DESIGN MANUAL

Chemical Product Development and Process Design

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

Table of Contents

1. Overview ............................................................................................................................................................5
1.1 Design Approach ........................................................................................................................................5
1.2 Essential Design Activities .........................................................................................................................7
1.3 Creativity and Consistency in Design ........................................................................................................7
2. Review Meeting..................................................................................................................................................8
3. Technological Responsibility .............................................................................................................................9
4. Report Structure and Contents ............................................................................................................................9
4.1. Administrative ..........................................................................................................................................10
4.2. Reporting Techniques ...............................................................................................................................10
4.3. Language and Size ....................................................................................................................................10
4.4. Cover Final Report (CPD Final Report, cover page) ...............................................................................10
4.5. Preface (CPD Final Report, not a chapter) ...............................................................................................11
4.6. Summary (CPD Final Report, not a chapter)............................................................................................11
4.7. Table of Contents (CPD Final Report, not a chapter) ..............................................................................11
4.8. Introduction (CPD Final Report, Chapter 1) ............................................................................................12
4.9. Process Options and Selection (CPD Final Report, Chapter 2)................................................................12
4.10. Basis of Design (BOD) (CPD Final Report, Chapter 3) .......................................................................13
4.10.1. Purpose .............................................................................................................................................13
4.10.2. Battery Limit.....................................................................................................................................13
4.10.3. CPD Specific ....................................................................................................................................13
4.11. Thermodynamic Properties (CPD Final Report, Chapter 4).................................................................15
4.12. Process Structure and Description (CPD Final Report, Chapter 5) ......................................................15
4.12.1. Criteria and Selection .......................................................................................................................16
4.12.2. Process Flow Schemes (PFS) ...........................................................................................................16
4.12.3. Batch Cycle Diagram........................................................................................................................17
4.12.4. Process Stream Summary .................................................................................................................17
4.12.5. Utilities .............................................................................................................................................17
4.12.6. Process Yields...................................................................................................................................18
4.13. Process Control .....................................................................................................................................18
4.14. Mass and Heat Balances (CPC Final Report, Chapter 7) .....................................................................19
4.15. Process Equipment Design (CPD Final Report, Chapter 8) .................................................................20

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 4.15.1. Integration by Process Simulation ....................................................................................................20
4.15.2. Equipment Selection and Design ......................................................................................................20
4.15.3. Special Issues....................................................................................................................................21
4.15.4. Equipment Data Sheet ......................................................................................................................21
4.16 Wastes (CPD Final Report, Chapter 9).....................................................................................................22
4.17 Process Safety (CPD final Report, Chapter 10)........................................................................................23
4.18 Economy (CPD Final Report, Chapter 11) ...............................................................................................24
4.19 Conclusions and Recommendations (CPD Final Report, Chapter 12) .....................................................25
4.20 List of Symbols (CPD Final Report, not a Chapter) .................................................................................25
4.21 Literature (CPD Final Report, not a Chapter) ..........................................................................................26
4.22 Appendices (CPD Final Report, numbered) .............................................................................................26
5. Typical Problems ..............................................................................................................................................26
5.1 Batch Operations ......................................................................................................................................26
5.2 Reactors ....................................................................................................................................................27
5.2.1. Equilibrium Reactors ........................................................................................................................27
5.2.2. Reactor Concepts ..............................................................................................................................27
5.3 Separation by Distillation .........................................................................................................................27
5.4 Throttling of Fluid Flows .........................................................................................................................27
6. Quality Control .................................................................................................................................................28
Appendices ..............................................................................................................................................................30
Appendix 1 ..............................................................................................................................................................31
Front Cover and Spine Template ..........................................................................................................................31
Appendix 2-1 ...........................................................................................................................................................34
Basis of Design (BOD) for CPD Final Report ......................................................................................................34
Appendix 2-2 ...........................................................................................................................................................36
Preliminary Basic Engineering Design (BED) for CPD Review Meeting..........................................................36
Appendix 2-3 ...........................................................................................................................................................37
Activity Planning ....................................................................................................................................................37
Appendix 2-4 ...........................................................................................................................................................38
Complete Basic Engineering Design (BED) .........................................................................................................38
Appendix 3 ..............................................................................................................................................................39
Basis of Design (BOD) – Utility Conditions and Costs ........................................................................................39
Appendix 4 ..............................................................................................................................................................41

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Thermodynamics – Methods and Models ............................................................................................................41
Appendix 5 ..............................................................................................................................................................43
Drawing a Process Flow Scheme ...........................................................................................................................43
Appendix 6 ..............................................................................................................................................................45
Process Flow Scheme (PFS) – Symbols and Coding ............................................................................................45
Appendix 7-1 ...........................................................................................................................................................50
“TAME Example – Process Flow Scheme (PFS)” ...............................................................................................50
Appendix 7-2 ...........................................................................................................................................................51
“TAME” Example – Block Scheme ......................................................................................................................51
Appendix 8-1 ...........................................................................................................................................................52
P/P Separation Example – Process Flow Scheme (PFS) .....................................................................................52
Appendix 8-2 ...........................................................................................................................................................53
P/P Separation Example – Pure Component Properties.....................................................................................53
Appendix 8-3 ...........................................................................................................................................................54
P/P Separation Example – Process Stream Summary ........................................................................................54
Appendix 8-4 ...........................................................................................................................................................55
P/P Separation Example – Mass and Heat Balance Total Streams ...................................................................55
Appendix 8-5 ...........................................................................................................................................................56
P/P Separation Example – Utility Summary ........................................................................................................56
Appendix 8-6 ...........................................................................................................................................................57
P/P Separation Example – Process Yields ............................................................................................................57
Appendix 8-7 ...........................................................................................................................................................58
P/P Separation Example ........................................................................................................................................58
REACTORS, COLUMNS &VESSELS – SUMMARY ......................................................................................59
HEAT EXCHANGERS & FURNACES – SUMMARY .....................................................................................60
DISTILLATION COLUMN & SPECIFICATION SHEET ..............................................................................62
HEAT EXCHANGER – SPECIFICATION SHEET ..........................................................................................63
HEAT EXCHANGER – SPECIFICATION SHEET ..........................................................................................64
HEAT EXCHANGER – SPECIFICATION SHEET ..........................................................................................65
HEAT EXCHANGER – SPECIFICATION SHEET ..........................................................................................66
CENTRIFUGAL PUMP – SPECIFICATION SHEET ......................................................................................67
CENTRIFUGAL PUMP – SPECIFICATION SHEET ......................................................................................68
CENTRIFUGAL PUMP – SPECIFICATION SHEET ......................................................................................69

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Appendix 9-1 ...........................................................................................................................................................70
Batch Process Example ..........................................................................................................................................70
Appendix 9-2 ...........................................................................................................................................................71
Batch Process Example – Batch Cycle Diagram..................................................................................................71
Appendix 9-3 ...........................................................................................................................................................72
Batch Process Example – Batch Remarks and Calculations ..............................................................................72
Appendix 9-4 ...........................................................................................................................................................74
Batch Process Example – Batch Process Stream Summary ...............................................................................74
Appendix 10 ............................................................................................................................................................75
SI Units in Process Systems Design .......................................................................................................................75

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1. Overview
In process design two main process categories are recognized, i.e., continuous processes and
batch processes. Although this manual is not the place to explain these process categories in
detail, it must be noted that batch processes require additional definition when compared with
continuous processes. This additional definition is required because in batch processes,
process conditions change (transition of state) with time at a fixed location in the process
whereas in steady-state continuous process they do not. Being aware of continuous processes
and batch processes requiring different definition, the designer has to perform a number of
essential design activities. These activities will be effective, provided the design is performed
using a certain stepwise approach. Approach and design activities are shortly explained in
Sections 1.1 and 1.2. Section 1.3 of this chapter addresses aspects of working together in a
team and ways of stimulating the designer’s creativity.

1.1 Design Approach

The execution of a design is best served with a stepwise approach, which eventually leads to the four
most important documents of a design, i.e.:

Block Schemes
These provide a simple design approach and a good process overview

Process Flow Schemes (PFS)

These are developed from a black Scheme(s) and provide the “process logic”.

Batch Cycle Diagrams

These provide the additional definition for “state transmission” of a batch process.

Process Stream Summary

This provides stream data (e.g., mass and heat flows) for all streams, consistent
with the stream numbers in the PFS. Summaries for batch processes also include
batch quantities and batch cycle times.

Mass & Heat Balance

These must be consistent with the Process Stream Summary and prove design
consistency.

These five documents (4 for continuous processes and 5 for batch processes) form the
“back bone” of the design and should be a consistent unity. They will be discussed in
more detail below.

Block Schemes
From literature research data are retrieved of various and/or process conditions. From these data,
processes (options) are represented in a Block Scheme. Per Block rough design specifications are given,

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e.g., at least process conditions (temperature and pressure). For a reactor the required conversion
and/or selectivity can be specified whereas or a separation the required purities and/or yields of
outgoing streams. With these data and with the derived block schemes for the various process options
a first impression can be obtained of the component balances over the whole process system. A “best”
option is selected.

For an example of a block scheme see Appendix 7-2.

Process Flow Scheme (PFS), Batch Cycle Diagram, Process Stream Summary and Mass
& Heat Balances
For the “best” option a start is made with selection, integration, and performance
calculations or the various Unit Operations, e.g., reactors, columns, vessel, heat exchangers, pumps,
etc. Also, a more detailed quantitative assessment of all
process streams (mass flows) is done. At this stage, for the selected process a
first PFS is prepared and if it concerns a batch process, the batch Cycle Diagram
is added. The PFS, the Process Stream Summary (mass flows on first instance,
heat flows later) and the Batch Cycle Diagram (additional for Batch Processes)
should be made as early as possible, i.e., already during or directly after the
Block Scheme phase. These documents provide the designer with the necessary
overview from the start, i.e., temperatures, pressure drops and the possibly
required equipment. This information enables the designer to assess a first
approximation of the process conditions and to monitor future development of the
process design into the final stage.

For examples of the discussed documents see Appendices 8 & 9.

Heat flows, Heat flow balances

PFS and Flow Summary (mass flows) will develop in time towards more detailed
and refined versions. Eventually, the heat flows are included and with these data
the Heat Flows Balances.

The initial approach to the design must be as simple as possible. Pencil, paper and a simple
spreadsheet are excellent tools, especially during the first phase of the project, e.g., for Block Schemes
and first PFS. The amount of detailed (equipment) calculations will be the result of a balance between
degree of completeness and available time. Within this context, critical equipment, e.g., reactors, and
separation equipment deserve priority. Required equipment details are normally determined by data
required for cost assessment.

For an example of required equipment information, see equipment data sheets, Appendix
8-7.

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1.2 Essential Design Activities

Literature Study
A literature search for information from which the “best” process has to be selected is
required. This selection is based on a suitable combination of feedstocks, produced
products and wastes, including relevant reactions and kinetics, reactor choice and
manufacturing methods. The marketing situation for feedstocks and products is taken into
account as well.

Block Schemes and Process Flow Scheme

Development of logical combinations (integrations) of selections required for feed
purification, reaction, product recovery, and product purification. Order of magnitude
assessment for relevant process streams and process conditions. Evaluation of the various
process options resulting in a choice based on sound considerations. Drawing of a Process
Flow Scheme, which demonstrates the preferred options in a clear and logical way.

Unit Operations, Mass & Heat Balances

Selection and integration of the required Unit Operations and calculations of their
required performances. Quantification of the resulting process flows (mass and heat per
unit time), including Heat Integration and Mass & Heat balances.

Equipment Sizing
Calculation of the required main dimensions of the equipment installed, based on the
required performance of the selected Unit Operations.

Process Design Evaluation

Evaluation of safety (e.g., Fire Explosion Index), environment (e.g., wastes) and
economy (income and expenditure).

Reporting
Preparation of a clear and consistent Design Report, which must comply with standards
laid down in Chapter 2 of this report.

Assessment of the Design

Discussion of the Design Report with the complete team and teacher(s), i.e., design
adviser(s).

1.3 Creativity and Consistency in Design

Creativity is largely based on intuition, whereas consistency is largely based on numbers and clear
concepts. As a consequence, creativity is often seen as an unstructured, visionary property,
whereas consistency is often perceived as bureaucratic; both properties seem to be in competition.
This is of course not true. Both properties are essential for the delivery of e.g., a good design,
although a design without consistency is like a ship without a rudder. Moreover, lack of creativity

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 will at best only result in “run of the mill” solutions, without any technological progress being
achieved. An effective merger between consistency and creativity is required and takes creativity.

a. Intuition
The extent to which we are able to exploit our capacity of intuition depends on the extent to which
we are willing and capable to digest our experiences. In this respect the following aspects are
important:
- To be open and to be willing to reflect about our experiences
- Coherence, i.e., the notion about possible coherence between experiences, the
notion about differences and contradictions between them
- To be alert for these aspects, i.e., spend time on study and evaluation

b. Creative work.
Our creative abilities have connection to certain functions, residing in the right part of our brain,
i.e., associative abilities, notion connectivity and patterns, imagination and non-linear thinking.
These abilities are to be stimulated by attention to be paid to our ideas and to let them be tested on
their value.

2. Review Meeting
Approximately three weeks later after issuing the CPD assignment the preliminary Basic Engineering
Design (BED) is reviewed during a review meeting. Review meetings are done between the adviser and
the design team. This document of approximately 12 pages maximum is prepared by the team during the
three weeks mentioned above. It includes the following elements (Chapters):

1. Description of the Design

Process background, what will be done, what not.
2. Process Definition
Process Concepts, block scheme, thermodynamics, pure components,
streams.
3. Basic Assumptions
Plant capacity and location, battery limit, definition of IN/OUT-streams.
4. Financial Margin of the Design
Maximum financial margin available for the design.
5. Planning
Work allocation between team members. Design milestone, e.g., dates for start,
BED-review, issuing of the CPD Final Report, final assessment of the design. In
general terms for the team members: When should a task happen, what must be
ready, and who will do what?

Taking into account the relatively short period of three weeks, of course the document (not more
than ~ 12 pages) must be seen as a start for the CPD only. After the review meeting, the document will
be further developed, i.e., it will be systematically updated by the team as the design proceeds. However,
the preliminary BED will provide a clear basis for the design at an early stage, and consequently, it will
minimize room for misinterpretation between principal and team. Moreover, several (updated) sections of

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the “Preliminary BED” will be included in the Basis of Design (BOD) of the CPD Final Report, Chapter
3.

For more information see Section 4.7 and Appendix 2 of this manual.

3. Technological Responsibility
The team members will write the CPD Final Report. Therefore, they are considered to have shared
authorship. However, because allocation of design tasks exists between the team members, some
differentiation in responsibilities is justified.

Therefore, team members should be able to defend the various chapters or sections of their CPD Final
Report as follows:

Per chapter or section, in principle : Two(2) team members

Per important section or chapter (see [*] below) : All team members (4 max.)

In detail:

Subject Team Members

Report Structure 4 [*]
Summary 4 [*]
Preface (optional) 4 [*]
1. Introduction 2
2. Process, Options and Selection 4 [*]
3. Basis of Design 4 [*]
4. Thermodynamic Properties 4 [*]
5. Process Structure and Description 2
6. Process Control 2
7. Mass and Heat Balances 4 [*]
8. Equipment Design 2
9. Wastes 4 [*]
10. Health, Safety & Environmental 2
11. Economy 4 [*]
12. Conclusions and Recommendation 4 [*]
List of Symbols Relevant Team Member
Literature Relevant Team Member
Appendices Relevant Team Member

4. Report Structure and Contents

A design report is primarily intended to fix knowledge about the design on paper and thus
transfer it to others. These “others” may be, e.g., the engineering contractor, the future
plant owner or the design team for a next plant of this type! They in turn have to carry the project through

9
its subsequent stages. It would be a waste of time to let those people
guess about important design details, or to let them redo calculations that could have been
provided with little effort. Needless to say that absence of key-knowledge can lead to
misinterpretations, which in turn can be sources for serious design errors, resulting in
serious loss on performance for the designated installation. It is therefore, not surprising that in industry
the design book structure is strictly adhered to. With all this in mind, this
chapter provides advice on the CPD Final Report structure, i.e., which chapters should be
included and what should be their contents.

N.B.: A chapter referenced without any further specification implies a chapter of the CPD Final Report.

4.1. Administrative

Guidance on administrative issues is given. It deals with report structure, reporting techniques,
language, and report size. In principle, students are expected to implement the structure and
contents of their CPD Final Report as described in the following sections. This will force designers
to secure and explain certain key topics, which otherwise might have been forgotten.

This approach may seem somewhat inflexible, but practice has proven that it pays off. In case
students nevertheless think they have reasons not to be in compliance, they are expected to provide
a convincing explanation.

4.2. Reporting Techniques

Of course, freedom remains to arrange chapters and sections, e.g., never have more than “3 layer
subs” (including chapter, i.e., 1.2.3). This can practically always be achieved by just adding
another 𝟐𝒏𝒅 - or 𝟑𝒓𝒅 level section.

Please note that distracting, bulky items, such as drawings, sketches, tables, detailed calculations,
equipment data sheets, etc. should be made available as appendices, to which will be referred in
the main text.

4.3. Language and Size

The English language is to be used.

The size of the report should not exceed 60 pages of text, excluding appendices.
The font size should not be less than 10 points.

4.4. Cover Final Report (CPD Final Report, cover page)

The cover layout is standardized and students are requested not to change it. This is because this
cover will be copied on a standardized cover page for reports, issued by the department of
Chemical Engineering. A changed layout may not fit this standard cover page.

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 The following items have to be specified on the Final Report cover.
- CPD Number : As provided by instructor
- Subject : As agreed with instructor
- Authors : Provide names
- Keywords : For easy retrieval from database (still to be set up)
- Dates : Dates for assignment received and Final Report issued

For more details, see Appendix 1.

4.5. Preface (CPD Final Report, not a chapter)

This is unnecessary text. By leaving it out a page is saved. If at all present, it should be the first
numbered page of the report, e.g., -i-.

4.6. Summary (CPD Final Report, not a chapter)

A Report summary must be considered as an “appetizer”. Based on its contents, most readers will
determine whether or not to continue with the rest. Especially management staff often will not read
more than the summary. Therefore, the summary should not take more than one page (A4) and
should not contain lengthy descriptions of process technology, etc. However, it should contain
information about the market, e.g., the Asia-Pacific production level (t/a!) compared with the
capacity of the designed plant, price levels and availability of feedstocks, competition, etc. The
status of the process also requires attention, i.e., does the design apply to a new process that has
never escaped the laboratory, or even worse, has it been derived from a patent and not even been
tried out on pilot or bench scale.

Moreover, the “on-stream” factor, i.e., the number of actual “on-stream” hours divided by the
number of available “on-stream” hours on an annual (yearly) basis, must be provided and
explained. Economic criteria should be mentioned, including sensitivities. Within this context, the
total investment (the installation’s total construction costs) and the economical life of the
installation should not be forgotten.

Last but not the least, key conclusions and recommendations should be mentioned. In the absence
of the Preface, the Summary should be preceding all relevant text of the report. The Summary’s
page should then be the first page of the report to be numbered, e.g., -i- (-ii- incase the “Preface”
is present). The summary of this manual can be taken as an example.

4.7. Table of Contents (CPD Final Report, not a chapter)

The table of contents contains chapter, title and starting page number for easy reference. The
Summary should be listed in this table, because the Table of Contents should provide the complete
contents of the Final Report, i.e., including the Summary. Also include all the appendices with
their number, title and page number. In case no Preface is present, the first page of the Table of
Contents should have page number -ii, the following pages -iii-, -iv-, etc. (if a Preface is present -
iii-, -iv-, -v-etc.).

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 The Table of Contents of this manual can be taken as an example.

4.8. Introduction (CPD Final Report, Chapter 1)

The introduction should be used to bring the reader on speed with the conceptual design aspects.
The important properties of the product and its main applications should be reviewed. Reference
can be made to the list of “Pure Component Properties”, see Appendix 8-2. Issues related to
environment (e.g., wastes), sustainability and safety should be included.

The market situation for product(s) and feedstocks must be highlighted, e.g., competitors’
production and sales levels, prices and applied process(es), e.g., in Europe and/or worldwide.
Furthermore, a short review should be made of the possible impact of the plant’s envisaged
production level on the current market situation. Also, a short explanation about the available
processes and the preferred selection should be given. Reference to a block scheme may be helpful.
Other issues could be, e.g.:

- Availability/non-availability of physical data (reaction stoichiometry/kinetics,

equilibria),
- How are issues solved (theoretical data, data from test runs, educated guesses, etc.)?
- Patent Situation
- Competition’s developments,
- Do similar plants already exist? If so, where and how many?

Moreover, solutions for key design problems can already be mentioned here. After all, a design
report is not a novel with the outcome at the end! Also explain why specific aspects are included
or not included in the design.

In this way, the reader is quickly introduced to the aspects that determine the design and obtains a
good impression about what he/she might expect with respect to solutions and design quality.
However, do not saturate the reader with complicated, unnecessary information but keep it short.
Where necessary, make reference to relevant chapters.

The introduction should take about 2 pages (A4).

4.9. Process Options and Selection (CPD Final Report, Chapter 2)

From literature and/or provided documentation various process options are available, all having
pro's and con's. From these options, one option must be selected as a basis for further process
design. The reasoning for selecting this specific option must be included in this chapter, e.g., why
a continuous or a batch process has been chosen. Explicitly define what is taken as a design basis
and what is not!

Deliberations about process options often leave the reader in distress, because nowhere it has been
mentioned explicitly what actually has been taken "on board”. Block schemes, cycle diagrams (for
batch processes) graphical representation and tables are useful tools for effective process review.
Use tables for balancing pro's and con's of the various options, e.g., by crediting with (+) signs for

12
 advantage and (-) signs for disadvantage per characterizing element. Transfer lengthier details to
relevant appendices; only keep key items and results from appendices in the main text. Provide the
block scheme and a batch cycle diagram (later for batch process) for the selected option and
describe the essential details of the process. The block scheme and the cycle diagram (later if
relevant) may be added as an appendix, which can be referred to in subsequent chapters as well.
For an example of a block scheme and a batch cycle diagram see Appendices 7-2 and 9-2,
respectively.

4.10. Basis of Design (BOD) (CPD Final Report, Chapter 3)

In this chapter all key data for the design, as agreed by client and designers are tabulated and
provided with background information. Items such as feedstocks, products, wastes, utilities,
specific equipment to be used, plant location, costs, etc. are covered. These agreed key data are
determining for the design result and should always be easily retrievable in case of questions. That
is why for the CPD such data must be covered in one chapter in a clear, unambiguous, and logical
way.

4.10.1. Purpose

In practice, data from a BOD have contractual value and are meticulously and clearly described
in a separate report (manual), i.e., the Basis of Design (BOD). Contract refers to this BOD and
designers (service organization or a contractor) have to adhere to these data. If not, a lawsuit
can be the result. Please note that in practice, the BOD will be adapted during the design, of
course with mutual consent between the client and designer, e.g., more suitable feedstocks
could be introduced, utilities may be changed, other unit operations may be adopted, line-up
may be changed. From all these changes record will be made, for which the original BOD
serves as an excellent reference.

4.10.2. Battery Limit

With the BOD the Battery Limit of the design is determined. This limit must be seen as an
imaginary fence around the installation and can be nicely shown by means of the block scheme
(see Section 6.9). Important issues are what are inside the fence, what is necessary for the
design but will be outside and what is crossing the fence, i.e., what is coming in and what is
leaving. For instance, all materials, e.g., streams entering and leaving this limit , must be
painstakingly specified one by one before the design starts, e.g., commercial specification,
design specification, temperature (°C), pressure (Bara), phase (V/L/S), manner of
transportation (pipe line, rail, road, ship, etc.). Also utilities, catalysts, etc. should not be
forgotten. Obviously, all unit operations (equipment) inside the battery limit will have to be
designed, with the exception of those that are mentioned to be specifically excluded.

4.10.3. CPD Specific

In view of the foregoing this chapter is important because it will provide the basis for the CPD,
and consequently, it will be judged accordingly. Two topics will be dealt with in other chapters,

13
i.e., Process Options and Selection (Chapter 2) and Thermodynamic Properties (Chapter 4).
However, these topics must be summarized in this chapter (Chapter 3 of the final Report),
while for more details reference should be made to the chapters mentioned. Just as in practice
the BOD will most likely also change during the CPD. The BOD must contain THE LATEST,
UP TO DATE INFORMATION! The content of the BOD has been described in more detail
in Appendix 2-1. Major elements are briefly mentioned below.

1. Description of the design

A brief summary of previous chapters. What will be done, and what will not be done!

2. Process Definition
- Process concepts chosen
A summary of Chapter 2 Explicitly state what will be used and done. Include stoichiometry,
kinetics, catalysts AS APPLIED!
- Block Schemes
A simple PFS, see Appendix 7-2. Show total mass streams tons per annum (t/a) and it (yield)
values with the product stream as reference stream.
In case of a batch process, it may be practical to add information of batch cycle diagrams.
- Thermodynamic Properties
A summary of Chapter 4. Important issues only. Express reliability.
- Pure Component Properties
Provide the list. See Appendix 8-2. Use component names consistently with this list throughout
the CPD Final Report.

3. Basic Assumptions
- Plant capacity
Define plant capacity in tons per annum (t/a) of product or feed. Define all other in- and
outgoing streams in name and quantity as a result. (All these data are known.)
Define stream hours/a, economical plant life. Explain choices.
- Location
Define.
- Battery Limit
The imaginary fence around the plant. Defines "INSIDE" and "OUTSIDE".
- Definition In- and Outgoing Streams
Includes feedstocks, process chemicals, products, wastes, utilities, catalysts, etc. Use a table
for each stream and deal with the streams one by one, include costs and prices. Refer to relevant
sources of information. Also see the introduction of this chapter. In case utility data are not
available, see Appendix 3 for information.

4. Economic Margin
This margin is expressed in terms of money and is calculated as the difference between income
from sales minus costs for feedstock. With this margin the maximum allowable investment for
the design must be calculated for a Discounted Cash Flow Rate of Return (DCFROR) (earning
Power) of 10%. Provide background views, and conclusions. Include this margin in your
economic evaluation (Chapter 11).

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 For this initial Review Meeting (see Section 2.0 of this manual), the above should be taken into
account to the best of designers' knowledge after 3 weeks from start. For this meeting a document
of about 12 pages should be produced, CPD Activity Planning included. For the content of this
document, also see Appendices 2-2 and 2-3.

A final BED should be submitted after 15 weeks, see Appendix 2-4 for the content.

4.11. Thermodynamic Properties (CPD Final Report, Chapter 4)

Without reliable data on thermodynamic properties, a CPD cannot be performed. Such property
estimation of component mixtures (Cp's, enthalpies, V/L-equilibria, solubilities, viscosities,
densities, etc.) but also for reaction(s), e.g., reaction equilibria.

1. Operating Window
The data mentioned above should be valid for the ranges of operating conditions, as they occur
in the design. These ranges are called "Operating Windows", which may valid within an
operating window (i.e., outside their range of validity) must be prevented as it leads to
extrapolation, resulting in unreliable results.

2. Data Validation
Therefore, literature should be scrutinized for data that are valid within the various operating
windows of the design. These data should then be used to validate data generated by the so-
called flow sheet calculation programs (flowsheets, e.g., CHEMCAD, Aspen Hysys, DWSim,
MATLAB) normally used for design calculations. It is the designers' responsibility to
demonstrate for the CPD the validity of applied thermodynamic data within the operating
windows. This can be done by, e.g., graphical representation of flowsheet generated data,
where in the same graph also the data from literature are plotted.

3. Data Accuracy
The designer is expected to demonstrate applied data to be sufficiently accurate for his design
(sensitivities!). Because the foregoing is a key issue for the design, this separate chapter has
been allocated.

See Appendix 4 for more information on thermodynamic methods and models.

4.12. Process Structure and Description (CPD Final Report, Chapter 5)

In Chapter 2 of the CPD Final Report, a process has been selected and block schemes have been
made available. However, because many details about the selected unit operations and equipment
have not yet been revealed, this chapter will take care of this. Important elements are design
criteria, unit operations/equipment selection, Process Flow Schemes (PFS), Batch Cycle Diagrams
(in case of a batch process) and Process Stream Summaries.

15
4.12.1. Criteria and Selection

Chapter 5 of the CPD Final Report (this chapter) will explain how all information from the
foregoing chapters is used to assess the various design criteria. Moreover, it is explained how
these criteria have determined the choice of the following design elements:

- Unit operations, i.e., sequence, type, specific equipment, etc.

- Final
- process conditions,
- Process chemicals, e.g., hydroxides, acid, process water, extractants, etc.,
- Desiccants (for driers),
- Etc.

These choices have to be motivated with crisp and clear reasoning, based on "first principles
of process technology. Selected design criteria have to be explained not only
for the equipment under consideration, but also with respect to their influence on design
and operation of up-stream and down-stream equipment. An example is the influence of
reaction conversion and selectivity on down-stream separation of reactants and products and
the influence of the purity of recycled reactant on reactor performance. Heat integration is
another interesting topic. Preparation of simplified block schemes may help to bring the
message across. Detailed calculations on equipment sizing are NOT explained here, but in one
of the following chapters. It must be clear that adequate design (sizing) cannot be done unless
the foregoing aspects have been fully assessed.

4.12.2. Process Flow Schemes (PFS)

During the design the basic block scheme of the selected process has developed into a fully
equipped Process Flow Scheme (PFS). It represents the line-up of the various unit operations
(equipment) and their connection with process flows (streams) in a logical and clear way. It is
an essential document, not only for "Process Administration", but also for transfer of know-
how about the process design to others. Therefore, the PFS must be explained in this chapter
by providing a step-by-step process review. In doing so equipment must be referred to by name,
followed by its equipment number between brackets, e.g., Run Down Vessel (V113). The same
is done for streams, e.g., 𝐶𝑂2 absorber Feed <314>. Note that for stream numbers the < > signs
are used for easy reading. Where necessary, important process or equipment details have to be
explained. Please note, that the Process Stream Summary is of vital importance for good
understanding of the PFS (also see Section 6.12.4 below).

See following appendices on drawing a PFS.

- Drawing a PFS : Appendix 5.
- Symbols and Coding : Appendix 6.
- PFS (example) : Appendices 7-1, 8-1 and 9-1.

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4.12.3. Batch Cycle Diagram

For a batch process a Batch Cycle Diagram must be added because without it, the PFS,
and therefore the process cannot be understood. This diagram shows the elapsed time
required to perform a transition of state in a relevant equipment item for its relevant batch
stage, i.e., the "stage time". It also represents the time elapsed between starts of the considered
stage (or any other repetitive stage point), i.e., the batch cycle time (also see Chapter 4 of this
manual). Moreover, the diagram links the various stages (operational modes) of the various
equipment items in a consistent and comprehensive way. For a good overview the various
batch stages must be drawn up in the relevant PFS with thick lines. For more information, also
see Chapter 7.

See Appendices 9-1 and 9-2 for examples of a PFS of a batch process and a Batch Cycle
Diagram.

4.12.4. Process Stream Summary

The PFS and in case of a batch process the PFS and the Batch Cycle Diagram cannot be studied
without a Process Stream (Flow) Summary. These items form a "unity". In this summary mass
flows are tabulated for all the components separately and in total for each stream. Furthermore,
temperature, pressure, phase (V, L, V/L) and enthalpy of the streams are specified. Needless
to say, that with these mass flows, mass balances can be made which of course should balance
(IN versus OUT) over each equipment item per component and per total stream. Process
engineers (designers) will always combine the logic of the PFS with that of the Stream
Summary for quickly understanding the process design. This understanding is accelerated by
using one of the few facts that are certain in life, i.e., mass (and also heat) cannot be destroyed.
In other words: "mass (and heat) balances should always check"! Please note that with this
technique the consistency of a design, and therefore, its quality is largely determined.
Moreover, by applying this technique a design is quickly understood.

For an example of a Process Stream Summary see Appendix 8-3.

For a batch process, another Process Stream Summary is used. Apart from mass flows it also
contains information on batch quantity (mass), work (in Joules) and batch times
(stage and batch).

See Appendix 9-4 for an example of a Process Stream Summary for batch processes.
See Chapter 7 for more information.

4.12.5. Utilities

Utility requirements should be reviewed with respect to the following topics, e.g., other
options, reasons for selection, major users and possibilities for future reduction. For this reason,
it is necessary to produce quality summary (as an appendix). Small tables may be prepared
from it for use in this chapter.

17
 See Appendix 8-5 for an example for a Utility Summary.

4.12.6. Process Yields

A Process Yield represents a consumption per ton of main product, e.g., feed/t, by-products/t,
process chemicals/t, utilities/t. Process yields are important parameters for monitoring a
process and comparing it with others. They form the “fingerprint” of a
process. This performance of the design should be compared with that of already existing
installations. Conclusions should be drawn, and recommendations given. A block scheme can
best be used for review. It contains major flows “in” and “out” as well as the larger “internal”
stream, e.g., recycles. Total mass flows are specified for those streams in the block diagram,
together with the yields.

As an example of a block diagram, see Appendix 8-6.

4.13. Process Control

A good process should be controllable. This issue should be taken into account already during an
early stage of the design, i.e., during process selection, and selection and arrangement of unit
operations. The designer should realize that in many cases process control will have impact on
process equipment requirements, e.g., additional vessels, reactor design, etc. The purpose of this
chapter is to clarify why certain combinations of
control loops were chosen and positioned from a process point of view and how these
choices have influenced the design.

The starting point is that a controller unit works according to expectation, e.g., it controls
the most important process variables:

Pressure (PC), pressure difference (DPC),

Temperature (TC), temperature difference (DTC),
Flow (FC)
Quality (QC)
Level (LC)
Ratio (RC, primarily for flows = RFC)

There is no need for copying textbooks on control theory and/or explanations about time lags, PID,
and other “control box stuff”. The question is whether the controllers are correctly positioned in
the process. Only basic control is required for the CPD.
Advanced control and other exotic machinery are not required. For example, instrumentation
safeguarding is excluded, because it requires a much more detailed
design and much more expertise than could be expected from the student designers.

For an example on how to introduce process controllers in a PFS, see Appendices 7-1 and
8-1, which also serve as examples for a PFS.

For controller symbols, see Appendix 6, first page.

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 Other reference: “Chemical Process Control: An Introduction to Theory and Practice” by G.
Stephanopoulos, Chapter 25 – “Design of Control Systems for Complete Plants”.

4.14. Mass and Heat Balances (CPC Final Report, Chapter 7)

As already mentioned in Section 6.9 of this manual, mass and heat balances are essential tools for
process designers. Nature will not allow mass and heat to be converted into nothing or be created
from nothing. Consequently, during design activities designer adheres to the law of mass and
energy conservation. This chapter is intended to let the designer demonstrate the quality of the
design by providing the mass and heat balances and where required to explain the sources of any
imbalance and its effects on the final results. The following topics should be taken into account.

Practical Aspects

As a check measure, the designer will regularly perform mass and energy balances for
his work. In principle, these balances (output-input) should not show deficits, neither positive nor
negative. However, nothing is perfect in life and therefore also
imbalances still do occur. This is acceptable, as long as the designer is able to
satisfactorily explain the sources, e.g., inaccuracies of data and/or algorithms and/or calculation
(in)accuracies. Moreover, such inaccuracies should be demonstrated to
have no or only minor influences on the final results.

It must be clear, for instance a mass balance around a reactor will never “balance” if
reaction stoichiometry does not yield a closed mass balance. Always let your
computer program for reactor calculations check on mass and heat balances by the
simple approach, i.e., overall IN should equal overall OUT! Also do this with output
from flowsheet calculation programs, e.g., Chemcad, Aspen Hysys, DWSim, etc.
Program simple overall IN and OUT balances with “check streams” to check these
calculation monsters.

Balance for Total Streams

The CPD requires mass and heat balances for total streams to be made using spreadsheets (or other
calculation devices) for individual equipment and, of course, for the complete installation (Battery
Limit). These calculations require data from the Process Stream Summary, thus demonstrating
data consistency.

See Appendix 8-4 for a Mass and Heat Balance (total streams).

Balance for Stream Components

The CPD also requires a mass balance or component around the Battery Limit. These
calculations also require data from the Process Stream summary. A heat balance is performed as
well. It provides the difference between enthalpies of IN- and OUT
going streams. This difference is equal to the difference between heat “IN” and “OUT”, as

19
 introduced or removed by heat exchanger equipment (steam, cooling water, air cooling, etc.) This
should check with the heat balance for the total streams.

For an example, see Appendix 8-3, the last table.

4.15. Process Equipment Design (CPD Final Report, Chapter 8)

Process design normally develops from the block scheme phase eventually to the Process Flow
Scheme phase. Calculations develop in parallel from simple spreadsheet calculations to complex
calculations for which in most cases flowsheet calculation programs are used. During these
flowsheet calculations, unit operations are integrated and their performance is tested on meeting
design specifications, while keeping equipment size (costs) within “reasonable limits. Based on
the final process design configuration (flowsheet configuration), the required equipment
performance data are fixed, e.g., reflux ratios, tray numbers, reactor conversion and selectivity.
Based on these data the process equipment is ultimately sized for its main geometry.

In this chapter (Chapter 8 of the CPD Final Report) background information must be provided
about the important decision points for process and equipment design using the following topic
headers.

4.15.1. Integration by Process Simulation

Tools and their specific applications (e.g., CHEMCAD for process stimulation, MATCAD for
reactor modeling) should be mentioned and briefly explained. Major problems encountered
with these tools as well as solutions should be described briefly. Simulation of modeling
approach, results and their interpretation, and anything else that may be of key interest to
subsequent users of the report must be reviewed.

4.15.2. Equipment Selection and Design

Only equipment as specified on a PFS is considered for detailed design, i.e, reactors,
columns, vessels, separators, pumps, compressors, heat exchanger equipment, etc.
Consequently, only these pieces of equipment are eventually included in the total investment
costs. Therefore, it is crucial to assess the necessity of equipment before any calculation is
started, i.e. already in an early stage of the design.

Also, specifying a distillation column without its overhead system (no reflux accumulator,
reflux pump, etc.) would be the wrong thing to do. Another mistake is the absence of a pump
where fluid transport is required by pressure drop is lacking.

Use of common sense and technological insight may be a remedy.

Once selected, the equipment is designed and sized, based on required performance, i.e., based
on design criteria. Calculations to this end should be provided as appendices, where equipment
should be referenced using their equipment ID (equipment identification number). The main
text of the report contains information on selection, calculation methods, and their validity.

20
 Design criteria and input data should always be provided, i.e., details in the calculations
(appendices) and key information in the main text.

Design criteria are, e.g., separation sharpness for key components, reaction conversion and
selectivity, minimum temperature difference, flow and pressure drop, efficiency, available
utility temperatures, etc. Input data are e.g., flows (always provide reference stream/flow
identification number!!), process conditions (temperature and pressure), etc.

Calculations can be done per group, e.g., report sections for pumps, reactors, distillation
columns, etc.

4.15.3. Special Issues

The following issues should be taken into account.

- Always provide guidance to your calculation methods. Do not treat the reader with a
forest of equations without providing a clue about their purpose.

- A simulation model of the process (e.g., CHEMCAD model) should at least have a
clear and comprehensive description as an appendix to the report.

- Specific mathematical models may have been prepared for equipment simulation.
Specify the name of the software and how it has been applied. Furthermore, a
description of such models is mandatory. It should also include all inputs, assumptions,
constraints and range of validity, basis for applied equations, etc. These issues must be
clearly and comprehensively presented. A program listing or a print of a result is not
sufficient (see also next item).

- Program listings should not be included. Comprehensive calculation results and

underlying details about calculation methods can be added as appendices.

- Highlight material selection and corrosion aspects.

4.15.4. Equipment Data Sheet

Equipment data sheets are important, because eventually the ordering of equipment is
done using data as specified on the sheets. These data are specified by the designer,
who generates the data from his design calculations. Obviously, the designer is held
fully responsible for these data. They must be flawless, because wrong data inevitably
produce wrong equipment. Please note that during the various design stages of a
project multiple disciplines contribute to these data sheets within their own domain
e.g., construction material experts, rotating equipment experts, construction engineers,
etc. However, the designer normally has the largest impact in determining the
equipment’s main geometry. Two different types of equipment data sheets exist, i.e.:
Equipment Summary Sheets and Equipment Specification Sheets.

21
 - Equipment Summary Sheets. These sheets provide limited detail. They are used for
providing quick reference for overall dimensions, process conditions and capital
estimates.
- Equipment Specification Sheets. These sheets provide design details, which are
dependent on the type of equipment. They serve as a basis for equipment ordering.

The sheets should be presented as appendices, to which can be referred where

necessary, e.g., for equipment design calculations.

Name, Equipment Identification Number (ID Number), service, type, number and process
conditions are provided for all sheets. These data must be consistent with all
other project documentation, e.g., the PFS.

See Appendix 8-7 for example of equipment data sheets.

4.16 Wastes (CPD Final Report, Chapter 9)

All processes produce wastes, directly or indirectly. This chapter will provide an
opportunity to let the designers demonstrate their “waste conscious” attitude.

Indirect Wastes

These wastes include all pollution occurring during, e.g., manufacturing of feedstocks and
plant equipment or as a result of product usage, e.g., fuels for heating or traction. This category
should be taken into account for “Project Life Evaluations” but is not included in the CPD.

Direct Wastes

For the CPD only direct wastes must receive attention. These wastes can be in the form of
gases, liquids, solids, or combinations and originate directly from the designed plant. Gaseous
waste can be contaminated off-gas. It may or may not be combustible, and it may or may not
be odorous. Liquid waste could be contaminated process- or surface water, contaminated
cooling water (process leakage), heavy ends, etc. Solid waste can be, e.g., spent catalyst from
fluid-bed or fixed-bed reactors. Examples are fines in the effluent or a Catalytic Cracker’s
catalyst regenerator, or pellets and crushed debris from a catalyst change. It can also be
packaging material of imported process chemicals. Liquid or solid wastes can also be in the
form of an unwanted by-product. Wastes often occur as combinations, e.g., solid particles in a
vapor or liquid stream. An example of the latter is slurry oil from a Catalytic Cracker, which
is a catalyst containing oil stream. In all these cases, the materials have to be disposed of in a
responsible, but economical way. Aspects like “Population Equivalents” of aqueous wastes
should not be forgotten.

This chapter is intended to let designers an in-depth review of all direct wastes
produced and how they are handled in the design. All wastes should be categorized in (a)
table(s) and their effects tabulated and discussed.

22
 Obviously, prevention of wastes is the best remedy. Therefore, it must be reviewed to
what extent process choice as well as choice of unit operations/equipment has influenced
the design’s waste production. The impact of produced wastes on the design’s economics must be
separately reviewed in Chapter 11, “Economy”, of the CPD Final Report.

4.17 Process Safety (CPD final Report, Chapter 10)

The tendency exists among students to copy large parts of text about personal safety
provisions like gas masks, fire extinguishers, wearing goggles and gloves, etc., etc.
Descriptions of gas warning systems, instrumental safeguarding, etc., are also every
popular. However, this is NOT wanted! What should be taken into account are safety
aspects vis a vis operating personnel from a process design point of view. In others
words, what can the designer do to reduce safety risks towards operating personnel. In
quantifying those aspects, two tools can assist, i.e., a Hazard and Operability study
(HAZOP) and the Fire and Explosion Index (FEI) assessment, both carried out on the
final CPD.

This chapter expects designers to carry out these assessments, draw conclusions from
them and make recommendations accordingly. This activity will enhance the designer’s
awareness of critical safety aspects of the CPD.

HAZOP
A limited Hazard and Operability study (HAZOP) must be carried out, e.g., for an evidently
critical piece of equipment such as reaction section. Selection criteria may be flammable
substances, reactivity, run-away, volume, pressure, and temperature. The result may be the
recommendation to add valves, improve control, change construction, introduce fire protection
of the equipment, etc. Where possible, these recommended actions must be implemented in the
design and reported.

FEI
Assessment of this index must be done for the complete CPD and is based on the nature of the
process and the properties of process materials and products. The outcome will be a potential.
“Degree of Hazard”, which will categorize the installation between “Mild” and “Extreme”.
Although many times processes cannot easily be changed, measures reducing the risks should
be recommended. Where possible, these recommended actions must be implemented in the
design and reported. Please note that it is the task of the designer to design a safe plant in spite
of the fact that hazards and/or risks are potentially present. Knowing the hazards and risks
enables their effective reduction by adapted design for which the designer is responsible. Such
reduction must lead to hazards and risks at "acceptable levels”, e.g., when compared with
driving a car on a highway or with traveling by airplane. However, those who argue that
reduction of hazards and risks to zero is impossible are lying or do not know their trade.

For more information, see:

- The course book from TUDelft “Chemical Risk Management”.

23
 - Coulson and Richardson, "Chemical Engineering", Volume 6, Chapter 9, "Safety
and Loss Prevention.”

4.18 Economy (CPD Final Report, Chapter 11)

Many reasons may exist to start designing a (petro) chemical processing installation. However, the
bottom line will always be a high degree of certainty about the installation earning back its
investment, including required profit. For comparing economic competitiveness of processes, in
first instance local effects like taxes, subsidizing, grants, etc. should never be included. These
effects tell nothing about the process, but may only increase confusion. Therefore, they will be
taken on board in a later stage, for instance when a multi-national must select the plant location
(e.g., the country). Therefore, the economic evaluation of a CPD must exclude all fringes
mentioned above.

At least the following economic information must be assessed and presented.

Investment (Once-of).
Using the “Lang Method” only. This requires reasonable accuracy with respect to required
equipment. For instance, where pumps are required, they must be specified. Please notice that most
pumps have installed spares!

Operating Costs (Annual)

Operating Costs (Manufacturing Costs) are normally provided in amount of money (𝑓, UK £, US
$, etc.) per year (annum). However, these costs should also be expressed in amount of money per
ton of product, or, e.g., for a waste treatment plant, in amount of money per ton of feet. If wastes
and/or unwanted by-products cannot be sold (which is normally the case), their costs of disposal
should be included in the operating costs. Costs of loan (Capital Charge) have to be included as
well.

Income (Annual)
Sales of product and sellable by-products.

Cash Flow (Annual)

The difference between Income and Operating Costs.

Economic Criteria
"These provide the link between "Once-Off investment and annual income and costs, i.e., Rate On
Return (ROR), Pay Out Time (POT), Discounted Cash Flow Rate On Return (DCFROR = Earning
Power).

Cost Review
Indication of main cost elements with handy table(s) and suggestions about where and how costs
could still be further reduced, together with impact on economical criteria.

24
 Sensitivities
Sensitivity of economic criteria with respect to investment, operating costs (select right variables,
e.g., feedstock, utilities, wastes, etc.), product prices, etc. Variances of +/- 10% are used.

Negative Cash Flows

In case of negative cash flows and/or economic criteria below targets, break-even costs/prices
and/or investments required for meeting set economic criteria, e.g., an Earning Power of 12%
(dependent on business environment).

Please note on the following:

- Lengthy calculations must be presented in appendices.

- In arriving at the final answers, a numerical, step-by-step approach should be followed.
This will provide "in-between” results, making it easier to understand and check the
approach and results.
- Values are presented in the form of tables where possible, right adjusted, with equal
decimal point positioning per column.
- Instead of scientific notation (e.g., x.xxx E xx, this should not be used in financial
documents) always use fixed-point format (e.g., xxx.x).
- The "dimension" of a variable investment, cash flow, interest, etc. (should be adjusted to
its magnitude, e.g., M$. 15.123 instead of $. 15,123,000.-. The choice of "dimension" (M$,
$) is determined by the constituting elements providing sufficient magnitude for
comparison.
- Values should not have a ridiculously high accuracy but nevertheless the arithmetic
(additions, subtractions) should always be consistent.

For more information, see:

Coulson and Richardson, “Chemical Engineering”, Volume 6, Chapter 6, “Costing and Project
Evaluation”.

4.19 Conclusions and Recommendations (CPD Final Report, Chapter 12)

Based on the detailed knowledge gathered during the design, a review of strengths, and weaknesses
of the design must be given. This review is normally composed of conclusions/recommendations
that were made in the various chapters of the CPD Final Report and provides a good basis for final
conclusions and recommendations. For instance, the reliability of the design and the measures to
be taken for improvement could be addressed. In addition, suggestions may be done about
alternative unit operations, equipment line-up or research for areas of uncertainty, e.g., reaction
kinetics. Cost reduction and SHE also are favorite topics. Do not forget to summarize the main
topics in the Summary of the CPD Final Report.

4.20 List of Symbols (CPD Final Report, not a Chapter)

Under this heading all symbols used in the report are tabulated. They can be provided
alphabetically per chapter. Alternatively, one list could be provided, again in alphabetical order. A
suggestion is to tabulate all symbols in a data bank (e.g., spreadsheet) directly from the start, with

25
 the data bank filling up gradually with the design progressing. Ranking will be an easy job and the
occurrence of errors will be minimal. Standard symbols can be found in Appendix 10. Appendix
11 provides SI Base Units as well as SI Derived Units.

4.21 Literature (CPD Final Report, not a Chapter)

References can be numbered, and reference can be made to those numbers.

4.22 Appendices (CPD Final Report, numbered)

Appendices must be numbered for referencing and should have numbered pages. They should be
used for the following documentation:

- Detailed, lengthy calculations.

- Larger tables, e.g., Process Stream Summaries, Mass and Heat Balances, Utility Summaries, etc.
- Equipment Data Sheets, i.e., Equipment Summary Sheets, Equipment Specification Sheets.
- Etc. Use your imagination!

5. Typical Problems
This chapter covers a number of problems that appear to be encountered by less experienced designers.

5.1 Batch Operations

As explained previously, for batch processes the availability of a Batch Cycle Diagram (also called
"Gantt Chart") is essential. This diagram provides a graphical representation of all the required
activities (batch stages) as a function of time, e.g., reactor fill, reaction, cooling down, reactor
discharge, etc. In this way a clear overview is provided of activity (stage) categories, the time
required for each activity, the time required for a complete "batch cycle", i.e., the Batch Cycle
Time (tC, h) and the pattern of repetition. Normally, a design starts with the assessment of the
design determining process, e.g., the reactor that produces the product. For this process, the Batch
Cycle Time (tC, h) is determined, keeping in mind, that the reaction time normally largely
determines the Batch Cycle Time and is independent on the reactor volume. Once tC, the annual
production, 𝑃, and the number of stream hours per year, ℎ𝑠𝑡𝑟 , are known, the tons of product per
batch, 𝑃𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑐ℎ can be calculated, i.e.:

Number of batches per annum : n = ℎ𝑠𝑡𝑟 /𝑡𝐶 [-]

Tons of product per batch : 𝑃𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑐ℎ = P/n [t]
Average production rate : 𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑃𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑐ℎ /𝑡𝐶 [t/h]

Once quantities per batch in [t] have been determined, all average streams (mass flows)
can be determined by dividing these quantities by 𝑡𝐶 . These average values are important
as input for the continuous part of the process, because they can be treated as if they were
continuous flows.

26
5.2 Reactors

Although the curriculum on reactors leaves no room for misinterpretation, the following
issues seem to need clarification.

5.2.1. Equilibrium Reactors

Only fast reactors operate close to equilibrium, e.g., with a temperature approach of about 5 to
10 °C. For phase transitions and sequential reactions equilibrium can be surpassed, sometimes
resulting in complete conversion. In certain cases, this can also be reached by removing one or
more reaction products, e.g., by absorption or adsorption.

5.2.2. Reactor Concepts

Always assess the reactor concept by designing the reactor "around" the reaction mechanism,
based on sound chemical engineering reasoning. In literature, underlying reasons for the choice
of a reactor concept (if any) are often just not available or even left out on purpose. It should
be realized that heat and mass transfer also could be determining factors for the assessment of
the reactor concept.

5.3 Separation by Distillation

The presence of azeotropes and/or de-mixing phenomena should always be considered.

CHEMCAD shortcut modules continue to calculate separations even past the azeotropic point.
This leads to ridiculously high numbers of equilibrium plates (trays), which under the
circumstance, of course, in completely unrealistic. The existence of other separation methods,
which for certain separation problems are much better suited, e.g., crystallization or extraction,
should also be considered.

5.4 Throttling of Fluid Flows

Transport of fluids is the result of available pressure drop (impulse!), not the other way around! If
this pressure drop is created, e.g., by means of a valve, this process is called "throttling". Throttling
of fluid flows will normally result in a temperature change. In first instance, this phenomenon is
dependent on the fluid phase, i.e., liquid or gaseous (vapor) and is not always fully understood.
Therefore, an explanation follows.

Liquid Fluids

Throttling of a liquid fluid, e.g., by a valve, is considered under VIL equilibrium conditions at
the valve inlet. At the valve exit, the equilibrium temperature of the fluid will have to decrease
to new equilibrium conditions at a lower pressure. If adiabatic conditions are present, this
temperature decrease will be obtained by vaporization, i.e., "flash off" of part of the liquid. In
other words, a liquid fluid at adiabatic conditions will partly vaporize after being subjected to

27
 pressure drop. Consequently, if e.g., a cooler (heat exchanger) is installed downstream of a
valve, this equipment has to be designed for two-phase flow. The cooler will be larger (surface
and size), and therefore, more expensive. In these cases the obvious location of such a cooler
is up-stream of the valve, where "flash-off” can be avoided.

Gaseous Fluids

"Throttling" of a gaseous fluid also inflicts temperature changes. These changes are a result of
the Joule Thompson (Kelvin) effect. With this effect an "inversion point” is defined. This point
represents a key temperature above which expanding (throttled) gaseous fluid experience a
temperature increase. Below this "inversion point" temperatures decrease. For hydrogen this
point exists at -183 °C. This effect is important for, e.g., refrigeration installations, air splitters,
or valves where large pressure drops occur. Downstream equipment has to be designed to cope
with this phenomenon.

6. Quality Control
Before issuing the CPD Final Report, extensive checking is recommended. From practice it has been
experienced that many errors can be avoided by frequently checking the design work during its various
stages of development. In order to facilitate this effort, a number of requirements are tabulated below. By
applying them to the CPD Final Report, they may help the designer in making it more consistent and
complete.

Design Objectives
- Design objectives must be clearly described.
- The degree of achieving them must be clearly demonstrated.
- Deviations must be mentioned and elucidated.

Choices, Conclusions and Recommendations

- They must be defendable.
- They must be complete. Prevent omissions.
- Clearly separate own findings from those developed by others.

Comprehensiveness of the report

- The report must be comprehensive for the targeted readers.
- Design work performed by the team must stand clearly from the report.
- Use of results from work by "others" must be clearly reported as well.
- Information about the design must be balanced, i.e., sufficient but not trivial.

Report Structure
- The guidance provided in this manual should be followed with respect to the structure.
- If not, deviations must be made plausible (this may be a hard job).
- The Summary must be tight and to the point, containing the essence of the design.
- Over-extensive deliberations must be excluded. Be "straight to the point".
- Text suitable for inclusion in an appendix should be excluded from the main text.

28
- The text should be readable. Avoid pompous language, lengthy lines and textbook material.

Bits and Pieces

- The report should have been painstakingly checked and corrected.
- The Table of Contents must be complete, also including all appendices.
- Numbering of pages, figures, tables, etc, must be consistent.
- Appendices must be complete. No missing page(s), figure(s), table(s), etc.
- Figures, graphics, tables, etc. must be comprehensive on a stand-alone basis, by providing
readable and relevant text, information, definition of axes, references, etc.

29
Appendices

30
 Appendix 1

Front Cover and Spine Template

31
 USC Chemical Engineering Student
CHEMICAL PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT AND PROCESS
DESIGN 2

Department of Term/Academic Year:

Chemical Engineering Second Semester AY 2021-2022
Talamban, Cebu City, Philippines 6000

PROJECT TITLE

A design project submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements in the course

CHE 4220
Chemical Product Development and Process Design 2

<STUDENT 1>
<STUDENT 2>
<STUDENT 3>
<STUDENT 4>
<STUDENT 5>

MAY 2022

32
[First Author
BIOETHANOL PRODUCTION FROM SUGARCANE
Family Name, MAY 2022
Initials], et al.
RESIDUES: DESIGN OF A ….. FOR …..
 Appendix 2-1

Basis of Design (BOD) for CPD Final Report

1. Description of the Design

Background of the design briefly summarized. Refer to previous chapters if possible. What will
be done and what will NOT be done!

2. Process Definition

- Process Concept Chosen Summary of Chapter 2

Process options, option chosen. Explain.
Continuous, batch, combination. Why?
Stoichiometry, catalyst, etc.
Reaction kinetics, experimental data, etc. What is used?
- Block Schemes
A simple “Process Flow Scheme” (Rectangles as simplest form)
Connecting Streams (Numbered)
Process Conditions (Pressure, temperature, vapor/liquid/solid)
Total mass streams & t/t values (Values taken from final mass balance)
- Thermodynamic Properties
Name (Consistent naming throughout report)
Structural formula (Sketch for more complex components)
Molecular weight (kg/mol)
Boiling point (°C, Atmospheric, rank components accordingly)
Melting point (°C)
Liquid Density (kg/m3, Define reference temperature)
MAC (Maximum Allowable Concentration)
LDxx (Lethal Dose)

3. Basic Assumptions

- Plant Capacity
Briefly describe Feedstocks, Base Chemicals, Products, By-products, Wastes.
More details: see “Definition of streams”
Provide tons/a, stream hours/a, economical plant life. Explain choices.
- Location
Country, industrial area, etc.
- Battery Limit
Define (briefly describe) the plant (important equipment) inside Battery Limit. Use
block scheme.
Define facilities, assumed available outside the Battery Limit.
- Definition of All in- and out-going streams / substances (passing the Battery Limit)
Feedstocks, products, wastes, utilities: Process conditions (T, p, V/L/S, pipe,
rail, etc.)
Prices

34
 Catalysts: Composition, shape, bulk density,
prices, etc.

Deal with each stream or substance (e.g., catalyst) separately!

Present values per stream or substance in table and explain with text.
Provide both commercial specifications and your chosen (explain) design values (2
columns in table)!

4. Margin in Php, $, £, etc.

Margin = Total Value (Products, OUT) – Total Value (Feedstocks, Process Chemicals, IN).
Explain!
Calculate maximum allowed investment at a discount cash flow rate of return of 10%.
Draw conclusions.

35
 Appendix 2-2

Preliminary Basic Engineering Design (BED) for CPD Review Meeting

Total volume should be limited to approximately 12 pages

Item No. of Pages

(Approx.)
1. Description of the design 1
Background of the design briefly summarized. Refer to previous
chapters if possible. What will be done and what will NOT be
done!
2. Process definition (Future CPD Final Report, Chapter 2) 2
- Process Concept Chosen
Process options, option chosen. Explain.
Continuous, batch, combination. Why?
Stoichiometry, catalyst, etc.
Reaction kinetics, experimental data, etc. What is
used?
- Block Schemes 1
As for CPD Final Report, Chapter 3, “BOD”
- Thermodynamic Properties (Future CPD Final 1
Report, Chapter 4)
Model(s) for vapor/liquid equilibria, heat data.
Explain choice(s).
Comparison with data from literature. Provide plots:
x/y or x/T @ p = constant.
- List of Pure Component Properties 1
As for CPD Final Report, Chapter 3, “BOD”
- Process Stream Summary & Mass Balance 2
(Future CPD Final Report, Chapter 7)
MASS per Unit of Time!
Define the streams per component.
Stream numbers in row, component names in
column!
- adf

3. Basic Assumptions 2
As for CPD Final Report, Chapter 3, “BOD”
4. Margin in Php, $, £, etc.
As for CPD Final Report, Chapter 3, “BOD”

36
 Appendix 2-3

Activity Planning

To be presented every Review Meeting

Date Activity Deliverable

MM/DD/YYYY Kick-Off Design Program Assignment
(Time)
MM/DD/YYYY
(Time)
MM/DD/YYYY
(Time)
MM/DD/YYYY Initial Review (~ 3 weeks after kick-off) Preliminary BED
(Time)
MM/DD/YYYY
(Time)
MM/DD/YYYY Review (~ 15 weeks after kick-off) Final BED
(Time)
MM/DD/YYYY
(Time)
MM/DD/YYYY Issue CPD Final Report (~ 30 weeks after CPD Final Report
(Time) kick-off)
MM/DD/YYYY
(Time)
MM/DD/YYYY Discussion of CPD Final Report (~ 32 Quality Assessment of CPD
(Time) weeks after kick-off) Final Report
MM/DD/YYYY Issue CPD Final Report (~ 36 weeks after Hardbound CPD Final Report
(Time) kick-off)

37
 Appendix 2-4

Complete Basic Engineering Design (BED)

Content

1. Introduction
- Product Description and Applications
- History and Current Production of the Specified Product
- Process Design Problem
2. Process Options and Selections
- Process Description (Base Case or Conventional Process)
- Process Options and Selection
3. Basis of Design
- Design Objectives
- Battery Limits
- Description of Design and Process Definition
Process Chosen
Process Schemes [Including input-output, functional block, and process flow
diagram - Mass and Energy Balances (presented in tables)]
Thermodynamic Properties, Transport and Kinetic Data
- Basic Assumptions
Capacity
Location
In and Out Streams (Including by-products: assumptions for these streams)
Feedstock, Chemicals, and Catalysts
Product Specification
Waste Specifications
Utilities
- Economic Margin

38
 Appendix 3

Basis of Design (BOD) – Utility Conditions and Costs

1. Available Utilities
a. Steam
Superheated steam is considered to be available at the temperatures and absolute pressures
given below.

Conditions Steam Class

High Pressure Medium Pressure Low Pressure
P [Bara] 40 10 3
T (superheated) [°C] 410 220 190
T (condensation) [°C] 250 180 133.5

Fouling coefficient: 10 kW/m2 °C Fouling factor: 0.1 m2 °C/kW

b. Electricity

Power Voltage [V] Current

Low 220 AC
Medium 380 Three-phase AC
High 3000 – 10000 Three-phase AC

c. Pressured Air
Pressurized air is intended for instrumentation and other applications, with the exception
of process air. Pressurized air is available at the following conditions:

Conditions Value
T [°C] 20
P [Bara] 7
Dewpoint [°C] - 40 (max.)

d. Water

Water T [°C] P [Bara] H [kW/m2 °C] Fouling Factor [m2

°C/kW]
Potable 15 4
Demineralized 15 7
(Process)
Cooling 20(1) 3(3) 2.0 0.5
(2)
40
Remarks: (1) Design value
(2) Maximum allowed
(3) At ground level

39
 e. Air

Air Cooling:
Conditions Value
Humidity (design) [%] 70
T (design) [°C] 25
T (max.) [°C] 40(1)
Remark: (1) where necessary after cooling with cooling water

2. Utility Costs

Utility Costs, Excluding VAT 1

2
Utility Units LHV Unit Costs, Nfl/unit
Quantity Energy En. Per Quantity Energy
Quant. Min Max Min Max
NG2,3 Nm 3
MJ 31.65 0.26 0.43 0.00821 0.013586
kg MJ 37.68 0.31 0.51 0.00821 0.013586
HFO5 ton MJ 41.45 280.00 300.00 6.75513 7.237636
Electricity6 kWh 0.13 0.22
Remarks:
1. Cite the reference or source
2. 1 ton = 1000 kg
3. NG = natural gas
4. Density = 0.84 kg/Nm3, MW = 18.60
5. HFO = heavy fuel oil
6. For quantities larger than 106 kWh/a

40
 Appendix 4

Thermodynamics – Methods and Models

1. Thermodynamic Methods

Literature: Textbooks, published papers, and lecture notes

Binary parameters: - from data base

- From literature/experiments

Input: - note units

- note form of correlation, e.g., A = A’/RT
- test for known situation
e.g., with PROCESS through the property generator tables and
graphs of L+ G equilibrium, phase envelope: γ, x: P, x: T, x

extra in ASPEN: - “own models”

- fitting of experimental data
- fitting of results model 1 with model 2
- own properties (e.g., pH)

2. Selection of thermodynamic models

PVT L and V SRK, PR, (BWRS: time consuming)

fugacity SRK, PR, virial equation, ρ < ½ ρ.c (Chao-Seader)
Liquid density Thomson et al., Rackett, Lydersen/Gunn-Yamada
γI(χI) correlation Wilson/NRTL/UNIQUAC
γI(χI) group cont. UNIQUAC, ASOG
L1-L2 equilibrium NRTL 2/3 parameters
(2 parameters: α = 0.2)
S-L equilibrium Wilson/NRTL/UNIQUAC
Chemical equilibrium Gibbs minimalization
H-Hid Lee-Kesler/SRK/PR
S-Sid idem

3. L/V high pressure

BWR, BWRS Very good if parameters are available, time consuming

PR kij required
SRK Cumbersome in critical region
VL ΔVL: 10 – 20% SRK and 5 – 15% PR
LK, LKP Time consuming

41
4. γi models

Margules, Van Laar binary, non-polar

Wilson, NRTL, UNIQUAC multicomponent, polar
Wilson for low molecular mass alcohol
NRTL H2O
NRTL, UNIQUAC L-L equilibrium
ln γi = Ai + Bi/T + Ci/T4 If γi (T) is important

5. Abbreviations and their meaning

SRK Soave-Redlich-Kwong equation

PR Peng Robinson equation
BWR Benedict-Webb-Rubin equation
LK Lee-Kesler method
LKP Lee-Kesler-Plockner equation
NRTL Non-Random Two Liquid equation
UNIQUAC Universal Quasi Chemical equation
UNIFAC UNIQUAC Functional Group Activity equation
Coefficients

42
 Appendix 5

Drawing a Process Flow Scheme

1. Introduction

The PFS is intended to transfer information to the user on interconnection of process units
(UNIT Operations) and process conditions, i.e., the “process logic”, in a comprehensive and
realistic way. It is essential to realize, however, that although many companies have made up
their own standards for a PFS, in practice, a uniform standard does not exist. Nevertheless,
some ISO standardization is available on, e.g., Symbols for Process Flow Schemes. Moreover,
a number of “heuristic” rules can be given, which, if applied, can lead o the comprehensive
PFS we are after. In this respect, it can be mentioned, that, e.g., positioning equipment on the
PFS in a sequence that is expected to occur in practice, already considerably contributes to this
comprehensiveness. Many times the ‘optimal’ composition of a PFS to some extent is also an
artistic effort. Nevertheless, in the following sections some guidance on drawing a PFS will be
provided. Please note that AUTOCAD is required for drawing a PFS. For PFS examples, see
Appendices no. 7-1 and 8-1. For drawing conventions, see Appendix 6.

2. Concepts

- Always first prepare a PFS-draft in pencil. Arrange the equipment so that they appear
in practical sequence on paper, although occasionally compromises have to be accepted.
The paper offers only limited space!
- Use a large size paper sheet (e.g., A3, A2 or the back of a wall calendar), a pencil and
an eraser. Start drawing without being inhibited by limitations mostly imposed on you
by paper size.
- Follow the concept of positioning equipment, as it most likely will be placed in practice.
Position equipment form upstream, i.e., the left-hand side of the paper to downstream,
i.e., towards the right-hand side of the paper. Approach the actual situation by placing
the equipment as much as possible at “ground level”. In practice, it does not float in the
air either.
- Have equipment through which the main reactants and the main product(s) are flowing
lined up in a straight line (from left to right on the paper). The same trick can be done
with, e.g., recycling reactants and “treat” them from left to right as well. In such cases
two trains of process equipment can run in parallel (on the paper).
- Process streams are defined as streams that are introduced in or extracted from other
process streams or process equipment, thus influencing the process mass balance.
Utilities, for instance, do not affect the process mass balance; because they always
remain separated from the process by the process “containment”, i.e., an equipment
wall, pipe walls, etc. (e.g., cooling water). However, “open steam” is not a utility but a
process stream.
- All incoming process streams (repeat: ALL incoming streams) should enter at the left-
hand side of the paper. All outgoing process streams (repeat: ALL outgoing streams)
should leave at the right-hand side of the paper. This is regardless of their point of
introduction into or extraction from the process. Be imaginative! For utilities an
exception is made, but specify the name of the utility at the application point.

43
 - Never draw large-sized symbols for columns, vessels, etc. This will force your
connecting flows towards a layout that is “sub-optimal”. Try to do it the other way
around: size the symbols as dictated by the “flow logic”.
- Strive for connecting flows with straight lines as much as possible. Avoid “corner”,
although the connecting stream between the two vessels (liquid) will have at least three
“corners”. Also avoid “crossings” with other streams where possible. Always interrupt
the vertical streams; do not interrupt the horizontal ones. In other words, do not interrupt
the “left to right” rule. Sometimes compromises will have to be made, e.g., with respect
to the number of “crossings”. In other cases, more “crossings” can also make the PFS
more comprehensive.

3. Conventions

- The process installation can be divided into “Plant Units”, e.g., U`00, U200, etc.
Relevant equipment, process streams, valves, and instrumentation should be numbered
accordingly, i.e., V101 (vessel), <101> (stream), CV105 (control valve), RCV113
(remote control valve), FRC130 (flow recorder controller), etc. Never start the
numbering with, e.g., V100, but always with the number 101, etc.
- For complex processes, plant units can be drawn each on a separate A4 paper. In the
case also provide a block diagram, including all the units on one page, showing all
incoming, outgoing and interconnecting streams. If possible, draw more units on the
paper. A3 size paper is also acceptable. The choice is left to the designers.
- The PFS Symbols should resemble actual contours and where possible a simple sketch
of “internals”. See Appendix 6 for the recommended symbols.
- Vapors should normally leave over the top of the relevant equipment. Liquids/solids
should leave through the bottom, e.g., for vessels, distillation columns, extractors, etc.,
although exceptions may exist. See Appendix 6 for a distillation column and a
stripper/absorber unit.
- Draw thick lines for the main reactants and product(s) containing streams, See the
relevant PFS examples.
- Equipment identification characters are based on English international conventions. See
Appendix 6.
- For process control, the CPD only requires simple (basic) control systems, e.g., where
pressure drop occurs between equipment, control (including a control valve) must be
specified. The plant throughput must be controllable. For abbreviations, coding, etc.,
see Appendix 6.
- Essential equipment should be properly specified, e.g., distillation columns should have
complete overhead and reboiler systems drawn up. Pumps should be included, if
obviously required. Remember that only pressure (drop), i.e., impulse will force fluid
flow, not the other way around!
- Different stream numbers are required for streams with different process conditions,
e.g., when pressure, temperature, (mass) flow, composition, etc., differ.
- A complete equipment summary (identification, useful name) must be provided at the
bottom of the PFS (“P101: Pump” is not sufficient). Small fonts are allowed.

44
 Appendix 6

Process Flow Scheme (PFS) – Symbols and Coding

Process Control

Summary of Equipment Coding

A Mill
C Column
D Rotary Kiln, Spray Dryer
E Heater, Cooler, Heat Exchanger, etc./Ejector/Injector
F Furnace
K Blower, Compressor
M Mixer
P Pump
R Reactor
S Separator, e.g., Sieve, Centrifuge, Hydro cyclone, Electrostatic Precipitator, Filter
T Storage tank, Turbine
TG Steam turbine as generator drive
V Vessel (buffer, collecting, separations, etc.), Hopper, Barometric condenser
V’s, E’s Boiler (vessel/exchanger combination)
X Other equipment (transporter, elevator, rolling machine)

Common abbreviations
V Vapor LP Low Pressure
L Liquid MP Medium Pressure
S Solid HP High Pressure

45
46
47
48
49
 Appendix 7-1

“TAME Example – Process Flow Scheme (PFS)”

50
 Appendix 7-2

“TAME” Example – Block Scheme

51
 Appendix 8-1

P/P Separation Example – Process Flow Scheme (PFS)

52
 Appendix 8-2

P/P Separation Example – Pure Component Properties

53
 Appendix 8-3

P/P Separation Example – Process Stream Summary

54
 Appendix 8-4

P/P Separation Example – Mass and Heat Balance Total Streams

55
 Appendix 8-5

P/P Separation Example – Utility Summary

56
 Appendix 8-6

P/P Separation Example – Process Yields

57
 Appendix 8-7

P/P Separation Example

Equipment and Summary Specification Sheets

58
REACTORS, COLUMNS &VESSELS – SUMMARY

59
HEAT EXCHANGERS & FURNACES – SUMMARY

60
61
DISTILLATION COLUMN & SPECIFICATION SHEET

62
HEAT EXCHANGER – SPECIFICATION SHEET

63
HEAT EXCHANGER – SPECIFICATION SHEET

64
HEAT EXCHANGER – SPECIFICATION SHEET

65
HEAT EXCHANGER – SPECIFICATION SHEET

66
CENTRIFUGAL PUMP – SPECIFICATION SHEET

67
CENTRIFUGAL PUMP – SPECIFICATION SHEET

68
CENTRIFUGAL PUMP – SPECIFICATION SHEET

69
 Appendix 9-1

Batch Process Example

Batch Process Flow Scheme

70
 Appendix 9-2

Batch Process Example – Batch Cycle Diagram

71
 Appendix 9-3

Batch Process Example – Batch Remarks and Calculations

72
73
 Appendix 9-4

Batch Process Example – Batch Process Stream Summary

74
 Appendix 10

SI Units in Process Systems Design

75
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77
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