝐼𝑐
We know that, Conduction current density (𝐽𝑐 = )
𝐴
Therefore 𝐽𝑐 = 𝜎𝐸
Displacement current density:

The current through a capacitor is,
𝑑𝑄
𝐼𝐷 = 𝑑𝑡
We know that Q = CV
𝑑𝑣
𝐼𝐷 = 𝐶 𝑑𝑡
The expression for capacitor is

C = ℇ𝐴⁄𝑑
where ′ℇ′ represents permittivity of the medium, ‘A’ represents area of the parallel
plate of capacitor and ‘d’ represents distance between two plates
Substituting value of C in the above equation of 𝐼𝐷 , we get

ℇ𝐴
𝐼𝐷 = . 𝑑𝑣⁄𝑑𝑡
𝑑
But 𝑉 = 𝐸𝑑
ℇ𝐴 𝑑𝐸
∴ 𝐼𝐷 = . 𝑑.
𝑑 𝑑𝑡
𝐼𝐷 = ℇ𝐴 . 𝑑𝐸⁄𝑑𝑡
𝐼𝐷
= ℇ. 𝜕𝐸⁄𝜕𝑡 (we know that 𝐷 = ℇ𝐸)
𝐴
= 𝜕𝐷⁄
𝜕𝑡
Therefore Displacement current density (𝐽𝐷 = 𝐼⁄𝐴)
Ampere’s law can be written as,

𝜕𝐷
𝐽𝐷 =
∮ 𝐻. 𝑑𝑙 = ∬ (𝐽𝑐 + 𝐽𝐷 ) 𝑑𝑠 𝜕𝑡
𝑠
∮ 𝐻. 𝑑𝑙 = ∬ (𝜎𝐸 + 𝜕𝐷⁄𝜕𝑡) 𝑑𝑠
𝑠
∮ 𝐻. 𝑑𝑙 = ∬ (𝜎𝐸 + ℇ 𝜕𝐸⁄𝜕𝑡) 𝑑𝑠
𝑠
J stands for conduction current density
∮ 𝐻. 𝑑𝑙 = ∬ (𝐽 + 𝜕𝐷⁄𝜕𝑡) 𝑑𝑠
𝑠
The above equation represents the Maxwell’s equation in Integral form from Ampere’s
law. By Stoke’s theorem,
∮ 𝐻. 𝑑𝑙 = ∬ ∇ x H ds
𝑠
By comparing the above equations we get,
∬ ∇ x H ds = ∬(𝐽 + 𝜕𝐷⁄ ) 𝑑𝑠
𝜕𝑡
The Ampere Maxwell’s equation is given by
𝜕𝐷
∇ 𝐻 = 𝐽 +
𝜕𝑡
∇  𝐻 = 𝜎𝐸 + ℇ 𝜕𝐸⁄𝜕𝑡
The above equation represents the Maxwell’s equation in Differential form of

Ampere’s law.
Statement : The magneto motive force around a closed path is equal to the sum
of the conduction current & displacement current enclosed by the same path.
Alternatively this statement can be described as the magnetic voltage around a
closed path is equal to the electric current through the same path.
MAXWELL’S EQUATION- II
4.1.2 Faraday’s Law :
Faradays law states that the electromotive force (emf) induced in a circuit is
equal to the rate of decrease of the magnetic flux linkage in the circuit.
𝑑ɸ⁄
𝑣 = − 𝑑𝑡

𝑑
= 𝑑𝑡 (𝐵. 𝑑𝑠)
s
We know that , 𝑣 = ∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑙
∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑙 = −
𝑑 ∬ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝑡 𝑠
𝜕𝐵
∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑙 = −∬ 𝜕𝑡
. 𝑑𝑠 [∴ B = 𝜇 H)
𝜕𝐻
∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑙 = −𝜇 ∬ . 𝑑𝑠
𝜕𝑡
The above equation is Maxwell equation in integral form. By applying Stoke’s
theorem,
∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑙 = ∬ ∇ x E. ds
𝑠
By comparing both equations, we get
∬ ∇ x E. ds = - 𝜇 ∬ 𝜕𝐻 𝑑𝑠
𝜕𝑡
𝑠
∇ x E = − 𝜕𝐵⁄𝜕𝑡
∇ x E = −𝜇 𝜕𝐻⁄𝜕𝑡
This is the Maxwell’s equation from Faraday’s law in differential or point form.
Statement : The electromotive force around a closed path is equal to the
magnetic displacement (flux density) through that closed path. Alternatively this
statement can be defined as the electric voltage around a closed path is equal to the
magnetic current through the same path.
MAXWELL’S EQUATION – III

4.1.3 Electric Gauss’s law :
Gauss’s law states that electric flux emerging through any closed surface is
equal to the charge enclosed by the surface.
𝜒 = 𝑄
∬ D.ds = Q
𝑠
Or
∭ 𝜌 . 𝑑𝑣 =𝑄
𝑣
𝑣
∴ ∬ D.ds = ∭ 𝜌𝑣 . 𝑑𝑣
𝑠 𝑣
This is the Maxwell’s equation from electric Gauss’s law in integral form. By applying
divergence theorem,
∬ D.ds = ∭ ∇.D dv
𝑠 𝑣
Comparing above equations
∭ ∇. D dv = ∭ 𝜌 dv
𝑣 𝑣
∴ ∇. 𝐷 = 𝜌
This is the Maxwell’s equation from electric Gauss’s law in differential or point form.
Statement : The total electric displacement through the surface enclosing a
volume is equal to the total charge within the volume.
MAXWELL’S EQUATION - IV
4.1.4 Magnetic Gauss’s law :
Magnetic Gauss’s law states that the total magnetic flux through any closed
surface is equal to zero.
ɸ = 0
∯ 𝐵 𝑑𝑠 = 0
𝑠
This is the Maxwell’s equation in Integral form from magnetic Gauss’s law. By
applying Divergence theorem,
∬ B ds = ∭ ∇.B dv
𝑠 𝑣
By comparing above two equations
∭ ∇.B dv = 0
𝑣
∴ ∇.B = 0
This is the Maxwell’s equation in differential or point form from magnetic Gauss’s
law.
Statement : The net magnetic flux emerging through any closed surface is zero.
Summary of Maxwell’s Equations in general form
Equation Maxwell’s Differential form Integral form

No. Equations
from
I Ampere’s 𝛻  𝐻 = 𝐽 + 𝜕𝐷⁄𝜕𝑡 ∮ 𝐻. 𝑑𝑙 = ∬ (𝐽 + 𝜕𝑡 ) 𝑑𝑠
𝜕𝐷
Circuital Law 𝑠
(or)
∮ 𝐻. 𝑑𝑙 = ∬ 𝜕𝐸
(𝜎𝐸 + 𝜀 𝜕𝑡 ) 𝑑𝑠
𝛻  𝐻 =𝜎𝐸+𝜀 𝜕𝐸⁄𝜕𝑡 𝑠
II Faraday’s Law 𝛻  𝐸 = − 𝜕𝐵⁄𝜕𝑡 ∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑙 = − ∬ 𝜕𝐵⁄𝜕𝑡 . 𝑑𝑠

𝑠
(or)
∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑙 = −𝜇 ∬ 𝜕𝑡 . 𝑑𝑠
𝜕𝐻
𝛻  𝐸 = − 𝜇 𝜕𝐻⁄𝜕𝑡 𝑠
III Electric Gauss’ 𝛻. 𝐷 = 𝜌 ∯ 𝐷. 𝑑𝑠 = ∭ 𝜌 𝑑𝑣
Law 𝑠 𝑣
IV Magnetic Gauss’ 𝛻. 𝐵 = 0 ∯ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑠 = 0
Law 𝑠
In free space, there is no charges enclosed, and since it is dielectric there is no

conductivity in the medium therefore 𝜌 = 0 , 𝜎 = 0.
Summary of Maxwell’s Equations in free space

No. Equations from
𝜕𝐷
∮ 𝐻. 𝑑𝑙 = ∬
𝜕𝐷
Ampere’s Circuital 𝛻𝐻 = 𝑑𝑠
𝜕𝑡 𝑠 𝜕𝑡
I
Law
𝜕𝐵
∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑙 = − ∬
𝜕𝐵
𝛻𝐸 = − . 𝑑𝑠
II Faraday’s Law
Electric Gauss’ ∯ 𝐷. 𝑑𝑠 = 0
III 𝛻. 𝐷 = 0
Law 𝑠
Magnetic Gauss’ ∯ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑠 = 0
IV 𝛻. 𝐵 = 0
Law 𝑠
4.1.5 Time varying field :

The electric field and magnetic field may be assumed as sinusoidal time
varying quantities. The time varying field may be expressed in terms of phasor
quantity,
𝐸 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑜𝑓 [𝐸 (𝑥 )𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 ]

𝜕𝐸(𝑥,𝑡)
= 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑜𝑓 [𝑗𝜔 𝐸 (𝑥 )𝑒𝑗𝜔𝑡 ]
𝜕𝑡
Apply for Maxwell’s equation
Real part of [𝛻 xH ] = Real part of [𝜎𝐸 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀 𝐸) 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 ]
𝛻 x H = 𝜎𝐸 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀𝐸
𝛻 x H = (𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀 )𝐸
For magnetic field, 𝐻(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑅𝑒 [𝐻 (𝑥) 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 ]

𝜕𝐻(𝑥,𝑡)
= 𝑅𝑒 [𝑗𝜔𝐻 (𝑥 ) 𝑒𝑗𝜔𝑡 ]
𝜕𝑡
Apply for Maxwell’s equation
𝑅𝑒 [∇ x E] = −𝑅𝑒 [𝑗𝜔 𝜇 𝐻𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 ]
𝛻  𝐸 = −𝑗𝜔 𝜇 𝐻
Summary of Maxwell’s Equations in phasor form
Equation Maxwell’s Equations Differential form Integral form

No. from
I Ampere’s Circuital 𝛻  𝐻 = (σ + j ω ε) E ∮ 𝐻. 𝑑𝑙 = ∬ (σ + jωε E) 𝑑𝑠

Law
II Faraday’s Law 𝛻  = −𝑗𝜔𝜇𝐻

∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑙 = − 𝜇∬ jω H. ds
III Electric Gauss’ Law 𝛻 .𝐷 = 𝜌 ∮ 𝐷. 𝑑𝑠 = ∭𝜌 dv
IV Magnetic Gauss’ Law 𝛻 .𝐵 = 0 ∮ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑠 = 0
4.2 POTENTIAL FUNCTIONS
In electrostatics, the electric potential V, was defined such that E  V . But the
vector identity   V  0 along with the Maxwell’s equation for shows that is not
valid where a time varying magnetic field is present. Thus a new approach to
potentials is required for time varying fields
The Helmholtz theorem
Any vector field F which has divergence   F  s and curl   F  c such that both s
and c vanish at infinite distances from the region of interest, may be expressed as the
sum of two fields, one of which has a zero curl and the other if which has a zero
divergence.
Magnetic vector potential

As a consequence of Helmholtz theorem and the Maxwell’s equation involving B and
H, it is evident that B has only the part with zero divergence. But the vector identity
    F  0 means that B can be expressed as the curl of another field A where A is
called as magnetic vector potential.
B   A
Potentials for the time varying electric field
We know Maxwell’s relation from Faraday’s law
B
E  
t
Substituting B    A in the above equation, we get
A
  E   
t
The equation shows that the concept of electric potential may be extended to a scalar
potential V, which combines with vector potential gives the electric field
A
E  V 
t
4.3 ELECTROMAGNETIC BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

In order to solve electromagnetic problems involving contiguous regions of different
constitutive parameters, it is necessary to know the boundary conditions that the field
vectors E, D, B and H must satisfy at the interfaces. Boundary conditions are derived
by applying the integral form of Maxwell’s equations to a small region at an interface
of two media in manners similar to those used in obtaining the boundary conditions for
static electric and magnetic fields.
In general, the application of the integral form of a curl equation to a flat closed path at
a boundary with top and bottom sides in the two touching media yields the boundary
condition for the tangential components and the application of the integral form of a
divergence equation to a shallow pill box at an interface with top and bottom faces in
the two contiguous media yields the boundary condition for the normal components.
4.3.1 Statements of Electromagnetic Boundary Conditions:

1. The tangential component of electric field E is continuous at the surface
2. The tangential component of magnetic field H is continuous across the surface
except at the surface of perfect conductor. At the surface of a perfect conductor,
the tangential component of magnetic field H is discontinuous by an amount equal
to linear current density
3. The normal component of electric flux density D is continuous if there is no
surface charge density, otherwise D is discontinuous by an amount equal to
surface charge density.
4. The normal component of magnetic flux density B is continuous at the surface of
discontinuity
Proof:
Consider a small rectangle of width x and length  y at the boundary enclosing a

small portion of each of media.
Figure 4.1 A boundary surface between two media

The integral form of Maxwell’s second equation is
B
 E.dl   t .ds
S
This is applied to the rectangle

x x x x B
E y1 y  E x1  Ex2  E y 2 y  E x 4  Ex3  x y
2 2 2 2 t
Consider the area of the rectangle is made to approach zero by reducing the width x
to approach zero.
Then,
E y1 y  E y 2 y  0
E y1  E y 2 (The tangential component of E is continuous)
The integral form of Maxwell’s first equation is
 D 
 H .dl    J 
S
.ds
t 
Applying to the rectangle,
x x x x  D 
H y1 y  H x1  H x2  H y 2 y  H x 4  H x3  J   x y
2 2 2 2  t 
If x  0, then H y1 y  H y 2 y  0
H y1  H y 2 (The tangential component of H is continuous)
For a perfect conductor, a high frequency current will flow in a thin sheet near the
surface. In a current sheet, a linear current density Jl flows in sheet of depth x . It is
given in terms of surface charge density J A/m2.
As x  0,
J  x  J l
If the Maxwell’s first equation is applied to the rectangle, then
x x x x  D 
H y1 y  H x1  H x2  H y 2 y  H y 4  H y3  J   x y
2 2 2 2  t 
D
 J x y  x y
x
D
 J l y  x y
x
As x approaches zero,
H y1 y  H y 2 y  J l y
H y1  H y 2  J l
(The tangential component of H is discontinuous by an amount of linear current

density (A/m) at the surface of a perfect conductor)
Consider a pill box of volume ds. x at the boundary between the two media, where ds
is the area of flat surfaces of pill box and x is their separation.  is the volume
charge density enclosed by the volume.
Figure 4.2 A pill box at the boundary surface

The integral form of Maxwell’s third equation is
 D.ds    dv
S v
Apply to the pill box at the boundary
Dn1 ds  Dn 2 ds   ds.x
As x  0 i.e., the flat surfaces of the box are squeezed together
D n1 ds  D n 2 ds  0
D n1  D n 2
(The normal component of D is continuous if there is no surface charge density)
In the case of perfect conductor, the surface has the charge density  s Coulomb/m2.
The volume charge density  v can be written as, if x  0
v  x  s
If the Maxwell’s third equation is applied to the pill box

Dn1 ds  Dn 2 ds   v ds.x   s  ds
As x  0,
Dn1  Dn 2   s
(The normal component of D is discontinuous across the boundary by the amount of

surface charge density)
The integral form of Maxwell’s fourth equation is
 B  ds  0
Apply to the pill box at the boundary
Bn1 ds  Bn 2 ds  0
Bn1  Bn 2
(The normal component of magnetic flux density B is always continuous across the
boundary).
Summary:
S.No. Condition Statement
1. E y1  E y 2 The tangential component of E is continuous
2. H y1  H y 2 The tangential component of H is continuous
H y1  H y 2  J l The tangential component of H is discontinuous by an amount of

3.
linear current density (A/m) at the surface of a perfect conductor
Dn1  Dn 2 The normal component of D is continuous if there is no surface

4.
charge density
Dn1  Dn 2   s The normal component of D is discontinuous across the boundary

5.
by the amount of surface charge density
Bn1  Bn 2 The normal component of magnetic flux density B is always

6.
continuous across the boundary
4.4 SOLUTION OF WAVE EQUATION:

The application of Maxwell’s equations is the prediction of existence of
electromagnetic waves. Electromagnetic wave equation can be obtained from
Maxwell’s equation.
4.4.1 Wave equation for electric field

The Maxwell’s equation from Faraday’s law in point form is given by,
𝜕𝐵
𝛻 𝐸 =− 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝐻
= -𝜇 𝜕𝑡
Take curl on both sides we get,

𝜕𝐻
𝛻  𝛻  𝐸 = −𝜇 𝛻  → (1)
𝜕𝑡
But Maxwell’s equation from Ampere’s law in point form is

𝜕𝐷
𝛻  𝐻=𝐽+ 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝐸
= 𝜎𝐸 + 𝜀 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝐻 𝜕 𝜕𝐸
Differentiating on both sides, 𝛻  = (𝜎𝐸 + 𝜀 )
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝐻 𝜕𝐸 𝜕2𝐸
𝛻  = 𝜎 + 𝜀 → (2)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 2
Substituting (2) in (1) in get,
𝜕𝐸 𝜕2𝐸
𝛻  𝛻  𝐸 = − 𝜇 {𝜎 + 𝜀 }
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 2
𝜕𝐸 𝜕2𝐸
= − 𝜇𝜎 + 𝜇ℇ → (3)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 2
According to identity
𝛻  𝛻  𝐸 = 𝛻 (𝛻 . 𝐸 ) − 𝛻 2 𝐸 → (4)
1
We know that, 𝛻. 𝐸 = 𝛻. 𝐷
ε
Since there is no net charge within the conductor, the charge density 𝜌 = 0
Therefore, 𝛻 . 𝐷 = 0 and
𝛻. E = 0
Then the equation (4) becomes,
𝛻  𝛻  𝐸 = − 𝛻 2𝐸 → (5)
Equating (3) & (5)
𝜕𝐸 𝜕 2𝐸
𝛻 2 𝐸 = 𝜇𝜎 +𝜇ℇ
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 2
𝜕𝐸 𝜕2 𝐸 → (6)
𝛻 2 𝐸 − 𝜇𝜎 𝜕𝑡
− 𝜇ℇ 𝜕𝑡 2
=0
This is the wave equation for electric field E
4.4.2 Wave equation for magnetic field:

The wave equation for magnetic field H is obtained in a similar manner :
The Maxwell’s equation from Ampere’s circuital law in point form is given by,
𝜕𝐸
𝛻 × 𝐻 = 𝜎𝐸 + ℇ
𝜕𝑡
Take curl on both sides,
𝜕
𝛻 × 𝛻 × 𝐻 = 𝜎(𝛻 × 𝐸) + ℇ (𝛻𝑋𝐸) → (7)
𝜕𝑡
But Maxwell’s equation from Faraday’s law is

𝜕𝐻
𝛻𝐸 = − 𝜇 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝐸 𝜕2𝐻
Differentiating, 𝛻 × = − → (8)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 2
Substituting (2) in (1) we get,

𝜕𝐻 𝜕2𝐻
𝛻 × 𝛻 × 𝐻 = − 𝜇𝜎 − 𝜇 ℇ → (9)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 2
We know the identity
𝛻 × 𝛻 × 𝐻 = 𝛻 (𝛻. 𝐻) − 𝛻 2 𝐻
But 𝛻. 𝐵 = 𝝁 𝜵. 𝐻 = 0
Then 𝛻 × 𝛻 × 𝐻 = −𝛻 2 𝐻 → (10)
Equating (10) & (9)
𝜕𝐻 𝜕2𝐻
−𝛻 2 𝐻 = − 𝜇𝜎 − 𝜇 ℇ
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 2
2
𝜕𝐻 𝜕2𝐻
𝛻 𝐻 = 𝜇𝜎 + 𝜇 ℇ
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 2
𝜕𝐻 𝜕2𝐻
𝛻 2 𝐻 − 𝜇𝜎 − 𝜇 ℇ = 0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 2
The above is wave equation for magnetic field

4.4.3 Wave equation for free space:
For free space (dielectric medium) the conductivity of the medium is zero. ( i.e.,
𝜎 = 0) and there is no charge ∴ 𝜌 = 0. The electromagnetic equations for free space
can be obtained from Maxwell’s equation
4.4.3.1 Wave equation for free space in terms of electric field

The Maxwell’s equation from Faraday’s law for free space in point form is
𝜕𝐵
𝛻 × 𝐸 = − 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝐻
= −𝜇 𝜕𝑡

𝜕𝐻
𝛻  𝛻  𝐸 = −𝜇 𝛻  → (11)
𝜕𝑡
Let Maxwell’s equation from Ampere’s law for free space in point form is
𝜕𝐷 𝜕𝐷
𝛻 × 𝐻 = =ℇ
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
Differentiating the above equation,

𝜕𝐻 𝜕 𝜕𝐸
𝛻 × = (ℇ )
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝐻 𝜕 2𝐸
𝛻 × = ℇ → (12)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 2

𝜕 2𝐸
𝛻 × 𝛻 × 𝐸 = −𝜇ℇ → (13)
𝜕𝑡 2
We know the identity

𝛻  𝛻  𝐸 = 𝛻 (𝛻 . 𝐸 ) − 𝛻 2 𝐸
𝜌
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝛻. 𝐸 = 1⁄ℇ 𝛻. 𝐷 = ⁄ℇ = 0
Then 𝛻 × 𝛻 × 𝐸 = − 𝛻 2 𝐸 → (14)
From equations (13) & (14)
𝜕2𝐸
𝛻2 𝐸 = 𝜇 ℇ 𝜕𝑡 2
𝜕2 𝐸 → (15)
𝛻2 𝐸 - 𝜇 ℇ 𝜕𝑡
= 0
This is the wave equation for free space in terms of electric field.
4.4.3.2 Wave equation for free space in terms of magnetic field

The wave equation for free space in terms of magnetic field H is obtained in similar
manner. The Maxwell’s equation from Ampere’s law for free space in point
form is given by,
𝜕𝐸
𝛻 ×𝐻 = ℇ 𝜕𝑡

𝜕
𝛻 × 𝛻 × 𝐻 =ℇ (𝛻 𝑋 𝐸) → (16)
𝜕𝑡
Maxwell’s equation from Faraday’s law is given by

𝛻  𝐸 = −𝜇 𝜕𝐻⁄𝜕𝑡
Differentiating with respect to ‘t’
𝜕𝐸 𝜕2𝐻
𝛻x = − 𝜇 → (17)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 2
𝜕2𝐻
𝛻 × 𝛻 × 𝐻 = − 𝜇ℇ → (18)
𝜕𝑡 2
We know the identity 𝛻 × 𝛻 × 𝐻 = 𝛻 (𝛻. 𝐻) − 𝛻 2 𝐻

But 𝛻. 𝐻 = 1⁄𝜇 𝛻. 𝐵 = 0
Then 𝛻 × 𝛻 × 𝐻 = − 𝛻2 𝐻 → (19)
Equating (19) & (18), we get,
𝜕2𝐻
𝛻2 𝐻 = 𝜇ℇ .
𝜕𝑡 2
𝜕2 𝐻
𝛻2 𝐻 − 𝜇 ℇ 𝜕𝑡 2
=0 → (20)
For free space, 𝜇𝑟 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℇ𝑟 = 1 (air)

Then wave equation becomes,
𝜕2𝐻
𝛻 2 𝐻 − 𝜇𝑜 ℇ𝑜 = 0
𝜕𝑡 2
1 1
where 𝜇𝑜 ℇ𝑜 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 × = 9 ×1016
36𝜋 × 10−9
1
= 3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐 = velocity of light
√𝜇𝑜 ℇ𝑜
Then the wave equation will be,

1 𝜕 2𝐻 1 𝜕2𝐸
𝛻2 𝐻 − = 0 (or) 𝛻 2 𝐻 − 𝑣 2 𝜕𝑡 2 = 0
𝑣02 𝜕𝑡 2 0
4.5 Wave equation in phasor form:

𝜕𝐸 𝜕 2𝐸
We know that, 𝛻 2 𝐸 − 𝜇𝜎 − 𝜇ℇ = 0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 2
𝐸 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑅 ( 𝐸 (𝑥 ) 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 )
𝜕𝐸(𝑥,𝑡)
= 𝑗𝜔𝑡 𝐸 (𝑥 ) 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡
𝜕𝑡
𝜕 2 𝐸(𝑥, 𝑡)
= − 𝜔2 𝐸 (𝑥 )𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡
𝜕𝑡 2
𝛻 2 𝐸 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 − 𝜇𝜎 𝑗𝜔 𝐸𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 + 𝜇ℇ 𝜔2 𝐸 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 = 0
(𝛻 2 𝐸 − 𝜇 𝜎 𝑗𝜔 + 𝜔2 𝜇 ℇ ) E 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 = 0
(𝛻 2 − 𝜇 𝜎 𝑗𝜔 + 𝜇 ℇ 𝜔2 ) E = 0
Similarly for H,
(𝛻 2 − 𝜇 𝜎 𝑗𝜔 + 𝜇 ℇ 𝜔2 ) H = 0
In free space,
(𝛻 2 + 𝜇 ℇ 𝜔2 ) E = 0
(𝛻 2 + 𝜇 ℇ 𝜔2 ) H = 0 Phasor form,
UNIT 4
TIME VARYING FIELDS AND MAXWELL’SEQUATIONS
1. Ina a material, for which   5 s / m,  r  1, E  250 sin 1010 tv. Find Jc, Jd, and
the frequency at which both have equal magnitude.
Solution:
(i ) Jc   E
 5  250 sin10
10 t
Jc  sin10
10 t A / m
2
* D  E
 o  r E
 8.854 1012 sin10
10 t
D  2.2135  109 sin10

10 t
D
(ii ) Jd 
t

  2.2135 10 9  sin1010 t
t
Jd  2.2135 109 cos10
10 t  10
10
Jd  22.135cos10
10 t  10
10
A / m2
Jc  Jd  Given 
Jc 
 1
Jd 
 







2 f 


f 
2 
5
f 
2    8.854 10 12
f  89.92 109 Hz
2. Electric Flux density in a charge free region is given by
D  10 xax  5 ya y  kz az c / m . . Find the constant K.
2 2
Solution:
D0  Maxwell ' s 3rd eqn 
    
 ax  a y az  D  0
x  x x 
 Dx D y Dz 
   0
 x x x 
  
(10 x)  (5 y )  (kz 2 )  0
x x x
10  5  2kz  0
2kz  15
k  7.5 / z
3. In a material,   4.5 mho / m,  r  1, E  300 sin 109 t.ax v / m. . Determine Jc, Jd,
f which they have equivalent magnitude.
Solution:
  4.5 mho /
m,  r  1, E  300 sin 109 t.ax v / m.
Jc   
 4.5  300 sin 109 t ax
Jc  1350 A / m 2
D  D
JD  
t t

 o  300 sin 109 t 
t
 8.854 1012  cos 109 t  300 109
JD  2.65 A / m 2
Jc 

JD  
 
4.5  o.2 f
4.5
f 
2    8.854  1012
f  8.08 1010 Hz
4. Find Amplitude of JD inside capacitor, where
 r  600 and D  3 106 sin  3 106 t  0.3464  az c / m2 .
Solution:
D
JD 
t

 3 106 sin  6 106 t  0.3464  az 
t
J D  3 106 cos  6 106 t  0.3464  .6 106
J D  18cos  6 106 t  0.3464 
J D  18 A / m 2
5. Find Amplitude of JD in air (Antenna) where field strength of Fm signal is
E  180 cos 6.277 108 t  2.092 az .
Solution:
D
JD 
t
 E

t

 8.854 1012 180 cos (6.277 108 t  2.092 y 
t
 8.854 10  sin(6.277 108 t  2.092 y )(6.277 108
12
 1.021sin(6.277 108 t  2.092 y )

J D 1
6. In free space, H  0.2 cos t   x  az . Find the total power passing through the
circular disc of 5 cm.
Solution:
Plot  P arg
1 Exo 2
P arg   Area  o  E
2 o H
E
H  o  characteristic (or ) Instrinsic Im pedance
o
1
 o 2 Hxo 2  Area
P arg  2
o
1
  o Hxo 2   r 2
2
1
 120  (0.2) 2    (5 102 ) 2
2
P arg  0.059 w
7. Calculate the max. emf induced in a coil of 4000 turns of radius 12cm rotating at
13 rps in a magnetic field of 500 Gauss.
Solution:
e  NB / v sin 
e max  NB / v sin 90o
 NB / v
B :  10, 000 Gauss  lwb / m 2
500
500 Gauss   0.0  5 wb / m 2
10, 000
V :  v  r
v  12 1012  2 n  n  no. of rotating / sec 
e max  NB / v  4000  0.05  l  9.8
e max  1960 V
l m
8. D  20 xax  15 ya y  kaz c / m2 . Find the value of K to satisfy maxwell’s equation

in free space   0,  v  0.
Solution:
.D  0
Dx Dy Dz
  0
x y z
  
(20 x)  (15)  (kz )  0
x y z
20  15  k  0
k  5
  
 ax   3x cos   6 y sin   (0)  
 y z 
  
a y   3x cos   6 y sin   (0)   az (0)
 y z 
  H  6sin  ax  3cos  a y
9. An Electric field in a medium is given by E  1.5 cos 10 8t   z  . Find D, H, B.
Assume  r  1,  r  1,   0. . Use Maxwell’s equations..
Solution:
B  H
D  E   E H  120
  E H  120
1.5 cos 108 t  z  ax
  120
H
H  3.97 103 cos  108 t  z  ax A / m
D  0 E
D  8.854 1012 1.5cos  108 t   z  ax
B  H
B  4  107  3.97  103  cos  108 t   z  a y
B  4.988  109 cos  108 t   z  a y Tesla / m 2
10. If the magnetic field H  3x cos   by sin  az . Find the current density. If the
fields are invariant with respect to time. Use Maxwell’s equation.
Solution:
D
  H  Jc 
t
Fields are invariant with respect to time,
D
0
t
  H  Jc
ax ay az
 H    
x y z
0 0 3 x cos   6 y sin 
PLANE ELECTROMAGNETIC
5
WAVES
5.1 UNIFORM PLANE WAVES:
If the phase of a wave is the same for all points on a plane surface it is called
plane wave. If the amplitude is also constant in a plane wave, it is called
uniform plane wave.
The properties of uniform plane waves are given as follows:
1. At every point in space, electric field (E) and magnetic field (H) are perpendicular
to each other and to the direction of travel.
2. The fields vary harmonically with time and at the same frequency, everywhere in
space.
3. Each field has the same direction, magnitudes and phase at every point in any
plane perpendicular to the direction of wave travel.
If the electric field is in x- direction and the magnetic field is in y- direction, then
the wave is travelling in z- direction.
The wave equation for free space is given by,
𝜕 2𝐸
𝛻2 𝐸 = 𝜇 ℇ
𝜕𝑡 2
𝜕2 𝐸 𝜕2 𝐸 𝜕2 𝐸 𝜕2 𝐸
+ 𝜕𝑦 2 + =𝜇ℇ
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑡 2
Consider electric field 𝐸 varies in 𝑥 𝑑𝑟 and 𝐸 is independent of directions 𝑦

and z, then the wave equation becomes,
𝜕2 𝐸 𝜕2 𝐸 𝜕2 𝐸 𝜕2 𝐸
=𝜇ε [∵ 𝜕𝑦 2 = = 0]
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑡 2 𝜕𝑧 2
5.2 Plane Electromagnetic Waves
It can be written in terms of the components of 𝐸 as,
𝜕 2 𝐸𝑥 𝜕 2 𝐸𝑥
=𝜇𝜀
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑡 2
𝜕 2 𝐸𝑦 𝜕 2 𝐸𝑦
= 𝜇 𝜀
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑡 2
𝜕 2 𝐸𝑧 𝜕 2 𝐸𝑧
= 𝜇 𝜀
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑡 2
For free space, there is no charge density,
𝛻. 𝐷 = 𝜀 𝛻. 𝐸 = 0
𝛻. 𝐸 = 0
𝜕𝐸𝑥 𝜕𝐸𝑦 𝜕𝐸𝑧
+ + =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
For uniform plane wave, 𝐸 is independent of 𝑦 and 𝑧
𝜕𝐸𝑥
then =0
𝜕𝑥
This equation shows that there is no variation of 𝐸𝑥 in the 𝑥 direction

Differentiate with respect to ‘t’, we get,
𝜕2 𝐸𝑥
= 0 It requires that 𝐸𝑥 be zero or constant.
𝜕𝑥 2
A field is not satisfying if 𝐸𝑥 is constant and so 𝐸𝑥 must be zero. Therefore a

uniform plane wave propagating in the 𝑥 direction has no ‘𝑥’ component of 𝐸. A
similar analysis would show that there is no 𝑥 component of H.
𝛻. B = 𝜇 𝛻. 𝐻 = 0
𝛻. 𝐻 = 0
𝜕𝐻𝑥 𝜕𝐻𝑦 𝜕𝐻𝑧
+ + =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
∵ H is propagating in 𝑥 direction it is independent of 𝑦 and 𝑧 then
𝜕𝐻𝑥 𝜕2 𝐻𝑥
=0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 2
∵ 𝐻𝑥 is not a constant, 𝐻𝑥 must be zero
𝐻𝑥 = 0 for uniform plane wave.

5.2 PLANE WAVES IN LOSSY MEDIA (LOW-LOSS DIELECTRICS AND GOOD

CONDUCTORS)
5.2.1 Wave propagation in a conducting medium:
The wave equation for conducting medium is
𝜕 2𝐸 𝜕𝐸
𝛻2 𝐸 + 𝜇 ℇ 2
− 𝜇𝜎 =0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
The phasor form of wave equation is
𝛻 2 𝐸 + 𝜇ℇ 𝜔2 𝐸 − 𝑗 𝜔𝜇𝜎𝐸 = 0
𝛻 2 𝐸 − 𝑗(𝜔 𝜇𝜎 + 𝑗 𝜇ℇ 𝜔2 )𝐸 = 0
𝛻 2 𝐸 − 𝑗𝜔𝜇 (𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔ℇ)𝐸 = 0
𝛻2 𝐸 − 𝛾 2𝐸 = 0
where
𝛾 2 = 𝑗𝜔𝜇 (𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔ℇ)
𝛾 → Propagation constant having real and imaginary parts
𝛾 is also given by
𝛾 =𝑎+jβ
where → attenuation constant
β → phase shift
𝛾 = √𝑗𝜔𝜇 (𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔ℇ)
squaring on both sides
∝2 − β2 + 2𝑗 ∝ β = j𝜔 𝜇 𝜎 − 𝜔2 𝜇ℇ
Equating real & imaginary parts
∝2 − β2 = −𝜔2 𝜇ℇ
2 ∝ β = 𝜔 𝜇𝜎
By solve these two equation only left hand side
we get, ∝2 + β2 = √(∝2 − β2 )2 + 4 ∝2 β2
(∝2 − β2 )2 = (−𝜔2 𝜇ℇ2 )2
( ∝ − β)2 = (𝜔 𝜇𝜎)2
∝ 2 + β2 = √ 𝜔 4 𝜇 2 ℇ 2 + 𝜔 2 𝜇 2 𝜎 2
∝2 − β2 = −𝜔2 𝜇ℇ
Adding these two equations
2 ∝2 = −𝜔2 𝜇ℇ + √ 𝜔 4 𝜇 2 ℇ2 + 𝜔 2 𝜇 2 𝜎 2
− 𝜔2 𝜇ℇ (− 𝜔2 𝜇ℇ) 𝜎2
∝2 = + √1 +
2 2 𝜔2𝜀 2
− 𝜔 2 𝜇ℇ 𝜎2
=√ [√1 + 2 2 − 1]
2 𝜔 𝜀
Attenuation factor,
𝜇ℇ 𝜎2
= 𝜔√ [√1 + 𝜔2 𝜀2 − 1]
2
By subtracting ∝2 − β2 from ∝2 + β2, the value of is
𝜇ℇ 𝜎2
β = 𝜔√ √
[ 1 + 2 2 + 1]
2 𝜔 𝜀
5.2.2 Wave propagation in good dielectrics :

The ratio of conduction current density to displacement current density in the
medium is 𝜎⁄𝜔𝜀.
𝜎⁄ = 1 can be considerted to mark the dividing line between conductor
𝜔𝜀
& dielectrics. For good conductor, 𝜎⁄𝜔𝜀 is much greater than unity. For good
dielectric, 𝜎⁄𝜔𝜀 is very less. (ie.,) 𝜎⁄𝜔𝜀 ≪ 1.
1/2
𝜎2 𝜎2
√1 + = (1 + 2 2 )
𝜔2𝜀 2 𝜔 𝜀
By expansion series,
𝑥 2 𝑛 (𝑛−1) 𝑥 2 𝑛 (𝑛−1)(𝑛−2)
(1 + 𝑥)𝑛 = 1 + 𝑛𝑥 + + + ⋯……………
2! 3!
Here n=1/2, therefore 1  x  12 = 1+2

𝑥
𝜎2 𝜎2
∴ √1 + 𝜔2 𝜀2 = (1 + 2𝜔2𝜀2 )
Hence the attenuation factor is
με σ2
∝= ω√ [√1 + 2 2 − 1]
2 ω ε
1/2
με σ2
∝= ω√ [ (1 + 2 2 ) − 1]
2 ω ε
με σ2
∝ = ω √ 2 [ (1 + 2ω2 ε2) − 1] [from expansion series]
με σ2 𝜇𝜎
∝ = ω √ 2 [2ω2 ε2 ] ≃ ω √4ω2 ε2
𝜎 𝜇
∝ ≃ 2 √ ⁄𝜀
The phase shift is,
με σ2
β = ω√ [√1 + 2 2 + 1]
2 ω ε
1/2
με σ2
β = ω √ [(2 + 2 2 ) ]
2 2ω ε
1/2
σ2
β = ω √με [(1 + 4ω2 ε2 ) ] [from expansion series]
σ2
β = ω √με (1 + )
8ω2 ε2
The velocity of the wave in the dielectric is
𝜔 𝜔
𝜗 = =
𝛽 σ2
𝜔 √𝜇𝜀 (1 + )
8ω2 ε2
1 σ2 1
≃ (1 − 8ω2 ε2) (∵ 𝜗 = )
√𝜇𝜀 √𝜇𝜀
σ2
𝜗 = 𝜗𝑜 (1 − )
8ω2 ε2
The intrinsic or characteristic impedance of medium is,
𝑗𝜔𝜇
 √
𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀
𝜇 −1 𝜇
 √
𝑗𝜔𝜇 = √ 𝜀 (1 + 𝜎⁄𝑗𝜔𝜀 ) =√ 𝜀 (1 − 𝜎⁄𝑗𝜔𝜀 )
𝜎
𝑗𝜔𝜀(1+ )
𝑗𝜔𝜀
𝜇 𝑗𝜎 1/2
  √ (1 + )
𝜀 𝜔𝜀
𝜇 𝑗𝜎
 = √ 𝜀 (1 + 2𝜔𝜀)
5.2.3 Wave propagation in good conductors:

𝜎
For good conductor, ≫1
𝜔𝜀
𝛾 = √𝑗𝜔𝜇 (𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀)
𝑗𝜔𝜀
= √𝑗𝜔𝜇 𝜎 (1 + )
𝜎
𝜔𝜀
= √𝑗𝜔𝜇 𝜎 (∵ ≪ 1)
𝜎
By taking polar √𝑗 = 450
𝛾 = √𝜔𝜇 𝜎 450
where
𝛾 =∝ +β
Here ∝ = β
∴ 𝛾 =∝ +∝=2∝
𝛾
∝=
2
√𝜔𝜇 𝜎
∴∝= β=
2
The velocity of the wave in conductor
𝜗 = 𝜔⁄ = 𝜔
𝛽 √𝜔𝜇 𝜎
2
√𝜔
=2
√𝜇𝜎
𝜔
= 2√
𝜇𝜎
where the intrinsic impedance
𝑗𝜔𝜇
 √
𝜎
𝑗𝜔𝜀 (1 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀 )
Neglecting 1,
𝑗𝜔𝜇
=√ 𝜎
𝑗𝜔𝜀 . 𝑗𝜔𝜀
 =√
𝑗𝜔𝜇
=√
𝜔𝜇 450
𝜎 𝜎
Skin effect: Depth of penetration (or) Skin Depth

The skin effect (𝛿) is defined as that depth in which the wave has been
1
attenuated to 𝑒 (or) approximately 37 percent of its original value.
Let us consider the amplitude of the wave decreases by the factor 𝑒 −∝𝑥 as it
propagates through a distance ‘𝑥’
From the definition,
𝑒 −∝𝑥 = 1⁄𝑒
𝑒 −∝𝛿 = 𝑒 −1
∝𝛿 = 1
𝛿 = 1⁄∝
In other words, skin depth is inversely proportional to the attenuation factor.
Properties of wave propagation in various medium
Propagation Lossy medium Lossless Free Good Units

parameters medium space conductor
Attenuation 0 0 f dB
constant   m
   
2
  1     1
2 
    

Phase     0 0 f rad

   
constant  
2
  1     1 m
2 
    

1  j   
1 / 2
Complex     0
intrinsic 1  j  
    0
impedance
 c 
Phase  1 1 1 4f m

velocity     0 0  s
u p 
5.3 GROUP VELOCITY ( v g )
The velocity with which the overall shape of the wave’s amplitude propagates through
space.

vg 

Phase velocity of a wave

Phase velocity is the rate at which the phase of the wave propagates in space.
 
vp   f 
T 
Relation between phase velocity v p and group velocity v g
vg  v p  c2
c  vg v p
where c is the velocity of light which is given by 3 x 108 m/s

f is the frequency of the wave
 is the angular frequency of the wave

5.4 POYNTING VECTOR AND THE FLOW OF POWER
Poynting theorem:
When an electromagnetic wave propagates through space from their source to
distant receiving points, there is a transfer of energy from the source to the
receivers. There exists a simple and direct relation between the ratio of this
energy transfer and the amplitudes of electric & magnetic field intensities of the
electromagnetic waves.
Statements:
The vector product of electric field intensity and magnetic field intensity at any
point is a measure of the rate of energy flow per unit area at that point.
𝑃̅ = 𝐸̅ x 𝐻
̅
The direction of flow (P) is perpendicular to E and H.

Proof : The energy flow equation can be obtained from Maxwell’s equations.
From Maxwell’s first equation,
𝜕𝐸
∇xH = J+ℇ 𝜕𝑡
J = ∇ x H − ℇ 𝜕𝐸⁄𝜕𝑡
If it is multiplied through E, it will be the power per unit volume.

𝜕𝐸
E.J = E.∇ x H − ℇ𝐸 . 𝜕𝑡
But the identity says that,
(∇.E) x H = H.(∇ x E) – E.(∇ x H)
(or) E. (∇ x H) = H.(∇ x E) - ∇.(Ex H)
Then E. J = H. ∇ x E - ∇.E x H – E 𝜕𝐸⁄𝜕𝑡
From Maxwell’s first equation,
∇ x E = −𝜇 𝜕𝐻⁄𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝐸
E. J = −𝜇 H. 𝜕𝐻⁄𝜕𝑡 −ℇ E. −∇.(E x H)
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝐻 𝜕
H. = 1⁄2 𝐻2
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝐸 . 𝜕𝐸⁄𝜕𝑡 = 1⁄2 𝜕⁄𝜕𝑡 𝐸 2
Substituting the values in above equation we get,

𝜇
E.J = − ⁄2 𝜕⁄𝜕𝑡 𝐻 2 − ℇ⁄2 𝜕⁄𝜕𝑡 𝐸 2 − ∇ . (E x H)
Integrating over a volume v,
∫ 𝐸. 𝐽 𝑑𝑣 = − 𝜕⁄ ∫ (𝜇 𝐻 2 + 𝜀 𝐸 2 ) 𝑑𝑣 − ∫ ∇. (E x H) dv
𝑣 𝜕𝑡 𝑣 2 2 𝑣
Using Divergence theorem,
∫ ∇. (E x H) dv =  E x H. ds
𝑣 s
∫ E.J dv = 𝜕⁄ ∫ (𝜇 𝐻 2 + 𝜀
𝐸 2 ) 𝑑𝑣 − ∫ E x H . 𝑑𝑠
𝑣 𝜕𝑡 𝑣 2 2 𝑣
𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑠⁄
The power dissipated per unit volume is E.J watts / m3. [volts⁄𝑚 . 𝑚2 ]
The physical integration of this expression from the law of conservation of
energy is as follows;
Rate ofenergy  Rate at which the energy  Rate at which the energy 
    
dissipatio n in a    stored in volume v is    is entering the volume 
    
volume   declining   from outside 
i). The term ∫ E . J dv represents the total power dissipated in volume v.

𝑣
E.J indicates power dissipated per unit volume (watt / m3).
ii). The term - 𝜕⁄𝜕𝑡 ∫ (2 𝐻 2 + 2 𝐸 2 ) 𝑑𝑣 represents the rate at which the stored
𝜇 𝜀
𝑣
magnetic and electric energy in the volume v is decreasing.
𝜇
𝐻 2 is magnetic energy density (Joules/m3) and
2
𝜀
𝐸 2 is electric density (Joules/m3).
2
iii) The term   E  H .ds represents the rate of flow of energy inward through the
s
surface of the volume. The term ∮ 𝐸  𝐻 𝑑𝑠 represents the rate of flow of

energy outward through the surface of the volume.
P=ExH
Poynting vector:
By Poynting theorem, the vector product of electric field intensity 𝐸̅ and magnetic
̅ is another product called Poynting vector (P). The poynting vector
field intensity 𝐻
(P) measures the rate of flow of energy of the wave as it propagates.
Power Flow in Coaxial Cable

Consider a coaxial cable of inner radius ‘a’ and outer radius ‘b’ between conductors
and a steady current I flowing in the inner and outer conductors.
Figure 5.1 Concentric cable

According to Ampere’s law, the magnetomotive force around any closed circles and
the axis of the cable is equal to the current enclosed.
 H.dl  I
 H .dl  H .2r 
where r is the radius of the circle
H .2r   I
I
H
2r
The electric field strength of the coaxial cable is given by
V
E
r ln b a 
We know the Poynting vector P = E x H

Since E and H are perpendicular to each other everywhere, the magnitude of P as
simply P = EH
The total power flow along the cable is given by the integration of the Poynting vector
across cross sectional surface of area = 2r
W   E  H .ds   EH .ds
S S
b
V  I 
  .2r.dr
a
r ln b a   2r 
b
VI  dr 
   .
ln b a  a  r 

VI
ln r ba
ln b a 

VI
ln b  ln a 
ln b a 
ln b a 
VI

ln b a 
W  VI
This equation shows that the power flow along the cable is the product of the voltage
and current.
Instantaneous, Average & Complex poynting vector :
In an ac circuit, the instantaneous power is given by the product of the
instantaneous voltage and the instantaneous current. The instantaneous power ‘W’
can be written interms of instantaneous voltage v and current i,
𝑣 = 𝑅𝑒 [ 𝑣 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 ] = |𝑉 | cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝑣 )
𝑖 = 𝑅𝑒 [𝐼 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 ] = |𝐼| cos (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝑖 )
The instantaneous power is given by
W  V I cost   v  cost  i 
V I
W cos v  i   cos2t   v  i 
2
The instantaneous power flow per square meter (i.e.,) poynting vector is
𝑃̅ = 𝐸̅  𝐻
̅
The average power is given by,
│𝑉│ │𝐼│
𝑊𝑎𝑣 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝑖 )
2
If 𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝑖 = 𝜃 is the angle between voltage & current, then
│𝑉│ │𝐼│
𝑊𝑎𝑣 = cos 𝜃
2
Figure 5.2 Reactive power

The reactive power is given by,
│𝑉│ │𝐼│
𝑊𝑎𝑣 = sin 𝜃
2
The complex power ‘W’ is defined as
1
𝑊 = 2 VI∗
where I∗ is complex conjugate of I

│𝑉│ │𝐼│
W= 𝑒 𝑗𝜃
2
The total power 𝑊 = 𝑊𝑎𝑣 + 𝑗𝑊𝑟𝑒𝑎

The complex poynting vector P is
P = 1⁄2 𝐸  𝐻 ∗
It consists of real and imaginary power flow per square meter. The real poynting
vector (Average poynting vector) is
𝑃𝑎𝑣 = 1⁄2 𝑅𝑒 [𝐸  𝐻 ∗ ]
The imaginary poynting vector (reactive poynting vector) is
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 1⁄2 𝐼𝑚 [𝐸  𝐻 ∗ ]
In rectangular coordinates, the complex Poynting vector normal to y-z plane is
𝑃𝑥 = 1⁄2 [𝐸𝑦 𝐻𝑧∗ − 𝐸𝑧 𝐻𝑦∗ ]
5.5 POLARIZATION:
The polarization of a uniform plane wave refers to the time – varying behavior of
the electric field strength vector at same fixed point in space. Consider a uniform
plane wave traveling in 𝑧 direction with 𝐸 & 𝐻 lying in 𝑥 − 𝑦 plane.
If 𝐸𝑦 = 0, and 𝐸𝑥 is present then we consider the wave is polarised in 𝑥 direction.

Similarly If 𝐸𝑥 = 0, and 𝐸𝑦 is present then we consider the wave is polarised in 𝑦
direction.
The various types of polarization can be listed as
 Linear polarization
 Circular polarization
 Elliptical polarization
Linear Polarization:
If 𝐸𝑥 & 𝐸𝑦 are present and are in phase, the resultant electric field has a
direction at an angle of tan-1(𝐸𝑦 /𝐸𝑥 ). Direction of the resultant vector is constant in
time which represents the linear polarization.
Circular polarization:

If 𝐸𝑥 & 𝐸𝑦 have equal magnitude & ⁄2 phase difference, the locus of the
resultant E is a circle and the wave is circularly polarized.
Elliptical polarization:
If 𝐸𝑥 & 𝐸𝑦 have different amplitudes and

 ⁄ phase difference, the locus of the
2
resultant E is an ellipse.
5.6 REFLECTION BY A PERFECT CONDUCTOR:

When the electromagnetic wave travelling in one medium strikes upon a second
medium, the wave will be partially transmitted and partially reflected which
specifically depends upon the types of wave incidence.
Types of wave incidence are
(i) Normal incidence
(ii) Oblique incidence
5.6.1 Normal incidence (Wave incident normally on a perfect conductor) :

When the plane wave incident normally upon the surface of a perfect conductor,
the wave is entirely reflected. Since there can be no loss within a perfect conductor,
none of the energy is absorbed. As a result the amplitudes of E & H in the
incident wave are the same as in the reflected wave differ by 𝜋 (out of phase)
(i.e.,) 𝐸𝑖 = − 𝐸𝑟
Figure 5.6 Wave incident normally on a perfect conductor

x
Let the electric field of the incident wave is 𝐸𝑖 𝑒 .
Since attenuation is zero (  = 0), the propagation constant  = 𝑗𝛽.
Then incident wave is 𝐸𝑖 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑥 and the reflected wave is 𝐸𝑖 𝑒 +𝑗𝛽𝑥 (opposite
direction). The resultant electric field is the sum of the electric field of incident
& reflected waves.
𝐸𝑇 (𝑥) = 𝐸𝑖 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑥 + 𝐸𝑟 𝑒 +𝑗𝛽𝑥 → (1)
We know that 𝐸𝑖 = − 𝐸𝑟 → (2)
𝐸𝑇 (𝑥) = 𝐸𝑖 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑥 − 𝐸𝑖 𝑒 +𝑗𝛽𝑥
𝐸𝑇 (𝑥) = 𝐸𝑖 [ 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑥 − 𝑒 +𝑗𝛽𝑥 ] → (3)

𝐸𝑇 (𝑥) = 𝑗2 𝐸𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 𝑥 → (4)

Let the above equation is expressed in time variation
𝐸𝑇 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 2𝑗 𝐸𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽𝑥 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 → (5)
If 𝐸𝑖 is real, then
𝐸𝑇 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 2 𝐸𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 → (6)

Equation (6) shows incident & reflected wave combine to produce a standing wave.
Similarly the wave propagation in magnetic field must be reflected without
reversal of phase.
Now Hi & Hr are in same phase.
 𝐻𝑇 (𝑥) = 𝐻𝑖 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑥 + 𝐻𝑟 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑥 → (7) (∵ 𝐻𝑖 = 𝐻𝑟 )
= 𝐻𝑖 (𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑥 )
= 2 𝐻𝑖 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽𝑥 → (8)
If 𝐻𝑖 is real, then
𝐻𝑇 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑅𝑒 [2 𝐻𝑖 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽𝑥 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 ]

With time variation,
𝐻𝑇 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 2 𝐻𝑖 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽𝑥 cos 𝜔𝑡 → (9)

Equation (9) shows magnetic field has a standing wave distribution,
Also, (6) & (9) shows E & H differs in 𝜋⁄2 in phase.
5.7 REFLECTION BY A PERFECT DIELECTRIC:

When a plane electromagnetic wave is incident on the surface of a perfect
dielectric, part of the energy is transmitted and part of it is reflected. As the perfect
dielectric material has zero conductivity it leads to no loss or absorption of power in
propagation through dielectric. There exists two cases in this process. They are
(i) Normal incidence
(ii) Oblique incidence
5.7.1 Wave incident normally on a perfect dielectric:
Consider two perfect dielectric media separated by a boundary. Let
𝜀1 , 𝜇1 & 𝜀2 , 𝜇2 represents the permittivity and permeability of medium 1 & 2
respectively. Also, 𝐸𝑖 represents the incident wave electric field, 𝐸𝑟 represents
the reflected wave electric field, 𝐻𝑖 represents the incident wave magnetic field
and 𝐻𝑟 represents the reflected wave magnetic field, the intrinsic impedance of
𝜇
medium 1 is given by η1 = √ 1⁄ , the intrinsic impedance of medium 2 is
 1
2
given by 2 
2
We know that,
𝐸𝑖 = η1 𝐻𝑖 → (1)
𝐸𝑟 = − η1 𝐻𝑟 → (2)
𝐸𝑡 = η2 𝐻𝑡 → (3)
According to boundary condition, the tangential component of E or H is
continuous across the boundary.
𝐻𝑖 + 𝐻𝑟 = 𝐻𝑡 𝐸𝑖 + 𝐸𝑟 = 𝐸𝑡 → (4)
From these equations,
𝐻𝑖 = 𝐸𝑖 /η1 → (5)
𝐻𝑟 = −𝐸𝑟 /η1 → (6)
𝐻𝑡 = 𝐸𝑡 /η2 → (7)
1
𝐻𝑡 = 𝐻𝑖 + 𝐻𝑟 = [𝐸𝑖 − 𝐸𝑟 ] → (8)
η1
𝐻𝑡 = 𝐸𝑡 /η2 → (9)
1
𝐻𝑡 = η [𝐸𝑖 + 𝐸𝑟 ] → (10)
2
equating (8) & (10) we get,

1 1
[𝐸𝑖 − 𝐸𝑟 ] = [𝐸𝑖 + 𝐸𝑟 ] → (11)
η1 η2
2 Ei  2 Er  1 Ei  1 Er
2 Ei  1 Ei  1 Er  2 Er
Ei 2  1   1  2 Er

E r  2  1
Therefore, the reflection coefficient  → (12)
Ei 1   2
Transmission coefficient:
E t Ei  E r E
We know,  1 r → (13)
Ei Ei Ei
Et 2 2
 The transmission coefficient 
Ei 1   2
Similarly for magnetic field, the reflection coefficient is given by

𝐻𝑟 𝐸
= − 𝑟⁄𝐸
𝐻1 𝑖
𝐻𝑟 η −η
Solving we get, = − [η2 +η1 ] → (15)
𝐻1 2 1
Transmission coefficient
For perfect dielectric 𝜇1 = 𝜇2 = 𝜇𝑜
𝜇 𝜇
∴ η1 = √ 𝜀 𝑜 and η2 = √ 𝜀 𝑜
1 2
𝜇 𝜇
𝐸𝑟 η2 −η1 √ 𝑜⁄𝜀2 − √ 𝑜⁄𝜀1
= =
𝐸𝑖 η2 +η1 𝜇 𝜇
√ 𝑜⁄𝜀1 + √ 𝑜⁄𝜀2
√1⁄𝜀2 − √1⁄𝜀1
=
√1⁄𝜀1 + √1⁄𝜀2
Reflection coefficient:
𝐸𝑟 √𝜀1 −√𝜀2
=
𝐸𝑖 √𝜀1 +_√𝜀2
𝐸𝑡 2√𝜀1
Transmission coefficient =
𝐸𝑖 √ 1 +√𝜀2
𝜀
Similarly for magnetic field, reflection coefficient
𝐻𝑟 η1 − η2
=
𝐻𝑖 η1 + η2
√𝜀2 − √𝜀1
=
√𝜀1 + √𝜀2
Transmission coefficient,
𝐻𝑡 2η1
=
𝐻𝑖 η1 + η2
2√𝜀2
=
√𝜀1 + √𝜀2
5.7.2 Wave incident obliquely on a perfect dielectric:

When a electromagnetic wave is incident obliquely on the boundary, a part of
the wave is transmitted and part of it is reflected but it in this case the
transmitted wave will be refracted ie., the direction of propagation will be changed.
Figure 5.7 Oblique incidence on a perfect dielectric
When the wave is incident obliquely at an angle of 𝜃𝑖 with normal part of

the wave reflected at an angle of 𝜃𝑟 in the same medium and part of it is
transmitted (refracted) at an angle 𝜃𝑟 in second medium.
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑖 𝑣1
By snell’s law, =
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑟 𝑣2
Where 𝑣1 is the velocity of wave in medium 1 and 𝑣2 is the velocity of wave in

medium 2
1
𝑣1 =
√𝜇1 𝜀1
&
1
𝑣2 =
√𝜇2 𝜀2
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑖 √𝜇2 𝜀2
=
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑟 √𝜇1 𝜀1
𝜇1 = 𝜇2 = 𝜇𝑜 for dielectric
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑖 √𝜇1 𝜀2 √𝜀2

= =
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑟 √𝜇1 𝜀2 √𝜀1
There is no loss of power in perfect dielectric, the incident power must be equal
to the sum of reflected power & transmitted power. By the conservation of energy,
𝑃𝑖 = 𝑃𝑟 + 𝑃𝑡
𝑛 𝐸2
Power / unit area 𝑃 = 𝐸  𝐻 = 𝐸 . 𝐻 sin = 𝐸. 𝐻 =
2 η
𝑃𝑖 = 𝐸𝑖 𝐻𝑖 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃𝑖
𝐸𝑖 2
𝑃𝑖 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃𝑖
η1
𝐸𝑟 2
𝑃𝑟 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃𝑟
η1
𝐸𝑡 2
𝑃𝑡 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃𝑡
η2
𝐸𝑡 2 𝐸𝑟 2 𝐸𝑡 2
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃𝑖 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃𝑟 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃𝑡
η1 η1 η2
By law of reflection we know that, angle of incidence = angle of reflection
𝜃𝑖 = 𝜃𝑟
𝐸𝑖 2 𝐸𝑟 2 𝐸𝑡 2
 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃𝑖 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃𝑟 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃𝑡
η1 η1 η2
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃𝑖 𝐸𝑡 2
[𝐸𝑖 2 − 𝐸𝑟 2 ] = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃𝑡
η1 η2
Divide by 𝐸𝑖 2 on both sides,

𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃𝑖 𝐸𝑟 2 1 𝐸𝑡 2
[1 − 2 ] = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃𝑡
η1 𝐸𝑖 η2 𝐸𝑖 2
𝐸𝑟 2 𝜂1 𝐸𝑡 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃𝑡
1− 2 = 2
𝐸𝑖 𝜂2 𝐸𝑖 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃𝑖
𝐸𝑟 2 𝜂1 𝐸𝑡 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃𝑡
= 1−
𝐸𝑖 2 𝜂2 𝐸𝑖 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃𝑖
𝜇 𝜇
where 𝜂1 = √ 𝜀 1 & 𝜂2 = √ 2⁄𝜀2
1
𝜇 𝜇
𝜂1 = √ 𝑜⁄𝜀1 & 𝜂2 = √ 𝜀 𝑜 ( 𝜇1= 𝜇2 = 𝜇𝑜 )
2
𝐸𝑟 2 𝐸𝑡 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃𝑡 √𝜀2
= 1−
𝐸𝑖 2 𝐸𝑖 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃𝑖 √𝜀1
By using Horizontal polarization :
Electric field E is perpendicular to the plane of incidence and parallel to the reflecting
surface. By applying the boundary condition, the tangential component of E is
continuous across the boundary (i.e.),
𝐸 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 = 𝐸 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚,
𝐸𝑖 + 𝐸𝑟 = 𝐸𝑡
Divide by Ei on both sides,
𝐸𝑟 𝐸
1+ ⁄𝐸 = 𝑡⁄𝐸
𝑖 𝑖
𝜀 cos 𝜃
1 − √𝜀2 cos 𝜃𝑡
𝐸𝑟 1 𝑖
=
𝐸𝑖 𝜀 cos 𝜃
1 + √𝜀2 cos 𝜃𝑡
1 𝑖
√𝜀2 cos 𝜃𝑡 can be written as √𝜀2 √1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑡
sin 𝜃𝑖 𝐸
= 2⁄𝐸
sin 𝜃𝑡 1
2
𝜀1 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑖
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑡 =
𝜀2
Substitute the above equations
𝜀1 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑡
√𝜀2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑡 = √𝜀2 √1 − 𝜀2
= √𝜀2 − 𝜀1 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑖
𝐸𝑟 √𝜀1 cos 𝜃𝑖 − √𝜀2 − 𝜀1 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑖

=
𝐸𝑖 √𝜀1 cos 𝜃𝑖 − √𝜀2 − 𝜀1 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑖
Reflection coefficient
𝜀
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑖 − √𝜀2 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑖
𝐸𝑟 1
=
𝐸𝑖 𝜀
cos 𝜃𝑖 + √𝜀2 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑖
1
Vertical polarization:
E parallel to plane of incidence, By applying boundary conditions
(𝐸𝑖 − 𝐸𝑟 ) cos 𝜃𝑖 = 𝐸𝑡 cos 𝜃𝑡
Divide by 𝐸𝑖 on ‘both sides,

𝐸𝑟 𝐸𝑡 cos 𝜃𝑡
1− =
𝐸𝑖 𝐸𝑖 cos 𝜃𝑖
𝐸𝑡 𝐸 cos 𝜃𝑡
= (1 − 𝐸𝑟 )
𝐸𝑖 𝑖 cos 𝜃𝑖
Reflection coefficient
𝜀 𝜀
( 2⁄𝜀1 ) cos 𝜃𝑖 = √𝜀2 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑖
𝐸𝑟 1
=
𝐸𝑖 𝜀 𝜀
( 2⁄𝜀1 ) cos 𝜃𝑡 − √𝜀2 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑖
1
Brewster Angle:
Brewster angle is an angle at which no reflection takes place.
𝜀2
𝜃𝑖 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 √
𝜀1
i.e., no reflected wave when the incident wave is parallel polarized.

UNIT 5
PLANE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

1. Find the velocity of a plane wave in a lossless medium having a relative
permittivity of 4 and a relative permeability of 1.2.
Solution:
Given  r  4 , r  4
1 1
We know   
 0 r 0 r
1
where  0   3  108 m / s
0 0
0 3  108
    1.37  108 m / s
r r 1.2  4
2. Find the characteristic impedance of the medium whose relative permittivity is 3

and relative permeability is 1.
Solution:
Given  r  3 , r  1
 0 r r
We know characteristic impedance     0
  0 r r
0
where  0   120
0
1
  120  217.66 ohms
3
3. A linearly polarised wave propagates through free space at an angle  with

respect to the normal to a plane circular surface on xy plane. If the peak
amplitude of E is 10 x10-3 V/m, calculate the average power that passes through 1
m2 surface.
Solution:
Given E  10  103 V / m
We know P = E x H
E
But  
H
E
H 

Hence P 
E2

10  10 
3 2
 120
100 10 6

120
Average power P   P.ds

S
100 10 6
 .1. cos 
120
 2.65 10 7 cos Watts
4. A sinusoidal plane wave is transmitted through a medium whose electric field

strength is 10kV/m and relative permittivity of the medium os 4. determine the
mean rms power flow/unit area.
Solution:
Given E = 10 x 103 V/m,  r  4 ,  r  1
E  r
  0
H  r
1
 120  188.5 ohms
4
E
H 
188.5
Power flow / unit area P  E  H
P  E
E

10 10 3   2
 530.503 kW / m 2
188.5 188.5
5. In a charge free non-magnetic dielectric region, the magnetic field is given

H  5 cos 109 t  4 y a z A / m. Calculate the dielectric constant of the medium.
Solution:
Given equation H  5 cos 109 t  4 y a z A / m
from which   2f  109
10 9
f   4
2
2 2 
  
 4 2
109  10 9
  f     2.5 108 m / s
2 2 4
c
Also we know  
r r
and  r  1
c
 
r
2
 c   3 10 
2 8
  r        1.44
8 
    2.5 10 
6. If the field vectors of a wave in free space are given by

 4  100  4 
E  100 cos t  x a x V / m, H  cos t  x a y A / m where
 3  120  3 

f   200MHz. Determine phase Poynting vector.
2
Solution:
4
t  x
Given E in vector form is E  100e 3
ax
4
100 t  3 x
H in vector form is H  e ay
120
We know Poynting vector P = E x H
 4 
10 4 2 t  3 x
P e 
az
120
7. A parallel-polarized plane wave is incident from air onto a dielectric medium

with  r = 9 at the Brewster angle. What is the refraction angle?
Solution:
2
For non-magnetic materials 1   B  tan 1  tan 1 3  71.57 
1
sin 1 sin 1 sin 71.57 

But sin  2     0.32
r
2
3 3
 Refraction angle  2  18.44
8. Calculate the attenuation constant of a conductor of conductivity 200 units,

frequency 1M radian/s in air.
Solution:
Given   10 ,   200
6
The attenuation constant of a conductor is given by



2
We know   4  10
7
Substituting the values, we get   11.2
9. Find the phase velocity of a wave having a group velocity of 6 x 106 is (in order of
108 m/s).
Solution:
We know that the phase and the group velocities are given by
Vp x Vg = c2.
On substituting for Vg = 6 x 106 and the speed of light, we get Vp = 150 x 108 m/s.
GATE QUESTIONS WITH SOLUTIONS
1. Consider a straight, infinitely long, current carrying conductor lying on the z-

axis. Which one of the following plots (in linear scale) qualitatively represents the
dependence of Hϕ on r , where Hϕ is the magnitude of the azimuthal component of
magnetic field outside the conductor and r is the radial distance from the
conductor ?
A. B.
C. D.
Answer : Option C
2. The H field (in A/m) of a plane wave propagating in free space is given by
 5 3  
H x cos( t   z)  y (t   z  )
0 2
The time average power flow density in Watts is

0 100
A. B.
100 0
50
C. 5002 D. watts
0
Answer : Option D
Solution:
2 2 2
 5 3   5   10 
H H H         
2 2 2
We have x y
  0   0   0 
 H
2 2 2
E   10  50
For free space P  0  0   watts
20 2 2  0  0
AA Gate Questions
3. In cylindrical coordinate system, the potential produced by a uniform ring charge

is given by φ = f(r, z), where f is a continuous function of r and z. Let be the
resulting electric field. Then the magnitude of ∇ ×
A. increases with r.
B. is 0.
C. is 3.
D. decreases with z.
Answer : Option B
Solution:
V is given as static field in time invariant.
Hence  E  0
4. A vector is given by Which one of the following statements is

TRUE?
A. is solenoidal, but irrotational
B. is irrotational, but not solenoidal
C. is neither solenoidal nor irrotational
D. is both solenoidal and irrotational
Answer : Option A
Solution:
Given vector,
 
P  x3 y 2 a z  x 2 y 2 a y  x 2 yz a z
If divergence .P  0 , then vector P is solenoidal. So, we obtain
Px Py Pz

.P   
x y z
 3x 2 y  2 x 2 y  x 2 y
=0
Gate Questions AA
Hence, it is solenoidal.
Again, if curl then is irrotational. So, we obtain

  
ax ay az
  
P 
x y z
x y  x2 y 2
3
 x 2 yz
( x 2 yz ) ( x 2 y 2 )   ( x 2 yz ) ( x3 y)  ( x 2 y 2 )  ( x 3 y )

  ax  a y   a2 
y z x z x y
  
 a x ( x 2 z  0)  a y  2 xyz  0  a z 2 xy 2  x3 
  
 ( x 2 z ) a x  (2 xyz ) a y  (2 xy 2 ) a z  0
5. Two electric charges q and −2q are placed at (0,0) and (6,0) on the x-y plane. The
equation of the zero equipotential curve in the x-y plane is
A. x = -2
B. y = 2
C. x2 + y2 = 2
D. (x+2)2 + y2 = 16
Answer : Option D
Solution:
Charge, Q is located at (0, 0) and -20 is located at (6, 0)
To find V at any point (x, y)
Q
VQ 
4 x 2  y 2
2Q
V2Q 
4  ( x  6) 2  y 2 
Q 2Q
Vtotal  0  
4  x2  y 2  4  ( x  6) 2  y 2 
AA Gate Questions
( x  6) 2  y 2  2  x2  y 2 
x2  36  12 x  y 2  4 x 2  4 y 2
3x2  3 y 2  12 x  4 x 2  4 y 2
x 2  y 2  4 x  12
( x  2)2  y 2  16
6. For static electric and magnetic fields in an inhomogeneous source-free medium,

which of the following represents the correct form of Maxwell’s equations ?
A. .E  0,   B  0
B. .E  0, .B  0
C.   E  0,   B  0
D.   E  0, .B  0
Answer : Option D
Solution:
Maxwell equations
B  0
.E   / E
 E   B
 H  D  J
For static electric magnatic fields
.B  0
.E   / E
 E  0
 H  J
Gate Questions AA
7. The value of the line integral
 (2 xy dx  2 x ydy  dz )
2 2
along a path joining the origin (0, 0, 0) and the point (1, 1, 1) is
A. 0 B. 2
C. 4 D. 6
Answer : Option B
Solution:
 F .dr
c
Where F  xy 2 i  2 x 2 y j  k
 F  0
(F is irrotational  F is conservative)
F   ( is scalar potational function)
x  2 xy 2
y  2 x2 y
z  1
   x2 y 2  z  C
Where F is conservative
(1,1,1)
 F .dr  
(1,1,1)
d   x 2 y 2  z 
(0,0,0)
C (0,0,0)
=2
AA Gate Questions
8. Two electrodes, whose cross-sectional view is shown in the figure below, are at the
same potential. The maximum electric field will be at the point
A. A B. B
C. C D. D
Answer : Option C
Solution:
At the point C, E (electric field intensity) is maximum being closest to the other plate.
9. The force on a point charge +q kept at a distance d from the surface of an infinite
grounded metal plate in a medium of permittivity 𝜖 i
A. 0
q2
B. away from the plate
16 d 2
q2
C. towards the plate
16 d 2
q2
D. towards the plate
4 d 2
Answer : Option C
Gate Questions AA
Solution:
Consider the point charge +q and infinite surface as shown below.
We can replace the image charge by a negative equivalent charge -q placed at 2d

distance from +q charge
Hence, the force experienced by +q charge is
10. The value of the integral of the function g(x,y) = 4x3 + 10y4 along the straight line
segment from the point (0,0) to the point (1,2) in the x - y plane is
A. 33 B. 35
C. 40 D. 56
Answer : Option A
Solution:
AA Gate Questions
11. A magnetic field in air is measured to be
What current distribution leads to this field ?
[Hint : The algebra is trivial in cylindrical coordinates.]

A.
B.
C.
D.
Answer : Option C
Solution:
12. A uniform plane wave in the free space is normally incident on an infinitely thick
dielectric slab (dielectric constant ε = 9). The magnitude of the reflection
coefficient is
A. 0
B. 0.3
C. -0.5
D. 0.8
Answer : Option C
Gate Questions AA
Solution:
13. The divergence of the vector field
A. 0
B. 1/3
C. 1
D. 3
Answer : Option D
Solution:
Given, the vector field
14. Given a vector field the line integral ∫ F.dl evaluated along
a segment on the x-axis from x=1 to x=2 is
A. -2.33
B. 0
C. 2.33
D. 7
AA Gate Questions
Answer : Option B
15. Divergence of the three-dimensional radial vector field is
A. 3
B. 1/r
C.
D.
Answer : Option A
16. The curl of the gradient of the scalar field defined by V = 2x2 y + 3y2 z + 4z2x is
A. 4 xyax  6 yza y  8 zxaz

B. 4ax  6a y  8az
C.  4 xy  4 z  a   2 x
2
x
2
 6 yz  a y   3 y 2  8 zx  az
D. 0
Answer : Option D
17. The flux density at a point in space is given by

The value of constant k must be equal to
A. -2
B. -0.5
C. +0.5
D. +2
Answer : Option A
18. Consider a closed surface S surrounding volume V. If is the position vector of

a point inside S, with the unit normal on S, the value of the integral
is
A. 3V
B. 5V
C. 10V
D. 15V
Gate Questions AA
Answer : Option D
Solution:
From Divergence theorem, we have
The position vector
Here, , thus
19. A current sheet lies on the dielectric interface x = 0 between two

dielectric media with εr1 = 5, μ r1 = 1 in Region -1 (x < 0) and εr2 = 5, μr2 = 2 in
Region -2(x > 0) . If the magnetic field in Region-1 at x = 0- is
the magnetic field in Region-2 at x = 0+ is
A.
B.
C.
D.
Answer : Option A
Solution:
From boundary condition

AA Gate Questions
Then from Boundary condition
Comparing we get A = 30 and B =- 10
20. A dielectric slab with 500mm x 500mm cross-section is 0.4m long. The slab is
subjected to a uniform electric field of . The relative
permittivity of the dielectric material is equal to 2. The value of constant ε0 is 8.85
× 10-12 F/m. The energy stored in the dielectric in Joules is
A. 8.85 x 10-11
B. 8.85 x 10-5
C. 88.5
D. 885
Answer : Option B
21. If a vector field is related to another vector field through V  V  A which

of the following is true? (Note : C and SC refer to any closed contour and any
surface whose boundary is C . )
 D 
A.  H .d s    j  .dt
s s
 t 
 D 
B.  H .dt    j  .d S
s s
 t 
 D 
C.  H .d s    j  .dt
s C
  t 
 D 
D.  H .dt    j  .d s
c s
 t 
Gate Questions AA
Answer : Option B
Solution:
Hence (B) is correct option.
22. If C is code curve enclosing a surface S , then magnetic field intensity , the
current density and the electric flux density are related by
A.
B.
C.
D.
Answer : Option D
Solution:
AA Gate Questions
23. Match the following
A. P-2, Q-1, R-4, S-3
B. P-4, Q-1, R-3, S-2

C. P-4, Q-3, R-1, S-2
D. P-3, Q-4, R-2, S-1
Answer : Option B
24. The expression for an electric field in free space is
  

E  E0   x  y  j 2 z  e  j t  kx  ky  where x, y, z represent the spatial coordinates,
 
t represents time, and 𝜔,k are constants. This electric field
A. does not represent a plane wave
B. represents a circular polarized plane wave propagating normal to the z-axis
C. represents an elliptically polarized plane wave propagating along x-y plane
D. represents a linearly polarized plane wave
Answer : Option C
Solution:
 
Given the direction of propagation is a x  a y
  
The orientation of E field is a x  a y  j 2 a z
The dot product between above two is = 1 – 1 + 0 = 0
 It is a plane wave
We observed that
    
P  a x  a y , a x  a y and j 2 a z are normal to each other
Gate Questions AA
  
So electric field can be resolved into two normal component along a x  a y and j 2 a x

The magnitude are 2 and 2 and  
2
So elliptical polarization
25.  
A plane wave propagating in air with E  8a x  6a y  5a z e j t 3 x4 y  V/m is incident on
a perfectly conducting slab positioned at x≥0. Find the 𝐸 field of the reflected wave.
Solution:
 
Given E  8a x  6a y  5a z e j t 3 x4 y 
Electric field inside a perfect conductor is zero.
Etransmitted = 0
Ei+Er=0
Er = -Ei = -8ax-6ay -8az
The x component of Eincident which is normal to slab gets rfected with 180◦ phase
change
Therefore, the 𝐸 field of the reflected wave is -8ax-6ay-8az
26. The magnetic field intensity vector of a plane wave is given by

(𝑥,𝑦,𝑧,𝑡)=10sin(50000𝑡+0.004𝑥+30)𝑎̂𝑦 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎̂𝑦 denotes the unit vector in y
direction. Find the phase velocity of the wave.
AA Gate Questions
Solution:
Given (𝑥,,,𝑡)=10sin(50000𝑡+0.004𝑥+30)𝑎̂𝑦
This is of the form (𝑥,,,𝑡)= Hy𝑎̂ 𝑦
Here   50000 radians/sec
  0.004 radians/m

We know Phase velocity V p 

50  103
 3
 12.5  106  1.25  107 m/s .
 4  10
This represents the wave is travelling in negative x direction.
27. The depth of penetration of electromagnetic wave in a medium having

conductivity 𝜎 at a frequency 1 KHz is 25 cm. Find the depth of penetration at a
frequency of 4 KHz.
Solution:
Given depth of penetration 1 at 1 KHz = 25 cm
The depth of penetration at a frequency of 4 KHz can be found out by using the
 f2
relation 1 
2 f1
25 4

2 1
 2  12.5cm
28. The wavelength of wave with propagation constant (0.1 𝜋+𝑗 0.2𝜋)−1 is
A. 2/√0.05 𝑚
B. 10 m
C. 20 m
D. 30 m
Answer : Option B
Gate Questions AA
Solution:
Propagation constant =0.1 𝜋+𝑗 0.2𝜋=   j
where  is attenuation constant &  is phase constant
2 2
We know wavelength     10 m
 0.2
29. Some unknown material has a conductivity of 10 6 mho/m and a permeability of

4  107 H/m. Find the skin depth of the material at 1 GHz.
Solution:
Given   10 6 mho/m
  4 10 7 H/m
f=1 GHz
1
We know Skin depth  
f
1
 =15.9 m
  10  4  10 7  10 6
9
30. Distilled water at 25 C is characterized by 𝜎 = 1.7×10-4 mho/m and   78 0 at a

frequency of 3 GHz. Find its loss tangent.
Solution:
Given 𝜎 = 1.7×10-4 mho/m,   78 0 , f=3 GHz
10 9
We know  0 
36

Loss tangent tan  =

 1.7 10 4  36 109

  0.130 10 4  1.3 10 5
 2  3 10  78
9
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Define scalar field?
A field is a system in which a particular physical function has a value at each and
every point in that region. The distribution of a scalar quantity with a defined position
in a space is called scalar field.
Ex: Temperature of atmosphere.
2. Define Vector field?

If a quantity which is specified in a region to define a field is a vector then the
corresponding field is called vector field.
3. Define scaling of a vector?

This is nothing but, multiplication of a scalar with a vector. Such a multiplication
changes the magnitude of a vector but not the direction.
4. What are co-planar vector?

The vectors which lie in the same plane are called co-planar vectors.
5. Define base vectors?

The base vectors are the unit vectors which are strictly oriented along the directions of
the coordinate axes of the given coordinate system.
6. What is a position vector?

Consider a point p(x, y, z) are Cartesian coordinate system. Then the position vector of
point p is represented by the distance of point p from the origin directed from origin to
point. This is also called as radius vector.
7. Define Divergence.
Divergence is defined as the net outward flow of the flux per unit volume over a
closed incremental surface.
8. What is physical significance of divergence?

Divergence of current density gives net outflow of current per unit volume.
Divergence of flux density gives net outflow per unit volume. In general, divergence
of any field density gives net outflow of that field per unit volume.
9. State Divergence Theorem.

The integral of the normal component of any vector field over a closed surface is equal
to the integral of the divergence of this vector field throughout the volume enclosed
that closed surface.
R.2 Review Questions
10. What is Curl?

The curl is a closed line integral per unit area as the area shrinks to a point. It gives the
circulation per unit area i.e. circulation density of a vector about a point at which the
area is going to shrink. The curl also gives the direction, which is along the axis
through a point at which curl is defined.
11. What is physical significance of curl of a vector field?

Curl gives rate of rotation. Curl F gives work done per unit area.
12. State Stoke Theorem.

The line integral of F around a closed path L is equal to the integral of curl of F over
the open surface S enclosed by the closed path L.
13. State the conditions for a field to be a) solenoidal b) irrotational.

a. Divergence of the field has to be zero.
b. Curl of the field has to be zero.
14. Define scalar and vector quantity?

The scalar is a quantity whose value may be represented by a single real number which
may be positive or negative. e.g, temperature, mass, volume, density. A quantity which
has both a magnitude and a specified direction in space is called a vector.
e.g. force, velocity, displacement, acceleration.
15. What is a unit vector? What is its function while representing a vector?
A unit vector has a function to indicate the direction. Its magnitude is always unity,
irrespective of the direction which it indicates and the coordinate system under
consideration.
16. Name 3 coordinate systems used in electromagnetic engineering?

i. Cartesian or rectangular coordinate system.
ii. Cylindrical coordinate system.
iii. Spherical coordinate system.
17. How to represent a point in a Cartesian system?

A point in rectangular coordinate system is located by three coordinates namely x, y
and z coordinates. The point can be reached by moving from origin, the distance x in x
direction then the distance y in y direction and finally z in z direction.
Review Questions R.3
18. What is separation of vector?

The distance vector is also called as separation vector. Distance vector is nothing but
the length of the vector.
19. State Distance formula?

Distance formula give the distance between the two points representing tips of the
vector.
20. Show how a point p represented in a spherical coordinate system.

The point p can be defined as the intersection of three surfaces in spherical coordinate
system.
r - Constant which is a sphere with centre as origin
θ – Constant which is a right circular cone with apex as origin and axis as z axis.
Φ – Constant is a plane perpendicular to xy plane.
21. What are the types of integral related to electromagnetic theory?

1. Line integral 2. Surface integral 3. Volume integral
22. Give the types of charge distribution.

1. Line charge 2. Point charge 3. Surface charge 4. Volume charge.
23. Give the application of Stoke’s theorem.

The Stoke’s theorem is applicable for the open surface enclosed by the given closed
path. Any volume is a closed surface and hence application of Stoke’s theorem to a
closed surface which enclosed certain volume produces zero answer.
24. Write the three Universal constants and summarize their values.
S.No. Universal Constants Symbol Value Unit
Velocity of electromagnetic wave

1 c 3 x 108 m/s
(including light) in free space, c
Permittivity of free space

2 0 1
 10 9 F/m
36
Permeability of free space

3 0 4  10 7 H/m
25. State Helmholtz’s theorem.
Helmholtz’s theorem states that a general vector function F can be written as the sum
of the gradient of a scalar function and the curl of a vector function. Thus
F  V    A
Part B
1. Sketch and explain various coordinate systems.
2. State and explain Divergence theorem. Write down its application.
3. Discuss briefly about Null identities.
4. Write short notes on SI units and constants.
5. State and explain Stoke’s theorem. Write down its application.

6. Discuss briefly about Helmholtz theorem
7. Write down the generalized expressions for
(a) Differential elements
(b) Divergence
(c) Curl
(d) Gradient of various coordinate systems.

   x2 
8. Transform A  y ax  x a y  a z from Cartesian to Cylindrical
x2  y2
coordinates.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Define point charge.
A point charge means that electric charge which is separated on a surface or space
whose geometrical dimensions are very small compared to other dimensions, in which
the effect of electric field to be studied.
2. Define one coulomb.
One coulomb of charge is defined as the charge possessed by (1/1.602x10-9) i.e

6x1018 number of electrons.
3. What are the various types of charge distribution? Give an example for each.
Point charge - Ex. Positive charge
Line charge - Ex. A sharp beam in a cathode ray tube.
Surface charge - Ex. The plate of a charged parallel plate capacitor.
Volume charge - Ex. The charged cloud.
4. State the assumptions made while defining a Coulomb’s law.
a. The two charges are stationary.
b. The two charges are point charge.
5. What is an equipotential surface?
An equipotential surface is an imaginary surface in an electric field of a given charge
distribution, in which all points on the surface are at the same electric potential.
6. What is an electric flux?
The total number of lines of force in any particular electric field is called electric flux.
It is represented by the symbol χ. Similar to the charge, unit of electric flux is also
Coulomb.
7. Define electric flux density.
The net flux passing normal through the unit surface area is called electric flux
density. It is denoted as D. It has a specified direction which is normal to the surface
area under consideration hence it is a vector field.
8. State Gauss’s Law.
The electric flux passing through any closed surface is equal to the total charge
enclosed by that surface.
9. State the application of Gauss’s law.
a. The Gauss’s law can be used to find E and D for symmetrical charge
distributions.
b. It is used to find the charge enclosed or the flux passing through the closed
surface.
10. What is an equipotential surface?
An equipotential surface is an imaginary surface in an electric field of a given charge
distribution, in which all points on the surface are at the same electric potential.
11. Define the unit of Potential difference.
The unit of potential difference is Volt. One Volt potential difference is one Joule of
work done in moving unit charge from one point to other in the field.
12. Define potential difference.
The work done per unit charge in moving unit charge from B to A in the field E is
called potential difference between the points B to A.
13. Define relaxation time.
The relaxation time τ is defined as the time required by the charge density to decay to
36.8% of its initial value.
14. What is Potential Gradient?
The rate of change of potential with respect to the distance is called potential gradient.
15. What is Gaussian surface? What are the conditions to be satisfied in special
Gaussian surface?
The surface over which is the Gauss’s law is applied is called Gaussian surface.
Obviously such a surface is a closed surface and it has to satisfy the following
conditions.
a. The surface may be irregular but should be sufficiently large so as to enclose

the entire charge.
b. The surface must be closed.
c. At each point of the surface D is either normal or tangential to the surface.
d. The electric flux density D is constant over the surface at which D is normal.
16. What is Gradient of V?
The maximum value of rate of change of potential with distance dv/dL is called
gradient of V
17. Define Absolute potential.
The work done in moving a unit charge from infinity (or from reference point at which
potential is zero) to the point under the consideration against E is called absolute
potential of that point.
18. What is Polarization?
The applied field E shifts the charges inside the dielectric to induce the electric
dipoles. This process is called Polarization.
19. What is Polarization of Dielectrics?
Polarization of dielectric means, when an electron cloud has a centre separated from
the nucleus. This forms an electric dipole. The dipole gets aligned with the applied
field.
Define (i) Capacitor and (ii) Capacitance
Capacitor: A capacitor is an electric device which consists of the conductors

separated by a dielectric medium
Capacitance : The property of capacitor to “store the electricity” may be called

its capacitance. The capacitances of a capacitor is defined as “the amount of
charge required to create a unit potential difference between its plates.
𝑄 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
i. 𝐶 = =
𝑣 𝑃𝑜𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
20. Write Poisson equation for various coordinate systems.
The Poisson equation for Cartesian co-ordinate system can be written as,
𝜕2𝑣 𝜕2𝑣 𝜕2𝑣 

∇2 V = + + = − r
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2

For Cylindrical co-ordinate system
2
1 ∂ 𝜕𝑣 1 𝜕2𝑣 𝜕2𝑣
∇ V = + (ρ ) + 2 ( 2) + 2
Q ∂ρ 𝜕ρ Q 𝜕φ 𝜕𝑧
For spherical coordinate system,

2
1 ∂ 2
∂v 1 ∂ ∂𝑣 𝜕2𝑣 𝜕2𝑣 
∇ v = 2 + (r )+ 2 (sinθ )+ 2 2 =− r
r ∂r ∂r r sinθ ∂θ 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 sin θ 𝜕φ 2

21. Write Point form of ohm’s law .
Point form of ohm’s law states that the field strength within a conductor is
proportional to the current density
J E
J=𝜎𝐸
where 𝜎 represents the conductivity of the material .
Part B
1. Derive Potential and Electric field due to charge distributed uniformly on an

infinite and finite line.
2. Derive the boundary conditions of the tangential and normal components of the
electric field at the interface of two mediums with dielectrics.
3. Compute the force between two charges of 1C each, separated in a vacuum by a

distance equal to (i)1m (ii) 1.27x107m.
4. Derive Poisson’s and Laplace Equations.

5. Obtain the expression for Capacitance of Parallel conductors.
6. The capacitor of a condenser formed by two parallel metal sheets, each 100cm 2 in
area separated by a dielectric 2mm thick is 2x10-4 μF. A potential of 20kV is
applied. Find
(a) The electric flux (b) Potential Gradient in kV/cm (c) Relative permittivity of
the material (d) Electric flux density
7. Derive the boundary conditions of the normal and tangential

components of electric field at the interface of two media with
different dielectrics.
8. Derive an expression for the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor
having two dielectric media.
9. Derive an expression for energy stored and energy density in an
Electrostatic field.
10. Briefly explain about the application of Poisson’s and Laplace’s
equations.
11. Derive an expression for capacitance of co-axial cable.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is Magnetic Field?
The region around a magnet within which influence of the magnet can be experienced
is called Magnetic Field.
2. What are Magnetic Lines of Force?
The existence of Magnetic Field can be experienced with the help of compass field.
Such a field is represented by imaginary lines around the magnet which are called
Magnetic Lines of Force.
3. Define scalar magnetic Potential.
The scalar magnetic potential Vm can be defined for source free region where J i.e.
current density is zero.
4. What is the fundamental difference between static electric and magnetic field
lines?
There is a fundamental difference between static electric and magnetic field lines. The
tubes of electric flux originate and terminate on charges, whereas magnetic flux tubes
are continuous.
5. State Kirchoff’s Flux law.
It states that the total magnetic flux arriving at any junction in a magnetic circuit is
equal to the magnetic flux leaving that junction. Using this law, parallel magnetic
circuits can be easily analyzed.
6. State Kirchoff’s MMF law.
Kirchoff’s MMF law states that the resultant MMF around a closed magnetic circuit is
equal to the algebraic sum of products of flux and reluctance of each part of the closed
circuit.
7. What is Magnetization?
The field produced due to the movement of bound charges is called Magnetization
represented by M.
8. State Biot Savart Law.

The Biot Savart law states that, the magnetic field intensity dH produced at a point p
due to a differential current element IdL is,
1) Proportional to the product of the current I and differential length dL.
2) The sine of the angle between the element and the line joining point p to the
element and
3) Inversely proportional to the square of the distance R between point p and the
element.
𝜇𝐼𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝐵 ∝ 𝑎⃑
4𝜋𝑟 2
9. Describe what are the sources of electric field and magnetic field?
Stationary charges produce electric field that are constant in time, hence the term
electrostatics. Moving charges produce magnetic fields hence the term magnetostatics.
10. Define Magnetic flux.
Magnetic flux is defined as the flux  passing through any area.
   B.ds
11. In a closed path, the total flux is zero which can be represented as
∇. B = 0
12. Define Magnetic flux density.
The total magnetic lines of force i.e. magnetic flux crossing a unit area in a plane at
right angles to the direction of flux is called magnetic flux density. Unit Wb/m2.
ɸ
𝐵= 𝑤𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 /𝑚2
𝐴
13. State Ampere’s circuital law.
The line integral of magnetic field intensity H around a closed path is exactly equal to
the direct current enclosed by that path.
∮ 𝐻. 𝑑𝑙 = 𝐼
14. Define Magnetic field Intensity.
Magnetic Field intensity at any point in the magnetic field is defined as the force
experienced by a unit north pole of one Weber strength, when placed at that point.
Unit: N/Wb.
15. What is rotational and irrotational vector field?
If curl of a vector field exists then the field is called rotational. For irrotational vector
field, the curl vanishes i.e. curl is zero.
16. Define Inductance.
In general, inductance is also referred as self inductance as the flux produced by the
current flowing through the coil links with the coil itself.
17. What is fringing effect?
If there is an air gap in between the path of the magnetic flux, it spreads and bulges
out. This effect is called fringing effect.
18. Define self inductance.
Self inductance is defined as the rate of total magnetic flux linkage to the current
through the coil.
19. What is Magnetostatics?
The study of steady magnetic field, existing in a given space, produced due to the flow
of direct current through a conductor is called Magnetostatics.
20. Define Right hand Thumb Rule and where it is used?
Right hand Thumb Rule states that, hold the current carrying conductor in the right
hand such that the thumb pointing in the direction of current and parallel to the
conductor, then curled fingers point in the direction of magnetic lines of flux around it.
It is used to determine the direction of Magnetic field around a conductor carrying a
direct current.
21. Define Right handed Screw Rule.
It states that, imagine a right handed screw to be along the conductor carrying current
with its axis parallel to the conductor and tip pointing in the direction of the current
flow. Then the direction of Magnetic field is given by the direction in which screw
must be turned so as to advance in the direction of current flow.
22. Define Mutual inductance.
The mutual inductance between the two coils is defined as the ratio of flux linkage of
one coil to the current in other coil.
23. Define Reluctance.
Reluctance R is defined as the ratio of the magneto motive force to the total flux.
24. What is Lorentz force equation?
Lorentz force equation relates mechanical force to the electrical force. It is given as the
total force on a moving charge in the presence of both electric and magnetic fields.
25. Define Moment of force.
The Moment of a force or torque about a specified point is defined as the vector
product of the moment arm R and the force F. It is measured in Nm.
26. Define Magnetic dipole moment.
The Magnetic dipole moment of a current loop is defined as the product of current
through the loop and the area of the loop, directed normal to the current loop.
27. Give any two dissimilarities between electric and magnetic circuits.
1) In electric circuit the current actually flows i.e. there is a movement of electrons
whereas in magnetic circuit, due to MMF, flux gets established and doesn’t flow
in the sense in which current flows.
2) The electric lines of flux are not closed. They start from positive charge and end
on negative charge and the magnetic lines of flux are closed lines.
28. What is permeability?
In magnetostatics, the B and H are related to each other through the property of the
region in which current carrying conductor is placed. It is called permeability denoted
as μ. It is the ability with which the current carrying conductor forces the magnetic
flux through the region around it.
29. Distinguish between solenoid and toroid.
Solenoid is a cylindrically shaped coil consisting of a large number of closely spaced

turns of insulated wire wound usually on a non magnetic frame. If a long slender
solenoid is bent into the form of a ring and thereby closed on itself it becomes a toroid.
30. Define Torque.
When a current loop is placed parallel to a magnetic field, forces act on the
loop that tend to rotate it. The tangential force multiplied by the radial distance at
which it acts is called Torque or mechanical moments on the loop.
Part B
1. Derive the expression for magnetic field intensity and magnetic flux density due
to finite and infinite line.
2. Derive the expressions for magnetic field intensity and magnetic flux density due
to circular coil.
3. Derive an expression for force between two current carrying conductors.
4. State Ampere’s circuital law and explain any two applications of Ampere’s
circuital law.
5. Derive the expression for the magnetic field intensity due to rectangular coil
carrying current I in a uniform field. Deduce the equation to find the H due to
square coil.
6. State Ampere’s circuital law and prove the same.
7. Find the magnetic field intensity at the centre O of a square loop of sides equal to
5M and carrying 10A of current.
8. Derive an expression for self and mutual inductances.
9. An iron ring with a cross sectional area of 3cm square and mean circumference
of 15 cm is wound with 250 turns wire carrying a current of 0.3A. The relative
permeability of ring is 1500. Calculate the flux established in the ring.
10. Obtain the expression for Magnetic field intensity on the axis of solenoid. Sketch
the variation of B from point to point along the axis.
11. At a point P(x,y,z) the components of vector magnetic potential A are given as
Ax = 4x+3y+2z, Ay = 5x+6y+3z and Az = 2x+3y+5z. Determine P at the point B
12. State Biot-Savart’s law. Derive the expressions for magnetic field intensity &
magnetic flux density at the centre of the square loop of side ‘l’. Also determine
the same for square loops of side 5m carrying current of 10A.
13. Derive Magnetic field intensity and flux density due to a finite and infinite wire
carrying a current I.
14. Two point charges 1.5nC at (0, 0, 0.1) and 1.5nC at (0, 0, -0.1) are in free space.
Treat the two charges as a dipole at the origin and find potential at P(0.3, 0, 0.4).
15. Obtain the expression for the energy stored in magnetic field.
16. Derive the expression for torque developed in a rectangular closed circuit
carrying current I in a uniform field.
17. Derive an expression for inductance of a solenoid.
18. Determine the inductance of a solenoid of 2500 turns wound uniformly over a
length of 0.25m on a cylindrical paper tube, 4 cm in diameter & the medium is
air.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Define intrinsic impedance or characteristic impedance.
It is the ratio of electric field to magnetic field or It is the ratio of square root of
permeability to permittivity of medium.
2. Give the characteristic impedance of free space.
377ohms.
3. Define propagation constant.
Propagation constant is a complex number γ =α + jβ where γ is propagation constant.
4. Give the difficulties in FDM.
FDM is difficult to apply for problems involving irregular boundaries and non-
homogeneous material properties.
5. Explain the steps in finite element method.
a. Discrimination of the solution region into elements.
b. Generation of equations for fields at each element.
c. Assembly of all elements.
d. Solution of the resulting system.
6. State Maxwell’s fourth equation.
The net magnetic flux emerging through any closed surface is zero.
7. State Maxwell’s Third equation
The total electric displacement through the surface enclosing a volume is equal to the
total charge within the volume.
8. State the principle of superposition of fields
The total electric field at a point is the algebraic sum of the individual electric field at
that point.
9. Define loss tangent.
Loss tangent is the ratio of the magnitude of conduction current density to

displacement current density of the medium.
10. What will happen when the wave is incident obliquely over dielectric – dielectric
boundary?
When a plane wave is incident obliquely on the surface of a perfect dielectric part of
the energy is transmitted and part of it is reflected .But in this case the transmitted
wave will be refracted, that is the direction of propagation is altered.
11. What is the major drawback of finite difference method?
The major drawback of finite difference method is its inability to handle curved
boundaries accurately.
12. Define power density.
The power density is defined as the ratio of power to unit area.
Power density=power/unit area.
13. What is called attenuation constant?
When a wave propagates in the medium, it gets attenuated. The amplitude of the signal
reduces. This is represented by attenuation constant α. It is measured in Neper per
meter (NP/m). But practically it is expressed in decibel (dB).
14. What is phase constant?
When a wave propagates, phase change also takes place. Such a phase change is
expressed by a phase constant β . It is measured in radian per meter (rad/m).
15. How voltage maxima and minima are separated?
In general voltage minima are separated by one half wavelength. Also the voltage
maxima are also separated by one half wave length.
16. State electric displacement.
The electric flux or electric displacement through a closed surface is equal to the
charge enclosed by the surface.
17. What is displacement flux density?
The electric displacement per unit area is known as electric displacement density or
electric flux density.
18. What is the significance of displacement current?
The concept of displacement current was introduced to justify the production of

magnetic field in empty space. It signifies that a changing electric field induces a
magnetic field .In empty space the conduction current is zero and the magnetic fields
are entirely due to displacement current.
19. Summarize Maxwell’s Equations in free space

In free space, there is no charges enclosed, and since it is dielectric there is no
conductivity in the medium therefore 𝜌 = 0 , 𝜎 = 0.
Equation Maxwell’s Equations Differential form Integral form

No. from
𝜕𝐷
∮ 𝐻. 𝑑𝑙 = ∬
𝜕𝐷
I Ampere’s Circuital Law 𝛻𝐻 = 𝑑𝑠
𝜕𝐵
∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑙 = − ∬
𝜕𝐵
II Faraday’s Law 𝛻𝐸 = − . 𝑑𝑠
III Electric Gauss’ Law 𝛻. 𝐷 = 0 ∯ 𝐷. 𝑑𝑠 = 0

𝑠
IV Magnetic Gauss’ Law 𝛻. 𝐵 = 0 ∯ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑠 = 0

𝑠
20. Summarize Maxwell’s Equations in general form

No. Equations
from
I Ampere’s 𝛻  𝐻 = 𝐽 + 𝜕𝐷⁄𝜕𝑡 ∮ 𝐻. 𝑑𝑙 = ∬ (𝐽 +
𝜕𝐷
) 𝑑𝑠
Circuital Law 𝑠 𝜕𝑡
(or)
𝛻  𝐻 =𝜎𝐸+𝜀 𝜕𝐸⁄𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝐸
∮ 𝐻. 𝑑𝑙 = ∬ (𝜎𝐸 + 𝜀 ) 𝑑𝑠
𝑠 𝜕𝑡
II Faraday’s 𝛻  𝐸 = − 𝜕𝐵⁄𝜕𝑡 ∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑙 = − ∬ 𝜕𝐵⁄𝜕𝑡 . 𝑑𝑠

Law 𝑠
(or)
∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑙 = −𝜇 ∬
𝜕𝐻
𝛻  𝐸 = − 𝜇 𝜕𝐻⁄𝜕𝑡 𝑠 𝜕𝑡
. 𝑑𝑠
III Electric 𝛻. 𝐷 = 𝜌 ∯ 𝐷. 𝑑𝑠 = ∭ 𝜌 𝑑𝑣
Gauss’ Law 𝑠 𝑣
IV Magnetic 𝛻. 𝐵 = 0 ∯ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑠 = 0
Gauss’ Law 𝑠
21. Write Maxwell’s Equations in phasor form

Equations from
No.
I Ampere’s Circuital 𝛻  𝐻 = (σ + j ω ε) E ∮ 𝐻. 𝑑𝑙 = ∬ (σ + jωε E) 𝑑𝑠

Law
II Faraday’s Law 𝛻  𝐸 = −𝑗𝜔𝜇𝐻

∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑙 = − 𝜇∬ jω H. ds
III Electric Gauss’ 𝛻 .𝐷 = 𝜌 ∮ 𝐷. 𝑑𝑠 = ∭𝜌 dv

Law
IV Magnetic Gauss’ 𝛻 .𝐵 = 0 ∮ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑠 = 0
Law
Part B
1. With necessary explanation, derive the Maxwell’s equation in differential and
integral forms.
2. Write short notes on faradays law of electromagnetic induction.
3. Define wave. Derive the free space electromagnetic wave equation.
4. Derive wave equation for conducting medium.
5. If D  20 xa x  15 y a y  kza z C / m 2 , find the value of k to satisfy Maxwell’s

equations for region   0,  v  0 .
6. A plane wave propagating through a medium with εr=8, μr=2 has E=0.5sin(108t-
z)βz v/m.
Determine (i) β (ii) The loss tangent (iii) wave impedance (iv) wave velocity (v)
magnetic field.
7. Derive a wave equation for non dissipative medium making use of Maxwell
equations and field vectors E and H.
8. Derive the boundary conditions of electromagnetic field at the interface of two

different magnetic medium.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Define a wave.
If a physical phenomenon that occurs at one place at a given time is reproduced at

other places at later times, the time delay being proportional to the space separation
from the first location then the group of phenomena constitutes a wave.
2. Define uniform plane wave.
If the phase of a wave is the same for all points on a plane surface it is called
plane wave. If the amplitude is also constant in a plane wave, it is called
uniform plane wave. (Or)
Electromagnetic waves which consist of electric and magnetic fields that are
perpendicular to each other and to the direction of propagation and are uniform in
plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation are known as uniform plane waves.
3. Mention the properties of uniform plane wave.
i. At every point in space, the electric field E and magnetic field H are perpendicular
to each other.
ii. The fields vary harmonically with time and at the same frequency everywhere in
space.
4. Define skin depth (or) Skin effect (or) Depth of penetration.
It is defined as that depth in which the wave has been attenuated to 1/e or
approximately 37% of its original value.
5. Define Group Velocity ( v g )
The velocity with which the overall shape of the wave’s amplitude propagates through
space.

vg 

6. Define Phase velocity of a wave
Phase velocity is the rate at which the phase of the wave propagates in space.
 
vp   f 
T 
7. Write the Relation between phase velocity v p and group velocity v g
vg  v p  c2
c  vg v p
where c is the velocity of light which is given by 3 x 108 m/s
f is the frequency of the wave
 is the angular frequency of the wave

8. Define Poynting vector.
The pointing vector is defined as rate of flow of energy of a wave as it propagates. P

=E X H
9. State Poynting’s Theorem.
The net power flowing out of a given volume is equal to the time rate of decrease of
the energy stored within the volume conduction losses.
10. Define Polarization & list its types.
The polarization of a uniform plane wave refers to the time – varying behavior of
the electric field strength vector at same fixed point in space. Consider a uniform
plane wave traveling in 𝑧 direction with 𝐸 & 𝐻 lying in 𝑥 − 𝑦 plane.
If 𝐸𝑦 = 0, and 𝐸𝑥 is present then we consider the wave is polarised in 𝑥 direction.

Similarly If 𝐸𝑥 = 0, and 𝐸𝑦 is present then we consider the wave is polarised in 𝑦
direction.
The various types of polarization can be listed as
 Linear polarization
 Circular polarization
 Elliptical polarization
11. What is Normal Incidence?
When a uniform plane wave incidences normally to the boundary between the media
then it is known as normal incidence.
12. What is the significant feature of wave propagation in an imperfect dielectric?
The only significant feature of wave propagation in an imperfect dielectric compared

to that in a perfect dielectric is the attenuation undergone by the wave.
13. Define reflection coefficient.
Reflection coefficient is defined as the ratio of the magnitude of the reflected field to
that of the incident field.
14. Define transmission coefficient.
Transmission coefficient is defined as the ratio of the magnitude of the transmitted

field to that of incident field.
15. Give the expression for attenuation constant and phase shift constant for a wave
propagating in a conducting medium.
The attenuation constant for a wave propagating in a conducting medium is
𝜇ℇ 𝜎2
𝛼 = 𝜔√ 2 [√1 + − 1]
𝜔2 𝜀 2
The phase shift constant for a wave propagating in a conducting medium is
𝜇ℇ 𝜎2
β = 𝜔√ √
[ 1 + 2 2 + 1]
2 𝜔 𝜀
16. Define Brewster Angle.
Brewster angle is an angle at which no reflection takes place.
𝜀2
𝜃𝑖 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 √
𝜀1
Part B
1. What is the physical significance of the poynting vector?
2. State and explain the poynting theorem.
3. Briefly explain about the wave incident
(i) Normally on perfect conductor
(ii) Obliquely to the surface of perfect conductor.
4. Derive the expression for power flow in a coaxial cable.
5. The conduction current flowing through a wire with conductivity   3 *10 7 s/m
and the relative permeability  r  1 is given by I C  3 sin t (mA),   10 8 rad/sec,
find the displacement current
6. Obtain the expressions for Transmission coefficient and reflection coefficient if an

electromagnetic wave is incident normally on a plane (i) Conducting boundary
and (ii) Dielectric boundary.
Question Paper Code : 50439
B.E./B.Tech. DEGREE EXAMINATION, NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2017
Fourth Semester
Electronics and Communication Engineering
EC 6403 : ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
(Regulations 2013)
Time : Three Hours Maximum : 100 Marks
Answer ALL Questions
PART – A (10 x 2 = 20 Marks)
1. State Gauss Law.
2. State stokes theorem
3. What is polarization?
4. Define skin depth
5. State amperes circuital law.
6. Along straight wire carries a current I = 10 mA. At what distance is the magnetic field
intensity is 15 A/m?
7. What is the inductance of a toroid for the coil of N turns?
8. State Faradays law.
9. State Faradays law.
10. What is the importance of Poynting vector?
PART – B (5 x 13 = 65 Marks)
11. a) Find the electric field due to infinite long conductor and infinite sheet of charge
using Gauss law. (13)
(OR)
b) Derive the energy stored in electrostatic field in terms of field quantities. (13)
12. a) A cylindrical capacitor consists of an inner conductor of radius ‘a’ and an outer
conductor whose inner radius is ‘b’. The space between the conductors is filled
AA University Questions
with a dialectric permittivity er and length of the capacitor is L. Find the value of
the capacitance. (13)
(OR)
b) i) State the relationship between polarization and electric field intensity. (13)
ii) Write down the general procedure for solving Poisson’s and Laplace’s equation
13. a) Derive a general expression for the magnetic flux density B, at anyu point along
the axis of a long solenoid. (13)
(OR)
b) Using Biot-Savart’s law, determine the magnetic field intensity due to a straight
current carrying filamentary conductor of finite length AB. (13)
14. a) Derive the boundary conditions for magnetostatic fields at the interface of two
different medium with permeability  1 and  2. (13)
b) Planes Z = 0 and Z = 4 carry current K = - 10 a x A/m and K = 10 ax A/m,

respectively. Determine H at (1, 1, 1) and (0, -3, 10).
15. a) Derive the Maxwell’s equation in point and integral form. (13)
(OR)
b) Deduce the Poynting’s theorem from Maxwells equation and find the total time
average power, crossing a given surface S. (13)
PART – C (1 x 15 = 15 Marks)
16. a) In a medium characterized by  = 0,  0, -40 and E = 20 sin (10 8t - z)a y

Calculate and H. (15)
(OR)
b) A parallel – plate capacitor with plate area of 5 cm2 and plate separation a 3 mm
has a voltage 50 sin 10 3tV applied to its plates. Calculate the displ;acement current
assuming =20 (15)
University Questions AA

Fourth Semester
(Regulations 2013)
(Common to PTEC 6403 – Electromagnetic Fields for B.E. (Part Time) Third
Semester – Elevtronics and Communication Engineering – Regulations 2014)
PART – A (10 x 2 = 20 Marks)
1. State divergence theorem.
2. Specify the applications of Gauss law.
3. Define magneto static vector potential?
4. Mention the Laplace equation in electromagnetic field
5. What is meant by Biot – Savart Laws?.
6. State stokes theorem
7. Outline the Amperes law of force between currnt carrying conductors
8. Determine the force and torque in terms of mutual inductance.
9. Relate electgrostatic and Magneto static models.
10. Outline the fundamental postulate for Electromagnetic Induction.
PART – B (5 x 13 = 65 Marks)
11. a) Illustrate in detail about the coulomb’s law in electric fields. (13)
(OR)
b) Determine the electric field intensity of an infinitely long, straight line charge of a
uniform density in air. (13)
12. a) Derive the boundary conditions for electrostatic fields. (13)
(OR)
b) A parallel plate capacitor consists of two parallel conducting plates of area S

separated by a uniform distance d. The space between the plates is filled with a
dielectgric of a constant permittivity, . Determine the capacitance. (13)
13. a) An infinitely long, straight conductor with a circular cross section of radius b
carries a steady current I. Determine the magnetic flux density both inside and
outside the conductor.
(OR)
b) Derive the vector magnetic potential. (13)
14. a) Find the inductance per unit length of a very long solenoid with air core having ‘n’
turns per unit length. (13)
b) Determine the force per unit length between two infinitely long parallel
conducting wires carrying currents I1 and I2 in the same direction. The wires are
separated by a distance d. (13)
15. a) Derive the integral from of Maxwell’s equations. (13)
(OR)
b) A circular loop of N turns of conducting wire lies in the xy – plane with its center
at the origin of a magnetic field specified at the origin of a magnetic field
specified by B = az B0 cos (r/2b) sin t, where ‘b’ is the radius of the loop and
is the angular frequency. Find the emf induced in the loop. (13)
PART – C (1 x 15 = 15 Marks)
16. a) Express 3cos t – 4 sin t, as first (i) A1 cos (t +1) and then (ii) A2 sin (t
+2). Determine A1 , 1 , A2 and2. (15)
(OR)
b) A rectangular loop in the xy – plane with sides b1 and b2 carrying a current I lies
in a uniform magnetic field B = a xBx + ayBy +az+Bz. Determine the force and
torque on the loop. (15)

Fourth Semester
(Regulations 2013)
PART – A (10 x 2 = 20 Marks)
1. State divergence theorem.
2. Write the different coordinate systems.
3. Two capacitances C1 and C 2 are connected in series. Find the equivalent total
capacitance.
4. What is current density?
5. What is vector magnetic potential?.
6. State Ampere circuital law.
7. Define – dielectric strength.
8. What is ferromagnetic material?
9. What is electromotive force?
10. Define Poynting’s theorem.
PART – B (5 x 13 = 65 Marks)
11. a) i) State and prove Stokes theorem. (6)
ii) Derive Electric field intensity due to line charge (7)
(OR)
b) i) Derive the equation for potential difference to move a point charge in electric
field. (7)
ii) Derive the Electric field due to electric dipole (6)
12. a) Derive an expression for energy stored in the electrostatic field of a section of a
coaxial cable. (13)
(OR)
b) Derive the electric field boundary condition, when a wave travels between two
different dielectrics medium. (13)
13. a) State Biot-Savart’s law and derive the expressions for magnetic field intensity, of
a straight current carrying conductor.
(OR)
b) Derive the magnetic field intensity of a circular current carrying conductor. (13)
14. a) Derive the inductance of toroid and solenoid.
(OR)
b) i) Derive the equation which relates magnetization and permeability. (8)
ii) Explain the different types of magnetic materials (5)
15. a) Derive the Poynting theorem equation from of Maxwell’s curl equations.
(OR)
b) Derive the Maxwell’s equations in Differential form and integral form
PART – C (1 x 15 = 15 Marks)
16. a) Apply Lorentz force equation, to derive the force on a differential current element.
(OR)
b) Illustrate with an example, to apply Poisson’s and Laplace equation.


B.E./B.Tech. DEGREE EXAMINATION, APRIL/MAY 2019
Fourth Semester
(Common to Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering)
(Regulations 2017)
PART – A (10 x 2 = 20 Marks)
1. Write Stoke’s theorem in integral form.
2. Define infinitesimal volume element in spherical polar coordinates
3. Write coulomb’s law
4. Find the energy of a uniformly charged spherical shell of total charge q with a radius
R.
5. Write Lorentz force equation.
6. Find the magnetic field a distance s from a long straight wire carrying a steady current
I.
7. What is meaqnt by displacement current?
8. Write electromagnetic boundary conditions.
9. What is meant by Brewster’s angle?
10. Define phase velocity and group velocity.
PART – B (5 x 13 = 65 Marks)
  
11. a) Check the divergence theorem using the function V  y 2 i  (2 xy  z 2 ) j  (2 yz ) k
and the unit cube situatyed at the origin.
(OR)
b) Write the infinite simal displacement, surface and volume elements is spherical
and cylindrical coordinates.
ii) Derive the Electric field due to electric dipole (6)
12. a) Find the electric field a distance Z above the center of a square loop of side ‘a’
carrying uniform line charge .
(OR)
b) Derive the expressions for the energy of a (i) point charge distribution (ii)
continuous charge distributions.
13. a) Find the magnetic field at the center of a square loop, which carries a steady
current I. Let ‘R’ be the distance from center to side (fig). Find the field at the
center of an n-sided polygon, carrying a steady current I. Again, let R be the
distance from the center to any side. Find the formula in the limit n (number of
sides) tends to infinity.
(OR)
b) Define (i) the mutual inductance between two circuits, and (ii) self inductance of a
single coil. Also explain how the self inductance of a wire-wound inductor
depends on its number of turns.
14. a) Write Maxwell’s equations in differential form and integral form. Examine them
and give its physical interpretation.
(OR)
b) Derive wave equations for electric and magnetic fields.
15. a) Derive Poynting theorem.
(OR)
b) Analyse the wave reflection and transmission at normal incidence at the boundary
between two linear media.
PART – C (1 x 15 = 15 Marks)
16. a) A 1.8 KHz wave propagates in a medium characterized by r  1.6, r  25 and

conductivity   2.5 s / m. The electric field intensity in the region is given by

E  0.1e az cos(2 ft   z ) i V / m. Determine the attenuation constant,
propagation constant, intrinsic impedance, phase velocity, skin depth, and wave
length of the wave. .
(OR)
b) Two grounded conducting planes (y = 0 and x = 0) are intersecting at 90 o. A

charge of 100 nC is placed at (3, 4, 0). Find the electric potential and elec tric field
intensity at (3, 5, 0)..

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TABLE OF CONTENT

1.2 Electromagnetic model 1.1

1.4.4 Vector addition and Subtraction in three dimensional axes: 1.7

1.5 Coordinate systems 1.11

1.6.1 Line Integral 1.15

1.13 Helmholtz's theorem 1.20

2.3.1 Gauss Law in Point Form 2.3

2.5 Conductors in static electric field 2.13

2.10.1 Electrostatic Energy 2.27

3.3 Ampere's Circuital law 3.2

3.6 Magnetic field 3.11

3.11.1 Energy density 3.22

4.1.3 Electric Gauss’s law 4.5

4.4 Solution of Wave equation 4.14

4.5 Wave equation in phasor form 4.18

UNIT 5 PLANE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

5.3 Group velocity 5.9

1.2 ELECTROMAGNETIC MODEL

Where  q is the amount of charge in a very small volume v . For example, an

1.3 UNITS AND CONSTANTS

The SI (International System of Units) is an MKSA (Meter-Kilogram-Second-

S.No. Quantity Unit Abbreviation

The velocity of light can be given as c = 3 x 10 8 m/s

where F/m stands for Farad per meter

S.No. Universal Constants Symbol Value Unit

1 Velocity of electromagnetic c 3 x 108 m/s

2 Permittivity of free space 0 1

3 Permeability of free space 0 4  10 7 H/m

1.4 REVIEW OF VECTOR ALGEBRA

1.4.1 SCALAR AND VECTOR

(a) (b) (c)

1.4.2 Vector Addition

(i) Parallelogram rule – Vector addition

(a) (b) (c)

1.4.3 Vector Subtraction:

Figure 1.3: Vector A in 3 dimensional axis

Sum of the vectors A and B

Difference of the vectors A and B

1.4.5 Product of Vectors:

Figure 1.4: Scalar - Vector multiplication

1.4.6 Scalar or Dot Product:

Figure 1.5: Dot product of vectors

If suppose two vectors A and B are perpendicular

1.4.7 Vector or Cross Product:

Where n̂ is a unit vector (vector of length 1) pointing perpendicular to the plane of A

1.4.8 Vector Differentiation

1.4.9 Solenoidal and Irrotational Vectors

1.5 COORDINATE SYSTEMS

2. Cylindrical coordinate system

1.5.1 Rectangular / Cartesian coordinate system:

Figure:1.7 Cartesian coordinate system

1.5.2 Cylindrical coordinate system:

dl  d 2  d 2  dz 2 ,

Figure:1.8 Cylindrical coordinate system

 The differential length dl  dr 2  rd 2  r sin d 2

Figure:1.9 Spherical coordinate system

1.5.4 Transformation between various coordinate systems

Cartesian coordinates Cylindrical coordinates Spherical coordinates

II. Transformation from other (Cylindrical & Spherical) coordinate systems to

Cylindrical coordinate system to Spherical coordinate system to

Cylindrical Cartesian Spherical Cartesian

 x   cos  r x  r sin  cos 