What I Need to KNOW

This module contains four (4) lessons, namely;

LESSON 1: FORCE OF ELECTRICITY
LESSON 2: ELECTRICAL POTENTIAL
LESSON 3: ELECTRIC FIELDS
LESSON 4: CAPACITANCE AND CAPACITORS
At the end of this module, the student is expected to:
 describe using a diagram charging by rubbing and charging by induction;
 explain the role of electron transfer electrostatic charging by rubbing;
 describe experiments to show electrostatic charging by induction;
 calculate the net electric force on a point charge exerted by a system of point charges;
 describe an electric field as a region in which an electric charges experience a force;
 calculate the electric field due to a system of point charges using Coulomb’s law and the
superposition principle;
 calculate electric flux;
 use Gauss’s law to infer electric field due to uniformly distributed charges on long wires, spheres,
and large plates;
 solve problems involving electric charges, dipoles, forces, fields, and flux in contexts such as, but
not limited to, systems of point of charges, electrical breakdown of air, charged pendulums,
electrostatic ink-jet printers;
 relate the electric potential with work, potential energy, and electric fields;
 determine the electric potential function at any point due to highly symmetric continuous-charge
distributions;
 infer the direction and strength of electric field vector, nature of the electric field sources, and
electrostatic potential surfaces given the equipotential lines; (STEM_GP12EM - IIIc -18)
 calculate the electric field in the region given a mathematical function describing its potential in a
region of space; (STEM_GP12EM - IIIc -20)
 solve problems involving electric potential energy and electric potentials in contexts such as, but
not limited to, electron guns in CRT TV picture tubes and Van de Graaff generators;
(STEM_GP12EM - IIIc -22)
 deduce the effects of simple capacitors (e.g., parallel -plate, spherical, cylindrical) on the
capacitance, charge, and potential difference when the size, potential difference, or charge is
changed; and (STEM_GP12EM - IIId -23)
 calculate the equivalent capacitance of a network of capacitors connected in series/parallel.
(STEM_GP12EM - IIId -24)

General Instructions: Answer all the activities on this module. Use separate sheets of paper
for your answers.
Activity I. If you rub an inflated balloon against your hair, the two materials attract each other. Is
the amount of charge present in the system of the balloon and your hair after rubbing?
(a) less than,
(b) the same as, or
(c) more than the amount of charge present before rubbing?

If the balloon can attract paper scraps, which of the following cannot be the charge of paper scraps?
a. Neutral b. Positive c. Negative
During rubbing, what have transferred between the woolen cloth and the balloon?
a. Electron b. Protons c. Neutron

What makes plastic wrap cling? It is the Static electricity. Not

only are applications of static electricity common these days,
its existence has been known since ancient times. The first
record of its effects dates to ancient Greeks who noted more
than 500 years B.C. that polishing amber temporarily
enabled it to attract bits of straw. The very word electric
derives from the Greek word for amber (electron).

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Subject: General Physics 2 – Module 1
ELECTRIC CHARGE AND STATIC ELECTRICITY
Electric charge is a physical property of an object that cause attraction toward or
repelled from one another charged object: each charged object generates and is influenced by a
force called an electromagnetic force. Meanwhile, the buildup of electric charge on the surface
object is called static electricity. Static electricity basically involves two types of electric
charges. When various materials are rubbed together in controlled ways, certain combination of
materials always produce one type of charges on one material and opposite type on the other.
By convention, one type of charge is positive, and the other negative.
As an example, when glass is rubbed with silk, the glass becomes positively charged
and the silk negatively charged. Two silk cloths rubbed together will repel, since both cloth have
negative charged. Figure 1.1 below shows how these simple materials can be used to explore
the nature of the force between charges.

Figure 1
Electron transfer
When rubbing two materials, electrons may be transferred from one material to the other
one. Materials end up with an excess of electron and become negatively charged, while the
other ends up with deficiency of electrons and becomes positively charged.

This imbalance of charges on objects results in the phenomena

we called static electricity. Figure 1.2 shows a person touching
a van de graff generator and receiving excess positive charge.
The expanded view of a hair shows the existence of both types
of charges but an excess of positive charger. The repulsion of
these positive like charges cause the strand of hair to repel
other strand of hair to stand up. To emphasize, the figure shows
a concept of an electron and a proton carrying the negative and
positive charges perhaps found in an atom in a strand of hair.
We cannot really see these particles with visible light because
they are so small (the electron seems to be an infinitesimal point) but we know aFigure
great2 deal
about their measurable properties, such as the charges they carry.
Conductors and insulators
The electron in some metals and similar conductors are not bound to individual atoms or
sites in the material. These free electrons are free to move
away from its atomic orbit and can move through the material
as such as air moves through loose sand. Any substance that
has free electron and allows charge to move freely through is
called a conductor. On the other hand, some substance, such Figure 3
as glass, do not allow charges to move through them. These
materials that can hold electrons securely within their atomic orbits are called insulator.
Electron and ion in insulator are bound in the structure and cannot move easily as much as 1023
times more slowly than in conductors. In general, good conductors of electricity (metals like
copper, aluminum, gold, and silver) are also heat conductors,
whereas insulators of electricity (wood, plastic, and rubber) are
poor heat conductor.
Charging by Induction
It is not necessary to transfer excess charge directly to
an object in order to charge it. Figure 4 shows a method of
induction wherein a charge is created in a nearby object,
without direct contact. Here we see two neutral metal spheres
in contact with one another but insulated from the rest of the
world. A positively charged rod is brought near one of them,
attracting negative charge to that side, leaving the other sphere
positively charged.
Figure 4

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Subject: General Physics 2 – Module 1
 This is an example of induced polarization of neutral objects. Polarization is the separation of
charges in an object that remains neutral. If the spheres are now separated (before the rod is
pulled away), each sphere will have a net charge. Note that the object closest to the charged
rod receives an opposite charge when charged by induction. Note also that no charge is
removed from the charged rod, so that this process can be repeated without depleting the
supply of excess charge.
Another method of charging by induction is shown in Figure 5. The neutral metal sphere
is polarized when a charged rod is brought near it. The sphere is then grounded, meaning that a
conducting wire is run from the sphere to the ground. Since the earth is large and most ground
is a good conductor, it can supply or accept excess charge
easily.
In this case, electrons are attracted to the sphere through a
wire called the ground wire, because it supplies a conducting
path to the ground. The ground connection is broken before
the charged rod is removed, leaving the sphere with an
excess charge opposite to that of the rod.
Again, an opposite charge is achieved when charging by
induction and the charged rod loses none of its excess
charge.
Dentists in the late 18th century, the main features of the
electrostatic force—the existence of two types of charge, the
observation that like charges repel, unlike charges attract, and
the decrease of force with distance—were eventually refined,
Figure 5 and expressed as a mathematical formula.
The mathematical formula for the electrostatic force is called Coulomb's law after the French
physicist Charles Coulomb (1736–1806), who performed experiments and first proposed a
formula to calculate it.
│q 1 q 2 │
F= ¿ k
r2

Coulomb's law calculates the magnitude of the force F between two point charges, q1 and q2,
separated by a distance r. In SI units, the constant k is equal to
2 2
N∗m N∗m
K=8.988 x 10 9
2
=8.99 x 109
C C2

SAMPLE PROBLEM: The nucleus of an iron atom has a radius of 4x 1015 m and contains 26 protons.
What repulsive electrostatic force acts between two protons in such a nucleus if a distance of one radius
separates them?
q1 q2
F e= K¿
r2
= (8.99 x 109 N . m2 ⧸ c2 ¿(1.60 x 10−19 C)❑2
(4 x 10−15 m)❑2
=14 N
Concept of a Field
A field is a way of conceptualizing and mapping the force that surrounds any object and
acts on another object at a distance without apparent physical connection. For example, the
gravitational field surrounding the earth (and all other masses) represents the gravitational force
that would be experienced if another mass were placed at a given point within the field.
To simplify things, we would prefer to have a field that depends only on Q and not on the test
charge q. The electric field is defined in such a manner that it represents only the charge
creating it and is unique at every point in space. Specifically, the electric field E is defined to be
the ratio of the Coulomb force to the test charge:
F
E=¿q ¿
EXAMPLE:
Calculating the Electric Field of a Point Charge
Calculate the strength and direction of the electric field E due to a point charge of 2.00 NC
(Nano-Coulombs) at a distance of 5.00 mm from the charge.
Strategy
We can find the electric field created by a point charge by using the formula
E¿ kQ ⧸ r 2
Solution
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Subject: General Physics 2 – Module 1
Here Q=2.00×10−9C and r=5.00×10−3 m. Entering those values into the above equation gives
Q
E¿ k 2
r
=(8.99X109 N.m2⧸C 2) X¿ ¿
= 7.19 X105 N ⧸ C
Discussion
This electric field strength is the same at any point 5.00 mm away from the charge Q that
creates the field. It is positive, meaning that it has a direction pointing away from the charge Q.
Calculating the Force Exerted on a Point Charge by an Electric Field
What force does the electric field found in the previous example exert on a point charge of –
0.250μC?
Strategy
Since we know the electric field strength and the charge in the field, the force on that charge
can be calculated using the definition of electric field E=F/q rearranged to
F=qi
Solution
The magnitude of the force on a charge q=−0.250μC exerted by a field of strength E=7.20× 105
N/C is thus,
F= -qi
=(0.250 x10−6 C) (7.20 x 105 N⧸C
=0.180 N
Because q is negative, the force is directed opposite to the direction of the field.
Discussion
The force is attractive, as expected for unlike charges. (The field was created by a positive
charge and here acts on a negative charge.) The charges in this example are typical of common
static electricity, and the modest attractive force obtained is similar to forces experienced in
static cling and similar situations.
Electric Flux
The Electric Field, imagined to be present around a charge, can be represented in terms of a
quantity known as Electric Flux. The field lines or flux lines can be used to pictorially represent
the distribution of Electric Flux around a charge.
This bunch or small closed area is called a Tube of Flux.

Electric Flux is the total number of tubes of flux in an electric field i.e. Electric Flux is defined as
the total number of lines of electric force in any particular electric field. The symbol of Electric
Flux is Φ.
Considering the other two factors i.e. the electric field and the area of the surface, the equation
of flux can be written as follows:
ΦE = EAcos (θ)
Where, E is Electric Field with units Newton. Coulomb
A- is surface area with units’ meter2.

θ - is angle with units’ degrees or radians

Therefore, the units of Electric Flux are Newton meter2 / Coulomb (Nm2/C).
This formula is well and good if the surface has a deterministic area. What if the surface is
curved? Then the surface is divided into small elements of area d and the integral of the flux is
taken for the entire surface.
ΦE = ∫E . dA

Activity II. Answer the following questions as comprehensive as possible. (5 points each)
1. How does a positively charged rod attract a neutral object?
2. Why do gasoline tankers usually have metal chains at the back?
3. What is the difference between a conductor and insulator?
4. What is the difference between charging by induction and charging by friction?
5. How charging by induction method is used in real life?

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Subject: General Physics 2 – Module 1
Activity III
A. Write a paragraph about the cartoon. Tell what the man is trying to do. Will it work and why?
What do you think will happen? Use the following words: static electricity, lightning,
electrons, positive and negative charges. (20 points)

B. Electrostatic and humidity

Rub a comb through your hair and use it to lift pieces of paper. It may help to tear the pieces of
paper rather than cut them neatly. Repeat the exercise in your bathroom after you have had a
long shower and the air in the bathroom is moist. Is it easier to get electrostatic effects in dry
or moist air? Why would torn paper be more attractive to the comb than cut paper?
Explain your observations. (15 points)

Activity IV
A. MATCHING TYPE. Answer the following items using the terms found inside the box.
Atom insulators conductor static electricity
coulombs law induction electrostatic electric field
positive and negative proton electron charges

1. The properties of electric charges are_________.

2. __________a stationary electrical charge that is built up on the surface of a material.
3. Materials that do not allow electron to flow through them easily (example: glass or
rubber) _________.
4. Materials that allow electron to flow through them easily___________.
5. The force between two charges depends on the magnitude of the charges and the distance
between _________.
6. Through_________, when electrons are gathered or dispersed by the presence of nearby
charge (without physical contact) ___________.
7. __________is the standby of electric at rest.
8. An ________is said to exist in the region of space around a charge object.
9. Matter is made up of_________.
10. The proton (+) in the nucleus attract the electron (-), while the electron repels each other the
attraction and repulsion behavior gives an object its_____________.
B. For points 11-15, answer the problem below.
Two balloons with charges of + 3.37 µC and - 8.21µC attract each other with a force of 0.0626
N. Determine the separation distance between the two balloons.

Activity V 4PICS2WORDS. Guess the two words that reflect in the four photos below.

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Subject: General Physics 2 – Module 1
ELECTRICAL POTENTIAL
Two of the most familiar aspects of electricity are its energy and voltage. It is known
that great amounts of electrical energy can be stored in batteries, or transmitted cross-country
through power lines. Batteries are typically a few volts, the outlets in your home produce 220
volts, and power lines can be as high as hundreds of thousands of volts. But energy and voltage
are not the same thing.
For example, a motorcycle battery is small and would not be very successful in replacing
the much larger car battery, even though they have the same voltage. In this module, we shall
examine the relationship between voltage and electrical energy and begin to explore some of
the many applications of electricity.
GAUSS’S LAW
To begin our discussion on Gauss’s Law, let us imagine a box in the shape of a cube,
which is constructed of a material that does not affect electric fields. A positive test charge
brought close to any surface of the box will experience no force. Now suppose positive test
charge is inside the box and the positive test charge is brought close to the surface of the box.
The positive test charge is brought close to the surface of the box. The positive test charge
experiences an outward force. If twice as much positive charge is inside the box. The positive
charge experiences twice the outward force when brought close to any surface of the box.
Now suppose there is a negative charge inside the box. When the positive test charge is
brought close to one surface of the box, the charge experiences an inward force. If the positive
test charge is close to any surface of the box, it experiences an inward force doubling the
negative charge in the box doubles the inward force on the test charge when it is close to any
surface of the box.
In analogy with flowing water, the electric field lines seem to be flowing out of the box
containing positive charge and into the box containing negative charge.
Now let us imagine an empty box in a uniform electric field. If a positive test charge is
brought close to side 1, it experiences an inward force. If the charge is close to side 2, it
experiences an outward force. The electric field is parallel to the four sides, so the positive test
charge does not experience any inward or outward force when brought close to those sides.
Thus, in analogy with flowing water, the net amount of electric field that seems to be flowing in
and out of the box is zero.
Whenever a charge is inside the box, the electric field lines seems to be flowing in or out
of the box. When there is no charge inside the box, the net flow of electric field lines in or out of
the box is zero. These observations and the definition of electric flux, which quantifies the
concept of the flow of the electric field lines, lead to Gauss’s Law.
q
Ф=
∊0
POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
When a free positive charge q accelerated by an electric field, it is given kinetic energy.
The process is analogous to an object being accelerated by a gravitational field. It is as if the
charge is going down an electrical hill where its electric potential energy is converted to kinetic
energy. Let us explore the work done on a charge q by the electric field in this process, so that
we may develop a definition of electric potential energy.
The electrostatic or Coulomb force is conservative, which means that the work done
on q is independent of the path taken. This is exactly analogous to the gravitational force in the
absence of dissipative forces such as friction. When a force is conservative, it is possible to
define a potential energy associated with the force, and it is usually easier to deal with the
potential energy (because it depends only on position) than to calculate the work directly.
We use the letters PE to denote electric potential energy,
which has units of joules (J). The change in potential

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Subject: General Physics 2 – Module 1
energy (ΔPE) is crucial, since the work done by a conservative force is the negative of the
change in potential energy; that is, W=–ΔPE.
For example, work W done to accelerate a positive charge from rest is positive and
results from a loss in PE (or a negative ΔPE). There must be a minus sign in front of ΔPE to
make W positive. PE can be found at any point by taking one point as a reference and
calculating the work needed to move a charge to the other point.
Gravitational potential energy and electric potential energy are quite analogous.
Potential energy accounts for work done by a conservative force and gives added insight
regarding energy and energy transformation without the necessity of dealing with the force
directly. It is much more common, for example, to use the concept of voltage (related to electric
potential energy) than to deal with the Coulomb force directly.
Calculating the work directly is generally difficult, since W=Fd cos θ and the direction
and magnitude of F can be complex for multiple charges, for odd-shaped objects, and along
arbitrary paths. But we do know that, since F=qE, the work, and hence ΔPE, is proportional to
the test charge q. To have a physical quantity that is independent of test charge, we
define electric potential V (or simply potential, since electric is understood) to be the potential
energy per unit charge:
PE
V=
q
Since PE is proportional to q, the dependence on q cancels. Thus V does not depend
on q. The change in potential energy ΔPE is crucial, and so we are concerned with the
difference in potential or potential difference ΔV between two points, where
ΔPE
ΔV = V B−V A =
q
The potential difference between points A and B,V B−V A , is thus defined to be the
change in potential energy of a charge q moved from A to B, divided by the charge. Units of
potential difference are joules per coulomb, given the name volt (V) after Alessandro Volta.
J
1 V =1
C
The familiar term voltage is the common name for potential difference. Keep in mind
that whenever a voltage is quoted, it is understood to be the potential difference between two
points. For example, every battery has two terminals, and its voltage is the potential difference
between them. More fundamentally, the point you choose to be zero volts is arbitrary. This is
analogous to the fact that gravitational potential energy has an arbitrary zero, such as sea level
or perhaps a lecture hall floor.
In summary, the relationship between potential difference (or voltage) and electrical
potential energy is given by:
ΔPE
ΔV = and ΔPE = qΔV
q
VOLTAGE AND ENERGY
Voltage is not the same as energy. Voltage is the energy per unit charge. Thus, a
motorcycle battery and a car battery can both have the same voltage (more precisely, the same
potential difference between battery terminals), yet one stores much more energy than the other
since ΔPE =qΔV. The car battery can move more charge than the motorcycle battery, although
both are 12 V batteries.
EXAMPLE:
Calculating Energy
Suppose you have a 12.0 V motorcycle battery that can move 5000 C of charge, and a
12.0 V car battery that can move 60,000 C of charge. How much energy does each deliver?
(Assume that the numerical value of each charge is accurate to three significant figures.)
Strategy
To say we have a 12.0 V battery means that its terminals have a 12.0 V potential
difference. When such a battery moves charge, it puts the charge through a potential difference
of 12.0 V, and the charge is given a change in potential energy equal to ΔPE =qΔV.
So to find the energy output, we multiply the charge moved by the potential difference.
Solution
For the motorcycle battery, q=5000 C and ΔV=12.0 V. The total energy delivered by the
motorcycle battery is
Δ PEcycle = (5000 C )(12.0 V)
= (5000 C) (12.0 J/C)
= 6.00 × 104 J.

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Subject: General Physics 2 – Module 1
Similarly, for the car battery, q = 60, 000 C and
Δ PEcar = (60,000 C) (12.0 V)
= 7.20 × 105J
Discussion
While voltage and energy are related, they are not the same thing. The voltages of the
batteries are identical, but the energy supplied by each is quite different. Note also that as a
battery is discharged, some of its energy is used internally and its terminal voltage drops, such
as when headlights dim because of a low car battery. The
energy supplied by the battery is still calculated as in this
example, but not all of the energy is available for external use.

Note that the energies calculated in the previous example are

absolute values. The change in potential energy for the battery
is negative, since it loses energy. These batteries, like many
electrical systems, actually move negative charge—electrons
in particular. The batteries repel electrons from their negative
terminals (A) through whatever circuitry is involved and attract
them to their positive terminals (B). The change in potential
is ΔV = V B−V A = + 12 V and the charge q is negative, so that 
ΔPE = q ΔV is negative, meaning the potential energy of the
battery has decreased when q has moved from A to B.
EXAMPLE:
How Many Electrons Move through a Headlight Each Second?
When a 12.0 V car battery runs a single 30.0 W headlight, how many electrons pass
through it each second?
Strategy
To find the number of electrons, we must first find the charge that moved in 1.00s. The
charge moved is related to voltage and energy through the equation ΔPE = qΔV. A 30.0 W lamp
uses 30.0 joules per second. Since the battery loses energy, we have ΔPE = –30.0 J and, since
the electrons are going from the negative terminal to the positive, we see that ΔV = +12.0 V.
Solution
To find the charge q moved, we solve the equation ΔPE=qΔV:
Δ PE
q=
ΔV
Entering the values for ΔPE and ΔV, we get
−30.0 J −30.0 J
q= = =−2.50C
+12.0V +12.0 J /C
The number of electrons n e is the total charge divided by the charge per electron. That is,
−2.50C
ne = −19 = 1.56 x 1019 electrons.
−1.60 x 10 C/e
Discussion
This is a very large number. It is no wonder that we do not ordinarily observe individual
electrons with many being present in ordinary systems. In fact, electricity had been in use for
many decades before it was determined that the moving charges in many circumstances were
negative. Positive charge moving in the opposite direction of negative charge often produces
identical effects; this makes it difficult to determine which is moving or whether both are moving.
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL IN A UNIFORM ELECTRIC FIELD
We will explore the relationship between voltage and
electric field. For example, a uniform electric field E is produced
by placing a potential difference (or voltage) ΔV across two
parallel metal plates, labeled A and B. Examining this will tell us
what voltage is needed to produce a certain electric field
strength; it will also reveal a more fundamental relationship
between electric potential and electric field. From a physicist’s
point of view, either ΔV or E can be used to describe any charge
distribution. ΔV is most closely tied to energy, whereas E is most
closely related to force. ΔV is a scalar quantity and has no
direction, while E is a vector quantity, having both magnitude and
direction. (Note that the magnitude of the electric field strength, a
scalar quantity, is represented by E The relationship
between ΔV and E is revealed by calculating the work done by
the force in moving a charge from point A to point B. But, this is
Page 8 of 20
Subject: General Physics 2 – Module 1
complex for arbitrary charge distributions, requiring calculus. We therefore look at a uniform
electric field as an interesting special case.
The work done by the electric field to move a positive charge q from A, the positive plate, higher
potential, to B, the negative plate, lower potential, is
W = – ΔPE = – qΔV
The potential difference between points A and B is
– ΔV = – (V B– V A ) = V A – V B = V AB
Entering this into the expression for work yields
W =qV AB
Work is W = Fd cos θ; here cos θ = 1, since the path is parallel to the field, and so 
W = Fd. Since F = qE, we see that W = qEd. Substituting this expression for work into the
previous equation gives
qEd=qV AB.
The charge cancels, and so the voltage between points A and B is seen to be

{
V AB=Ed
(uniform E – field only), V AB
¿ E=
d
where d is the distance from A to B, or the distance between the plates. Note that the above
equation implies the units for electric field are volts per meter. We already know the units for
electric field are Newtons per coulomb; thus the following relation among units is valid:
1 N/C = 1 V/m
EXAMPLE
What Is the Highest Voltage Possible between Two Plates?
Dry air will support a maximum electric field strength of about 3.0× 106 V/m. Above that
value, the field creates enough ionization in the air to make the air a conductor. This allows a
discharge or spark that reduces the field. What, then, is the maximum voltage between two
parallel conducting plates separated by 2.5 cm of dry air?
Strategy
We are given the maximum electric field E between the plates and the
distance d between them. The equation V AB=Ed  can thus be used to calculate the maximum
voltage.
Solution
The potential difference or voltage between the plates is
V AB=Ed
Entering the given values for E and d gives
6 4
V AB=(3.0 x 10 V /m)( 0.025 m)=7.5 x 10 V
or
V AB=75 kV
Discussion
One of the implications of this result is that it takes about 75 kV to make a spark jump
across a 2.5 cm (1 in.) gap, or 150 kV for a 5 cm spark. This limits the voltages that can exist
between conductors, perhaps on a power transmission line. A smaller voltage will cause a spark
if there are points on the surface, since points create greater fields than smooth surfaces.
Humid air breaks down at a lower field strength, meaning that a smaller voltage will make a
spark jump through humid air. The largest voltages can be built up, say with static electricity, on
dry days.
EXAMPLE:
Field and Force inside an Electron Gun
(a) An electron gun has parallel plates separated by 4.00 cm and gives electrons 25.0
keV of energy. What is the electric field strength between the plates? (b) What force would this
field exert on a piece of plastic with a 0.500 μC charge that gets bet1ween the plates?
Strategy
Since the voltage and plate separation are given, the electric field strength can be
V AB
calculated directly from the expression E= . Once the electric field strength is known, the
d
force on a charge is found using F=qE. Since the electric field is in only one direction, we can
write this equation in terms of the magnitudes, F=qE.
Solution for (a)
The expression for the magnitude of the electric field between two uniform metal plates
is
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Subject: General Physics 2 – Module 1
 V AB
E= .
d
Since the electron is a single charge and is given 25.0 keV of energy, the potential difference
must be 25.0 kV. Entering this value for V AB and the plate separation of 0.0400 m, we obtain
25.0 kV 5
E= =6.25 x 10 V /m
0. 0400 m
Solution for (b)
The magnitude of the force on a charge in an electric field is obtained from the equation
F = qE
Substituting known values gives
F=( 0.500 x 10−6 C ) (6.25 x 10 5 V / m)=0.313 N

Discussion
Note that the units are newtons, since 1 V/m=1 N/C. The force on the charge is the
same no matter where the charge is located between the plates. This is because the electric
field is uniform between the plates.
In more general situations, regardless of whether the electric field is uniform, it points in
the direction of decreasing potential, because the force on a positive charge is in the direction
of E and also in the direction of lower potential V. Furthermore, the magnitude of E equals the
rate of decrease of V with distance. The faster V decreases over distance, the greater the
electric field. In equation form, the general relationship between voltage and electric field is
ΔV
E=
ΔS
where is Δ S the distance over which the change in potential,  ΔV , takes place. The minus sign
tells us that E points in the direction of decreasing potential. The electric field is said to be
the gradient (as in grade or slope) of the electric potential.
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL IN A UNIFORM ELECTRIC FIELD
Point charges, such as electrons, are among the fundamental building blocks of matter.
Furthermore, spherical charge distributions (like on a metal sphere) create external electric
fields exactly like a point charge. The electric potential due to a point charge is, thus, a case we
need to consider. Using calculus to find the work needed to move a test charge q from a large
distance away to a distance of r from a point charge Q, and noting the connection between work
and potential (W = –qΔV), it can be shown that the electric potential V of a point charge is
kQ
V= ( point charge )
r
where k is a constant equal to 9.0 x 10 9 N · m2 /C 2.
The potential at infinity is chosen to be zero. Thus V for a point charge decreases with distance,
whereas E for a point charge decreases with distance squared:
F kQ
E= = 2
q r
Recall that the electric potential V is a scalar and has no direction, whereas the electric field E is
a vector. To find the voltage due to a combination of point charges, you add the individual
voltages as numbers. To find the total electric field, you must add the individual fields
as vectors, taking magnitude and direction into account. This is consistent with the fact that V is
closely associated with energy, a scalar, whereas E is closely associated with force, a vector.
EXAMPLE
What Voltage is Produced by a Small Charge on a Metal Sphere?
Charges in static electricity are typically in the nanocoulomb (nC) to
microcoulomb (µC) range. What is the voltage 5.00 cm away from the center of a 1-cm diameter
metal sphere that has a −3.00nC static charge?
Strategy: Charge on a metal sphere spreads out uniformly and produces a field like that of a
point charge located at its center. Thus we can find the voltage using the equation
Q
V =k .
r
Solution: Entering known values into the expression for the
potential of a point charge, we obtain

( )( )
2 −9
Q 9 N ·m −3.00 x 10 C
V =k = 8.99 x 10 = - 539 V
r C
2 −2
5.00 x 10 m

Page 10 of 20
Subject: General Physics 2 – Module 1
Discussion
The negative value for voltage means a positive charge would be attracted from a larger
distance, since the potential is lower (more negative) than at larger distances. Conversely, a
negative charge would be repelled, as expected.
EXAMPLE
What Is the Excess Charge on a Van de Graaff Generator
A demonstration Van de Graaff generator has a 25.0 cm diameter metal sphere that produces a
voltage of 100 kV near its surface. What excess charge resides on the sphere? (Assume that
each numerical value here is shown with three significant figures.)
Strategy
The potential on the surface will be the same as that of a point charge at the center of
the sphere, 12.5 cm away. (The radius of the sphere is 12.5 cm.) We can thus determine the
excess charge using the equation
kQ
V=
r
Solution
Solving for Q and entering known values gives
rV ( 0.125 m) ( 100 x 103 V )
Q= = =1.39 μ C .
k −6
8.99 x 10 C
Discussion
This is a relatively small charge, but it produces a rather large voltage. We have another
indication here that it is difficult to store isolated charges. The voltages in both of these
examples could be measured with a meter that compares the measured potential with ground
potential. Ground potential is often taken to be zero (instead of taking the potential at infinity to
be zero). It is the potential difference between two points that is of importance, and very often
there is a tacit assumption that some reference point, such as Earth or a very distant point, is at
zero potential. This is analogous to taking sea level as h = 0 when considering gravitational
potential energy,  PE g =mgh.

Activity VI ESSAY. Answer the following statements as comprehensive as possible.

(15 points each)
 Explain the relation of the electric potential with work, potential energy, and electric
fields.
 Explain the concept present in the determination of the electric potential function at any
point due to highly symmetric continuous-charge distributions.

Activity VII PROBLEM SOLVING. Solve the following. Provide short explanation on each and
do not forget to box your final answer.
1. Calculate the electric potential of q 1 = 25.0nC at (a) 1.00m, (b) 2.00m, and (c) infinite
long distance from it.
2. Calculate the potential energy that another charge q 2 = 5.00nC possess when placed at
the three different points of the previous example.

Activity VIII
A. MODIFIED TRUE OR FALSE. Write TRUE if the statement is correct otherwise FALSE if. If
false, write the word/words that will make the statement correct.
1. Two of the most familiar aspects of electricity are its electricity and watts.
2. The electrostatic or Coulomb force is conservative, which means that the work done
on q is independent of the path taken.
3. These observations and the definition of electric flux, which quantifies the concept of the
flow of the electric field lines, lead to Gauss’s Law.

Page 11 of 20
Subject: General Physics 2 – Module 1
 4. Units of potential difference are joules per coulomb, given the name volt (V) after
Alessandro Volta.
5. Voltage is same as energy.
6. When a free positive charge q accelerated by an electric field, it is given kinetic energy.
7. We use the letters PE to denote electric potential energy, which has units of Watts.
8. The great amounts of electrical energy can be stored in batteries, or transmitted cross-
country through power lines.
9. The potential difference between points A and B,V B−V A , is thus defined to be the
change in potential energy of a charge q moved from A to B, divided by the charge.
10. Gravitational potential energy and electric potential energy are analogous.
B. Read and answer the question below as comprehensive as possible.
An electron is accelerated from rest through a potential difference 12 V. What is the
change in electric potential energy of the electron? Explain your answer.

Activity IX GRAPHIC ORGANIZER. Give words or statements that describe a capacitor.

DERIVING ELECTRIC FIELD FROM POTENTIAL

The electric field has already
been described in terms of the force on a
charge. If the electric potential is known
at every point in a region of space, the
electric field can be derived from the
potential. In vector calculus notation, the
electric field is given by the negative of
the gradient of the electric potential, E =
−grad V.
This expression specifies how the
electric field is calculated at a given point. Figure 1: Electrode configuration.
Courtesy of the Department of Physics and Astronomy, Michigan State University
Since the field is a vector, it has both a
direction and magnitude. The direction is that in which the potential decreases most rapidly,
moving away from the point. The magnitude of the field is the change in potential across a small
distance in the indicated direction divided by that distance.
To become more familiar with the electric potential, a numerically determined solution is
presented for a two-dimensional configuration of electrodes. A long, circular conducting rod is
maintained at an electric potential of −20 volts. Next to the rod, a long L-shaped bracket, also
made of conducting material, is maintained at a potential of +20 volts. Both the rod and bracket
are placed inside a long, hollow metal tube with a square cross section; this enclosure is at a
potential of zero (i.e., it is at “ground” potential). Figure 1 shows the geometry of the problem.
Because the situation is static, there is no electric field inside the material of the conductors. If
there were such a field, the charges that are free to move in a conducting material would do so
until equilibrium was reached. The charges are
arranged so that their individual contributions to the
electric field at points inside the conducting material
add up to zero. In a situation of static equilibrium,
excess charges are located on the surface of
conductors. Because there are no electric fields inside
the conducting material, all parts of a given conductor
are at the same potential; hence, a conductor is an
equipotential in a static situation.
In Figure 2, the numerical solution of the problem
gives the potential at a large number of points inside
Page 12 of 20
Subject: General Physics 2 – Module 1
 the cavity. The locations of the +20-volt and −20-volt electrodes can be recognized easily. In
carrying out the numerical solution of the electrostatic problem in the figure, the electrostatic
potential was determined directly by means of one of its important properties: in a region where
there is no charge (in this case, between the conductors), the value of the potential at a given
point is the average of the values of the potential in the neighborhood of the point.
This follows from the fact that the electrostatic potential in a charge-free region obeys
Laplace’s equation, which in vector calculus notation is div grad V = 0. This equation is a
special case of Poisson’s equation div grad V = ρ, which is applicable to electrostatic problems
in regions where the volume charge density is ρ. Laplace’s equation states that the
e configuration
ysics and Astronomy,
divergence of the gradient of the potential is zero in regions of space with no charge. In the
example of Figure 2, the potential on the conductors remains constant. Arbitrary values of
potential are initially assigned elsewhere inside the cavity. To obtain a solution, a computer
replaces the potential at each coordinate point that is not on a conductor by the average of the
values of the potential around that point; it scans the entire set of points many times until the
values of the potentials differ by an amount small enough to indicate a satisfactory solution.
Clearly, the larger the number of points, the more accurate the solution will be. The computation
time as well as the computer memory size requirement increase rapidly, however, especially in
three-dimensional problems with complex geometry. This method of solution is called the
“relaxation” method.
In Figure 3, points with the same value
of electric potential have been connected to
reveal a number of important properties
associated with conductors in static situations.
The lines in the figure represent equipotential
surfaces.
The distance between two equipotential
surfaces tells how rapidly the potential changes,
with the smallest distances corresponding to
the location of the greatest rate of change and
thus to the largest values of the electric field. Figure 3: Equipotential surfaces.
Looking at the +20-volt and +15-volt Courtesy of the Department of Physics and Astronomy, Michigan
State University
equipotential surfaces, one observes immediately
that they are closest to each other at the sharp external corners of the right-angle conductor.
This shows that the strongest electric fields on the surface of a charged conductor are found on
the sharpest external parts of the conductor; electrical breakdowns are most likely to occur
there. It also should be noted that the electric field is weakest in the inside corners, both on the
inside corner of the right-angle piece and on the inside corners of the square enclosure.
In Figure 4, dashed lines indicate the direction of the
electric field. The strength of the field is reflected by the
density of these dashed lines. Again, it can be seen that
the field is strongest on outside corners of the charged L-
shaped conductor; the largest surface charge density must
occur at those locations. The field is weakest in the inside
corners. The signs of the charges on the conducting
surfaces can be deduced from the fact that electric fields
point away from positive charges and toward negative
charges.
The magnitude of the surface charge density σ on
the conductors is measured in coulombs per metre
squared and is given by where ε0 is called
the permittivity of free space and has the value of 8.854 ×
Figure 4: Electric field lines. The density of the dashed lines indicates the 10−12 coulomb squared per newton-square metre. In
strength of the field (see text).
Courtesy of the Department of Physics and Astronomy, Michigan State addition, ε0 is related to the constant k in Coulomb’s
University

law by
CALCULATING THE VALUE OF AN ELECTRIC FIELD
In the example, the charge Q1 is in the electric field produced by the charge Q2. This field
has the value in newtons per coulomb (N/C). (Electric field can also be expressed in volts per
metre [V/m], which is the equivalent of newtons per coulomb.)
The electric force on Q1 is given by in newtons. This equation can be
used to define the electric field of a point charge. The electric field E produced by charge Q2 is a
vector. The magnitude of the field varies inversely as the square of the distance from Q2; its
direction is away from Q2 when Q2 is a positive charge and toward Q2 when Q2 is a negative
Page 13 of 20
Subject: General Physics 2 – Module 1
charge. Using equations (2) and  , the field produced by Q2 at the position of Q1 is
in newtons per coulomb.
When there are several charges present, the force on a given charge Q1 may be
simply calculated as the sum of the individual forces due to the other charges Q2, Q3,…, etc.,
until all the charges are included. This sum requires that special attention be given to the
direction of the individual forces since forces are vectors. The force on Q1 can be obtained with
the same amount of effort by first calculating the electric field at the position of Q1 due to Q2, Q3,,
etc.
To illustrate this, a third charge is added to the example above. There are now three
charges, Q1 = +10−6 C, Q2 = +10−6 C, and Q3 = −10−6 C. The locations of the charges, using
Cartesian coordinates [x, y, z] are, respectively, [0.03, 0, 0], [0, 0.04, 0], and [−0.02, 0, 0] metre,
as shown in Figure 5. The goal is to find the force
Figure 5: Electric field at the
on Q1. From the sign of the charges, it can be location of Q  (see text).
1

seen that Q1 is repelled by Q2 and attracted by Q3. Courtesy of the Department of

It is also clear that these two forces act Physics and Astronomy,
Michigan State University
along different directions. The electric field at the
position of Q1 due to charge Q2 is, just as in the
example above, in
newtons per coulomb. The electric field at the
location of Q1 due to charge Q3 is
in newtons per coulomb. Thus,
the total electric field at position 1 (i.e., at [0.03, 0,
0]) is the sum of these two fields E1,2 + E1,3 and is
given by
The fields E1,2 and E1,3, as well as their
sum, the total electric field at the location
of Q1, E1 (total), are shown in Figure 5. The total force on Q1 is then obtained from equation (4)
by multiplying the electric field E1 (total) by Q1. In Cartesian coordinates, this force, expressed in
newtons, is given by its components along the x and y axes by

The resulting force on Q1 is in the direction of the total electric field
at Q1, shown in Figure 5. The magnitude of the force, which is obtained as the square root of the
sum of the squares of the components of the force given in the above equation, equals 3.22
newtons.
VAN DE GRAAFF GENERATOR
The Van de Graaff generator shown is a
mechanical device that produces an electromotive
force. Invented by the American physicist Robert J.
Van de Graaff in the 1930s, this type of particle
accelerator has been widely used to study subatomic
particles because it is conceptually simpler than a
chemical source of electromotive force.
VAN DE GRAAFF GENERATOR: SOLVED
EXAMPLE PROBLEMS
Dielectric strength of air is 3 x 106 V m−1.
Suppose the radius of a hollow sphere in the Van de
Graff generator is R = 0.5 m, calculate the maximum
potential difference created by this Van de Graaff
generator. The electric field on the surface of the
sphere (by Gauss law) is given by

The potential on the surface of the hollow metallic sphere is given by

With V max = Emax R

Here Emax = 3 ×106 V/m.

So, the maximum potential difference created is given by V max = 3 × 106 × 0.5
Page 14 of 20
Subject: General Physics 2 – Module 1
 = 1.5 × 106 V (or) 1.5 million volt
CAPACITOR AND CAPACITANCE
Figure 6.2 Both capacitors shown here were initially A capacitor is a device used to store
uncharged before being connected to a battery. They now
electrical charge and electrical energy. It
have charges of +Q+Q and −Q−Q (respectively) on their
plates. (a) A parallel-plate capacitor consists of two plates of consists of at least two electrical conductors
opposite charge with area A separated by distance d. (b) A
rolled capacitor has a dielectric material between its two
separated by a distance. (Note that such
conducting sheets (plates). electrical conductors are sometimes referred to
as “electrodes,” but more correctly, they are
“capacitor plates.”) The space between capacitors may
simply be a vacuum, and, in that case, a capacitor is
then known as a “vacuum capacitor.” However, the
space is usually filled with an insulating material known
as a dielectric. The amount of storage in a capacitor is determined by a
property called capacitance, which you will learn more about a bit later in
this section.
Capacitors have applications ranging from filtering static from radio
reception to energy storage in heart defibrillators. Typically, commercial
capacitors have two conducting parts close to one another but not touching,
such as those in Figure 6.2. Most of the time, a dielectric is used between
the two plates. When battery terminals are connected to an initially
uncharged capacitor, the battery potential moves a small amount of charge
of magnitude Q from the positive plate to the negative plate. The capacitor
remains neutral overall, but with charges +Q and −Q residing on opposite
plates.
A system composed of two identical parallel-conducting plates separated
by a distance is called a parallel-plate capacitor (Figure 6.1). The
Figure 6.1 The charge separation in a capacitor shows that the charges remain on the surfaces of the magnitude of the
capacitor plates. Electrical field lines in a parallel-plate capacitor begin with positive charges and end electrical field in the
with negative charges. The magnitude of the electrical field in the space between the plates is in direct space between the
proportion to the amount of charge on the capacitor. parallel plates is
E=σ/ε, where σ
denotes the surface charge density on one plate (recall that σ is the charge Q per the surface
area A). Thus, the magnitude of the field is directly proportional to Q.
Capacitors with different physical characteristics (such as shape and size of their plates)
store different amounts of charge for the same applied voltage V across their plates. The
capacitance C of a capacitor is defined as the ratio of the maximum charge Q that can be
stored in a capacitor to the applied voltage V across its plates. In other words, capacitance is
Q
the largest amount of charge per volt that can be stored on the device: C= .
V
The SI unit of capacitance is the farad (F), named after
Michael Faraday (1791–1867). Since capacitance is the
charge per unit voltage, one farad is one coulomb per one
1C
volt, or 1 F= .
1V
By definition, a 1.0-F capacitor is able to store 1.0 C of
charge (a very large amount of charge) when the potential
difference between its plates is only 1.0 V. One farad is
therefore a very large capacitance. Typical capacitance
values range from picofarads (1pF=10−12F) to millifarads
(1mF=10−3F), which also includes microfarads
(1μF=10−6F). Capacitors can be produced in various
Figure 6.3 These are some typical capacitors used
in electronic devices. A capacitor’s size is not shapes and sizes (Figure 6.3).
necessarily related to its capacitance value. (credit:
Windell Oskay)
CALCULATION OF CAPACITANCE
We can calculate the capacitance
of a pair of conductors with the standard
approach that follows.
PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGY
Calculating Capacitance
1. Assume that the capacitor has
a charge Q.
Page 15 of 20
Subject: General Physics 2 – Module 1
 2. Determine the electrical field ⃗
E  between the conductors. If symmetry is present in
the arrangement of conductors, you may be able to use Gauss’s law for this
calculation.

3. Find the potential difference

Figure 6.4 (a) Three capacitors are connected in series. The magnitude of
between the conductors from the charge on each plate is Q. (b) The network of capacitors in (a) is
B
equivalent to one capacitor that has a smaller capacitance than any of the
V B−V A =−∫ ⃗
E∗⃗
dl where the individual capacitances in (a), and the charge on its plates is Q.
A
path of integration leads from
one conductor to the other. The magnitude of the potential difference is
then V =|V B −V A|.
Q
4. With V known, obtain the capacitance directly from C= .
V
THE SERIES COMBINATION OF CAPACITORS
Figure 6.4 illustrates a series combination of three capacitors, arranged in a row within
the circuit. As for any capacitor, the capacitance of the combination is related to the charge and
Q
voltage by using the equation C= . When this series combination is connected to a battery
V
with voltage V, each of the capacitors acquires an identical charge Q. To explain, first note that
the charge on the plate connected to the positive terminal of the battery is +Q and the charge on
the plate connected to the negative terminal is −Q. Charges are then induced on the other
plates so that the sum of the charges on all plates, and the sum of charges on any pair of
capacitor plates, is zero. However, the potential drop V 1=Q/C 1 on one capacitor may be
different from the potential drop V 2=Q/C 2 on another capacitor, because, generally, the
capacitors may have different capacitances. The series combination of two or three capacitors
resembles a single capacitor with a smaller capacitance. Generally, any number of capacitors
connected in series is equivalent to one capacitor whose capacitance (called the equivalent
capacitance) is smaller than the smallest of the capacitances in the series combination. Charge
on this equivalent capacitor is the same as the charge on any capacitor in a series combination:
That is, all capacitors of a series combination have the same charge. This occurs due to the
conservation of charge in the circuit. When a charge Q in a series circuit is removed from a
plate of the first capacitor (which we denote as −Q), it must be placed on a plate of the second
capacitor (which we denote as +Q), and so on.
We can find an expression for the total (equivalent) capacitance by considering the
voltages across the individual capacitors. The potentials across capacitors 1, 2, and 3 are,
respectively, , V 1=Q/C 1, V 2=Q/C 2, and V 3=Q/C 3. These potentials must sum up to the voltage of
the battery, giving the following potential balance:
V =V 1+V 2+V 3 .
Potential V is measured across an equivalent capacitor that holds charge Q and has an
equivalent capacitance CSCS. Entering the expressions for V 1 , V 2, and V 3 , we get

Q Q Q Q
= + +
C s C 1 C2 C 3
Canceling the charge Q, we obtain an expression containing the equivalent capacitance, C s, of
three capacitors connected in series:
1 1 1 1
= + +
C s C 1 C2 C 3

This expression can be generalized to any number of capacitors in a series network.

SERIES COMBINATION
For capacitors connected in a series combination, the reciprocal of the equivalent
capacitance is the sum of reciprocals of individual capacitances:
1 1 1 1
= + + +... ,
C s C 1 C2 C 3

Example:
Equivalent Capacitance of a Series Network

Page 16 of 20
Subject: General Physics 2 – Module 1
Find the total capacitance for three capacitors connected in series, given their individual
capacitances are 1.000μF, 5.000μF, and 8.000μF.
Strategy
Because there are only three capacitors in this network, we can find the equivalent
capacitance by using Equation 8.7 with three terms.
Solution
We enter the given capacitances into Equation 8.7:
1 1 1 1
= + +
C s C 1 C2 C 3

1 1 1
¿ + +
1.000µ F 5.000µ F 8.000 µF

1 1.325
=
Cs µF

µF
Now we invert this result and obtain C s= =0.755 µF .
1.325
Significance
Note that in a series network of capacitors, the equivalent capacitance is always less
than the smallest individual capacitance in the network.
THE PARALLEL COMBINATION OF CAPACITORS
A parallel combination of three capacitors, with one plate of each capacitor
connected to one side of the circuit and the other plate connected to the other side, is
illustrated in Figure 7(a). Since the capacitors are connected in parallel, they all have
the same voltage V across their plates. However, each capacitor in the parallel network
may store a different charge. To find the equivalent capacitance C p of the parallel
network, we note that the total charge Q stored by the network is the sum of all the
individual charges: Q=Q 1 +Q 2 +Q 3.
On the left-hand side of this equation,
we use the relation Q=C P V , which holds for
the entire network. On the right-hand side of
the equation, we use the relations Q1=C 1 V ,
Q2=C 2 V , and Q3=C 3 V  for the three
capacitors in the network. In this way we
obtain C P V =C 1 V +C 2 V +C 3 V .
This equation, when simplified, is the
expression for the equivalent capacitance of
the parallel network of three capacitors:
C P =C1 +C 2+C 3.
Figure 7 (a) Three capacitors are connected in parallel. This expression is easily generalized to any number of
Each capacitor is connected directly to the battery. (b) capacitors connected in parallel in the network.
The charge on the equivalent capacitor is the sum of the
charges on the individual capacitors.

Example:
Equivalent Capacitance of a Parallel Network
Find the net capacitance for three capacitors connected in parallel, given their individual
capacitances are 1.0μF,5.0μF,and 8.0μF.
Strategy
Because there are only three capacitors in this network, we can find the equivalent capacitance
by using Equation 8.8 with three terms.
Solution
Entering the given capacitances into Equation 8.8 yields
C P =C1 +C 2+C 3=1.0 µF+ 8.0 µF
C P =14.0 µF
Significance
Note that in a parallel network of capacitors, the equivalent capacitance is always larger
than any of the individual capacitances in the network.

Page 17 of 20
Subject: General Physics 2 – Module 1
Capacitor networks are usually some combination of series and parallel connections, as shown
in Figure 8. To find the net capacitance of such combinations, we identify parts that contain only
series or only parallel connections, and find their equivalent capacitances. We repeat this
process until we can determine the equivalent capacitance of the entire network. The following
example illustrates this process.
Example:
Equivalent Capacitance of a Network
Find the total capacitance of the combination of capacitors shown in Figure 8. Assume
the capacitances are known to three decimal places  C 1=1.000 µF ,C 2=5.000 µF , C 3=8.000 µF
). Round your answer to three decimal places.
Strategy
We first identify which capacitors are in series and which are in parallel. Capacitors C_1
and C_2 are in series. Their combination, labeled C_s, is in parallel with C_3.
Solution
Since C_1andC_2 are in series, their equivalent capacitance C_s is:
1 1 1 1 1 1.200
= + = + = ⟹C s =0.833 µF .
C s C s C s 1000 µ F 5.000µ F µF

Capacitance C_s is connected in parallel with the third capacitanceC 3, to find the equivalent
capacitance C of the entire network:
C=C s +C3 =0.833 µF +8.000 µF=8.833 µF .

Example:
Network of Capacitors
Determine the net capacitance C of the capacitor combination shown in Figure 8.1 when
the capacitances are C1=12.0μF, C2=2.0μF, and C3=4.0μF. When a 12.0-V potential difference
is maintained across the combination, find the charge and the voltage across each capacitor.

Figure 8.1 (a) A capacitor combination. (b) An equivalent two-capacitor combination.

Strategy
We first compute the net capacitance C 23of the parallel connection C 2 and C 3 .Then C is the net
capacitance of the series connection  C 1 and C 23. We use the relation C=Q/V to find the
charges Q 1, Q2and Q 3, and the voltages V 1,V 2, and V 3, across capacitors 1, 2, and 3,
respectively.
Solution
The equivalent capacitance for C 2 and C 3 is C 23=C2 +C 3=2.0 µF + 4.0 µF=6.0 µF .

The entire three-capacitor combination is equivalent to two capacitors in

1 1 1 1
series, = + = ⇒ C=4.0 µF .
C 12.0 µF 6.0 µF 4.0 µF

Consider the equivalent two-capacitor combination in Figure 8.1(b). Since the capacitors
are in series, they have the same charge, Q2=Q 23 . Also, the capacitors share the 12.0-V
potential difference, so
12.0V=V_1+V_23=Q_1/C_1 +Q_23/C_23 =Q_1/(6.0µF)+Q_1/(6.0µF)⇒Q_1=48.0µC
Now the potential difference across capacitor 1 is

Page 18 of 20
Subject: General Physics 2 – Module 1
 Q 1 48.0 µC
V 1= = =4.0 V
C 1 12.0 µF

Because capacitors 2 and 3 are connected in parallel, they are at the same potential difference:
V 2=V 3 =12.0−4.0 V =8.0 V
Hence, the charges on these two capacitors are, respectively,
Q2=C 2 V 2 =( 2.0 µF ) ( 8.0V )=16.0 µC ,

Q3=C 3 V 3=( 4.0 µF )( 8.0 V ) =32.0 µC .

Significance
As expected, the net charge on the parallel combination of C 2 and C 3 is Q 23 = Q 2+Q 3
=48.0μC.

Activity X. Solve the problem below. Provide short explanation of your answer/computation. (20
points)
1. Determine the net capacitance C of each network of capacitors shown below. Assume
that C 1=1.0pF, C 2=2.0pF,C 3=4.0pF and C 4=5.0pF. Find the charge on each capacitor,
assuming there is a potential difference of 12.0V across each network.

Activity XI
A. Answer the following statements as comprehensive as possible. (5 points each)
1. Does the capacitance of a device depend on the applied voltage? Does the capacitance of a
device depend on the charge residing on it? Explain.
2. Discuss what would happen if a conducting slab rather than a dielectric were inserted into the
gap between the capacitor plates.
3. Water has a high dielectric constant. Explain why it is then not used as a dielectric material in
capacitors.
B. Answer the following in paragraph form. (5 points each)
1. Does the order in which we assemble a system of point charges affect the total work done?
2. Would electric potential energy be meaningful if the electric field were not conservative?
3. If two points are at the same potential, are there any electric field lines connecting them?
4. If the electric field is zero throughout a region, must the electric potential also be zero in that
region?
5. What is the strength of the electric field in a region where the electric potential is constant?

Activity XII
A. Solve the following problems below. Include your computations as well.
1. Calculate the voltage applied to a 2.00-μF capacitor when it holds 3.10μC of charge.
2. What capacitance is needed to store 3.00μC of charge at a voltage of 120 V?

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Subject: General Physics 2 – Module 1
3. A set of parallel plates has a capacitance of 5.0µF. How much charge must be added to the
plates to increase the potential difference between them by 100 V?
4. Consider a charge Q 1(+5.0μC) fixed at a site with another charge Q2(charge +3.0μC, mass
6.0μg) moving in the neighboring space. (a) Evaluate the potential energy of Q2 when it
is 4.0 cm from Q1. (b) If Q 2starts from rest from a point 4.0 cm from Q 1, what will be its
speed when it is 8.0 cm from Q1? (Note:Q1is held fixed in its place.
5. A 165-μF capacitor is used in conjunction with a dc motor. How much energy is
stored in it when 119 V is applied?
6. Find the total capacitance of this combination of series and parallel capacitors shown
below.

7. Suppose you need a capacitor bank with a total capacitance of 0.750-mF but you
have only 1.50-mF capacitors at your disposal. What is the smallest number of
capacitors you could connect together to achieve your goal, and how would you connect
them?
8. What total capacitances can you make by connecting a 5.00-μF and a 8.00-μF
capacitor?

B. MATCHING TYPE. Choose the best answer in COLUMN B that is being described in
COLUMN A. Choose only the letter of the correct answer.

COLUMN A COLUMN B

1. It is known at every point in a region of space, the electric a. Van de Graaff

field can be derived from the potential. Generator
2. It states that the divergence of the gradient of the potential b. Vacuum Capacitor
is zero in regions of space with no charge. c. Laplace’s Equation
3. An American physicist who invented the commonly used d. Electric Field
generator. e. Robert J. Van de
4. It is a device used to store electrical charge and electrical Graaff
energy. f. Dielectric
5. A system composed of two identical parallel-conducting g. Equivalent
plates separated by a distance. Capacitance
6. The space is usually filled with an insulating material. h. Electric Potential
7. It is described in terms of the force on a charge. i. Capacitor
8. The space between capacitors may simply be a vacuum, j. Parallel-plate
and, in that case, a capacitor. Capacitor
9. Any number of capacitors connected in series is k. Voltage
equivalent to one capacitor whose capacitance.
10. It is a mechanical device that produces an electromotive
force.

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Subject: General Physics 2 – Module 1