BEE UNIT V

Unit 05: ENERGY SOURCE

Classification of Energy Sources

Photovoltaic Cell
Block Diagram of Wind Mill
Battery Types
Super capacitor
Flywheels
Fuel Cell
Biomass

Energy can be classified into several types based on the following criteria:

 Primary and Secondary energy

 Commercial and Non-commercial energy
 Renewable and Non-Renewable energy
 Conventional and Non-conventional energy
Primary and Secondary Energy

Primary energy sources are those that are either found or stored in nature. Common primary energy
sources are coal, oil, natural gas, and biomass (such as wood). Other primary energy sources
available include nuclear energy from radioactive substances, thermal energy stored in earth's interior,
and potential energy due to earth's gravity. The major primary and secondary energy sources are shown
in Figure
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Primary energy sources are costly converted in industrial utilities into secondary energy sources;
for example coal, oil or gas converted into steam and electricity. Primary energy can also be used
directly. Some energy sources have non energy uses, for example coal or natural gas can be used as a
feedstock in fertilizer plants.

Commercial Energy and Non Commercial Energy

Commercial Energy

The energy sources that are available in the market for a definite price are known as commercial
energy. By far the most important forms of commercial energy are electricity, coal and refined
petroleum products. Commercial energy forms the basis of industrial, agricultural, transport and
commercial development in the modern world. In the industrialized countries, commercialized fuels
are predominant source not only for economic production, but also for many household tasks of
general population.

Examples: Electricity, lignite, coal, oil, natural gas etc.

Non-Commercial Energy

The energy sources that are not available in the commercial market for a price are classified as non-
commercial energy. Non-commercial energy sources include fuels such as firewood, cattle dung and
agricultural wastes, which are traditionally gathered, and not bought at a price used especially in rural
households. These are also called traditional fuels. Non-commercial energy is often ignored in energy
accounting.

Example: Firewood, agro waste in rural areas; solar energy for water heating, electricity
generation, for drying grain, fish and fruits; animal power for transport, threshing, lifting water for
irrigation, crushing sugarcane; wind energy for lifting water and electricity generation.
sources available include nuclear energy from radioactive substances, thermal energy stored in earth's
interior, and potential energy due to earth's gravity. The major primary and secondary energy sources
are shown in Figure

Primary energy sources are costly converted in industrial utilities into secondary energy sources;

for example coal, oil or gas converted into steam and electricity. Primary energy can also be used
directly. Some energy sources have non energy uses, for example coal or natural gas can be used as a
feedstock in fertilizer plants.
Renewable and Non-Renewable Energy

Renewable energy is energy obtained from sources that are essentially inexhaustible. Examples of

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Renewable sources . include wind power, solar power, hydroelectric power. The most important f Non-
renewable energy is the conventional fossil fuels such as coal, oil and gas, which are likely to deplete
with time eature of renewable energy is that it can be harnessed without release of harmful pollutant . Non-
renewable energy is the conventional fossil fuels such as coal, oil and gas, which are likely to deplete with
time

Conventional and Non-conventional energy resources:

Conventional Energy

Conventional energy resources which are being traditionally used for many decades and were in
common use around oil crisis of 1973 are called conventional energy resources, e.g., fossil fuel,
nuclear and hydro resources.

Non-conventional energy

Non-conventional energy resources which are considered for large – scale use after oil crisis of1973, are
called non-conventional energy sources, e.g., solar, wind, biomass, etc
Conventional Source of Energy Non-Conventional Source of Energy

These source of Energy are also known as These source of Energy are also known as
non-renewable source of energy renewable source of energy

They find both commercial and industrial Most of the cases it found for household
purpose purpose

These can be considered to be one of the These are not responsible for the cause of
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reason for the cause of pollution pollution

The overall efficiency of the energy source is The overall efficiency of the energy source is
not enough low

These sources of energy are not These source of energy are environmentally
environmentally friendly friendly

Application: Thermal power plant, Nuclear Application: Solar Plant , Tidal plant, Geo-
power plant. Gas and Diesel power plant Thermal Plant etc.

BATTERY:
A battery is a collection of one or more cells that go under chemical reactions to create the flow of electrons
within a circuit. There is lot of research and advancement going on in battery technology, and as a result,
breakthrough technologies are being experienced and used around the world currently. Batteries came into
play due to the need to store generated electrical energy. As much as a good amount of energy was being
generated, it was important to store the energy so it can be used when generation is down or when there is a
need to power standalone devices which cannot be kept tethered to the supply from the mains. Here it
should be noted that only DC can be stored in the batteries, AC current can’t be stored.
Battery cells are usually made up of three main components
1. The Anode (Negative Electrode)
2. The Cathode (Positive Electrode)
3. The electrolytes
The anode is a negative electrode that produces electrons to the external circuit to which the battery is
connected. When batteries are connected, an electron build-up is initiated at the anode which causes a potential
difference between the two electrodes. The electrons naturally then try to redistribute themselves, this is
prevented by the electrolyte, so when an electrical circuit is connected, it provides a clear path for the electrons
to move from the anode to the cathode thereby powering the circuit to which it is connected. By changing
the arrangement and material used to build the Anode, Cathode and Electrolyte we can achieve many different
types of battery chemistries enabling us to design different types of battery cells. In this article lets understand
the different types of batteries and their uses, so let's get started
Types of Batteries
Batteries generally can be classified into different categories and types, ranging from chemical composition,
size, form factor and use cases, but under all of these are two major battery types;

1. Primary Batteries
2. Secondary Batteries
Let's take a deeper look to understand the major differences between a Primacy cell and Secondary Cell.

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1. Primary Batteries

Primary batteries are batteries that cannot be recharged once depleted. Primary batteries are made of
electrochemical cells whose electrochemical reaction cannot be reversed.

Primary batteries exist in different forms ranging from coin cells to AA batteries. They are commonly used in
standalone applications where charging is impractical or impossible. A good example of which is in military
grade devices and battery powered equipment. It will be impractical to use rechargeable batteries as recharging a
battery will be the last thing in the mind of the soldiers. Primary batteries always have high specific energy and
the systems in which they are used are always designed to consume low amount of power to enable the battery
last as long as possible. Some other examples of devices using primary batteries include; Pace makers,
Animal trackers, Wrist watches, remote controls and children toys to mention a few.

The most popular type of primary batteries are alkaline batteries. They have a high specific energy and are
environmentally friendly, cost-effective and do not leak even when fully discharged. They can be stored for
several years, have a good safety record and can be carried on an aircraft without being subject to UN Transport
and other regulations. The only downside to alkaline batteries is the low load current, which limits its use to
devices with low current requirements like remote controls, flashlights and portable entertainment devices.

2. Secondary Batteries
Secondary batteries are batteries with electrochemical cells whose chemical reactions can be reversed by
applying a certain voltage to the battery in the reversed direction. Also referred to as rechargeable batteries,
secondary cells unlike primary cells can be recharged after the energy on the battery has been used up.

They are typically used in high drain applications and other scenarios where it will be either too expensive or
impracticable to use single charge batteries. Small capacity secondary batteries are used to power portable
electronic devices like mobile phones, and other gadgets and appliances while heavy-duty batteries are used in
powering diverse electric vehicles and other high drain applications like load levelling in electricity generation.
They are also used as standalone power sources alongside Inverters to supply electricity. Although the initial
cost of acquiring rechargeable batteries is always a whole lot higher than that of primary batteries but they are
the most cost-effective over term

Secondary batteries can be further classified into several other types based on their chemistry. This is very
important because the chemistry determines some of the attributes of the battery including its specific energy,
cycle life, shelf life, and price to mention a few.

The following are the different types of rechargeable batteries that are commonly used.

1. Lithium-ion(Li-ion)

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2. Nickel Cadmium(Ni-Cd)

3. Nickel-Metal Hydride(Ni-MH)

4. Lead-Acid

Lithium-ion(Li-ion) Battery:

 The lithium battery is rechargeable battery

 They are most commonly used in portable electronics like various mobile phones and also used in
electric vehicle

Parts of Lithium Ion Battery

1. The negative electrode of lithium ion cell in made of carbon. The most popular anode is graphite

2. The positive electrode of is a metal oxide . The cathode is generally a layered oxide such as lithium
cobalt oxide.

3. The electrolyte is lithium salt is an organic solvent. Electrolytes are typically a mixture of ethylene
carbonate or diethyl carbonate containing complexes of lithium ion

Chemical Changes in Lithium Ion Battery:

 Electrical energy flow out from or in battery during charge or discharge

 Both Electrodes make lithium ions move in and out of their structure using a process called
insertion (intercalation) or extraction respectively.

Discharging:

During discharge the positive lithium ions move from anode (negative electrode) to cathode
(positive electrode) to forma lithium compound through electrode

Charging:

 The reverse occurs when cell is charging

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 The electrons go back into anode

 The charging and discharging can be represented as a single reversible reaction given as

The general charging and discharging equation can be given as:

Application of Lithium Ion Batteries

 Portable Electronics like mobile Phones

 Electric Vehicle
 Military Applications
 Aerospace Applications

Advantages of Lithium Ion Battery:

 High Energy Density
 Cell voltage is high about 3.6V
 Light in weight
 Built in protection to prevent overheating
 No maintenance required
 Can hold its charge for longer period
Disadvantages of Lithium Ion Battery
 Performance is affected because of high temperature
 Cannot recharge if fully discharged
 Costly
 It requires protection circuit to maintain voltage and current levels
 Can last upto 3 years after manufactured
 If separator get damaged, it can burst

Difference between Lithium ion and lead acid battery

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Lithium Ion Battery Lead Acid Battery

It is made up of lithium material It is made up of lead material
More Efficiency Less Effficiency
More Cost Less Cost
More energy density means more energy can Less energy density , means less energy can be
be stored stored
In a single cycle 85% of the total battery In a single cycle 50% of the total battery
capacity can be used capacity can be used
Superior depth of discharge Inferior depth of discharge
Efficiency is about 95% Efficiency is about 80%
Longer life span Short life span

SUPERCAPACITOR

The basic principle of supercapacitor energy storage is to store electrical energy through the electric double-
layer capacitance formed by the charge separation on the interface between the electrolyte and the bath
solution
Construction
Super capacitors are constructed somewhat like electrolyte capacitors. They have two electrodes that are
made up of porous active carbon coating or carbon nanotubes. The coating is implemented on metal foils
(generally aluminum) which serve as current collectors. The current collectors coated with electrodes are
immersed in an electrolyte.

The electrolyte can be liquid or solid. In most supercapacitor, solid electrolytes are preferred due to higher
terminal voltage. The solid electrolyte is generally a solvent mixed with conductive salts. Typically, Acetonitrile
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or Propylene Carbonate is used as a solvent and Tetra alkyl ammonium or Lithium salts as solutes. The
electrode coated current collectors are separated by a separator (paper membrane) which is transparent to the
charge carriers but avoid direct shorting between the electrodes. Due to the double-sided electrode coating of
current collectors, these capacitors are also called Electrical Double Layer Capacitors (EDLC).
The highly porous nature of electrode material enables these capacitors to attract a large number of charge
carriers from the electrolyte. Due to the use of activated carbon, the effective surface area between the current
collectors is increased manyfold. The internal resistance (ESR) of the capacitor depends upon the electrolyte.
The lower the resistance offered by the electrolyte, the greater is the power density of the capacitor.
Supercapacitors generally have a very low voltage rating that may range from 1V to 3V. The following equation
gives the electrical power stored by a supercapacitor:

P = V2/4R
Where,
P is the power stored by the Super Capacitor,
V is the applied voltage (or Voltage Rating),
R is internal resistance (ESR) of the capacitor

Working
When a potential difference is applied across the terminals of a supercapacitor, the electrodes start attracting
opposite charge carriers from the electrolyte. The positive ions get accumulated at the negative connection, and
negative ions get accumulated at the positive connection. The charge carriers are stored at the current collector
plates. Due to accumulation of opposite charges at the current collectors, an electrostatic field is set up between
them. Charging current flows through capacitor until the electrostatic field between the current collectors equals
and opposite to the applied voltage. The charge carriers are retained by the current collectors until the applied
voltage decreases or changes polarity.
Whenever the applied voltage decreases, a proportional number of charge carriers are passed back to the
electrolyte from the current collectors. During this process, an equivalent current flows through the capacitor in
reverse direction. When the polarity changes, the supercapacitor goes through a similar cycle of charging and
discharging.

Advantages
Supercapacitors have the following notable advantages over other capacitors and batteries:

 Capable of storing a large amount of energy in the form of an electrostatic field.

 High power density and compact size, which makes them suitable to be used for storing charge for
typical electronic circuits.
 Ability to charge and discharge in a short time, and can be used to meet frequent power demand
peaks and can supply large power bursts for short durations.
 Do not involve electrochemical reactions, and so, do not have operational wear and tear and
increases lifespan. They can be used hundreds of thousands of times without the need for
replacement.
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Flywheel and its analysis.

Flywheels are devices that are used for storing energy.

Generally, a flywheel energy storage system consists of a rotating mass, a motor/generator set, bearings,
containment, and a power electronic converter,

Flywheel energy storages are classified into two main groups: low-speed (rotation speed below 10,000
rpm) and high-speed (rotation speed above 10,000 rpm). Low-speed flywheels are generally made of a metal
rotor; and a mechanical, or combination of metal and magnetic, bearing. They have been commercially available
for a long time and are mainly used for power quality enhancement. On the other hand, high-speed flywheels are
made of a composite rotor and magnetic bearing. They are currently the focus of industrial and academic
research and development. There are some commercially available examples of high-speed flywheels [5,6]. For
instance, flywheels produced by VYCON Energy and Beacon Power are reported.
Flywheels store energy mechanically in a rotating mass. During the charging process, they speed up the
rotating mass and slow it down during the discharging process. The amount of energy stored in a flywheel
depends on the rotating mass inertia (J) and the speed of rotation (ω), as follows:
E=1/2 Jω2

The operating speed of the flywheel is limited between ωmin and ωmax to avoid excessive voltage
variation, and to limit the maximum torque applied to the electric machine . The power of a flywheel is
presented as follows:
P=Tω

where ,
T is the torque
ω is the speed of rotation.
The amount of power that can be released by a flywheel depends on the rating of the machine and the power
electronic interface.The conversion of the energy (kinetic to electrical and vice versa) was accomplished using
an electric machine. Different types of electric machines can be used in flywheel systems, such as the induction
machine, permanent magnet synchronous machine, switched reluctance machine, and synchronous homo-polar
machine .
To connect a flywheel to the grid, a power electronic converter is needed to control the operation of the machine
and the power exchange between the grid and the FESS. Varieties of power electronic interfaces exist for
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interconnecting FESS. They are selected based on parameters, including the speed of rotation, electrical loading
(AC or DC), response time, the need for high power or high energy, and parallel or series connection Flywheel
energy storage is a strong candidate for applications that require high power for the release of a large amount of
energy in a short time (typically a few seconds) with frequent charge and discharge cycles. These applications
include grid application (frequency regulation and short-time power quality services), uninterruptable power
supply (UPS), electric vehicle, rail transportation, and aerospace. Examples of the application of flywheel
energy storage in electric rail transit systems are presented in Table 1. It is worth mentioning that each project
may have used different methods for energy saving.

Advantages and disadvantages of flywheels

 Flywheels are relatively simple technology with lots of plus points compared to rivals such as
rechargeable batteries:
 in terms of initial cost and ongoing maintenance, they work out cheaper, last about 10 times longer (there
are still many working flywheels in operation dating from the Industrial Revolution),
 Flywheel are environmentally friendly (produce no carbon dioxide emissions and contain no hazardous
chemicals that cause pollution), work in almost any climate, and are very quick to get up to speed (unlike
batteries, for example, which can take many hours to charge).
 They're also extremely efficient (maybe 80 percent or more) and take up less space than batteries or
other forms of energy storage (like pumped water storage reservoirs).and these have not proved
particularly problematic.
 The simplicity of a small flywheel to be used in an electric vehicle for use as a regenerative braking
system should not be overlooked.

Fuel Cell

Fuel cells are hardly a new idea. They were invented in about 1840, but they are yet to really make their
mark as a power source for electric vehicles. However, this might be set to change over the next 20 or 30
years. Certainly most of the major motor companies are spending very large sums of money developing
fuel cell powered vehicles.

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Fuel cell is a electrochemical device that combines with hydrogen and oxygen to produce electricity
with water and heat as a byproduct.

Conversion of fuel cell to energy takes place via electromechanical process not combustion . It is clean
quiet and highly efficient process two-three times more efficient than fuel burning .
Fuel cell operates similarly to battery but it does not require recharging . As long as fuel is supplied fuel
cell will not produce both energy and heat .

Fuel cell consist of

Anode and cathode : Materials which have high electron conductivity an zero proton conductivity in the
form of porous catalyst .

Catalyst: Platinum

Electrolyte: High poros conductivity and zero electron conductivity.

Working of fuel cell:

A fuel cell consist of two catalyst coated electrodes surrounding an electrolyte one electrode is anode
and other is cathode . The process begins when hydrogen molecule enters the anode. The catalyst
coating separates hydrogen’s negatively charged electron from positively charged proton. The
electrolyte allows the protons to pass through the cathode but not the electron. Instead the electrons are
directed through an external circuit which creates electrical current . While the electron pass through
external circuit which oxygen molecule pass the cathode . There the oxygen and proton combines with
the electron after they have passed through external ciruit . When oxygen and proton combines with the
electrons it produces water and heat

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BLOCK DIAGRAM OF WIND MILL

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