Between the Image and Anthropology: Theatrical Lessons from Aby Warburg's

"Nympha"
Author(s): Kathleen M. Gough
Source: TDR (1988-) , Fall 2012, Vol. 56, No. 3 (Fall 2012), pp. 114-130
Published by: The MIT Press

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/23262937

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 Between the Image
and Anthropology
Theatrical Lessons from Aby Warburg's "Nympha"

Kathleen M. Gough

I had acquired an honest disgust of aestheticizing art history. The formal approach to the image—devoid of
an understanding of its biological necessity [...] appeared to me to lead merely to barren word-mongering.

—A by Warburg (in Gombrich [1970] 1986:88—89)'

The theater I know, for all its activity and visual splendor, has become an imageless act.

—Richard Schechner (1985:296)

In 1895, a little less than 100 years before Richard Schechner traveled to Arizona to witness the
Yaqui deer dance that he records in Between Theater and Anthropology (1985), Aby Warburg—the
progenitor of an earlier model of performance studies developed in the discipline of art his
tory—traveled to Arizona to witness the Hemis Kachinas dance (the dance of the growing
corn). Both Schechner and Warburg made this journey compelled by their desire to track ana
logical correspondences between "actual" social performances manifest in the Native American
rituals, and the "mediated" aestheticized art products that had been their life's work (for
Schechner, it was the theatre; for Warburg, the art historical image). The epigraphs that begin
this essay also echo analogical correspondences between Warburg and Schechner's projects:
where Warburg is disgusted with the academic aestheticization of the image that says nothing
about the human action that created the work (its "biological necessity"), Schechner is similarly
frustrated with a theatre that, in his imagination, seems closely aligned with "word-mongering,"
an "imageless act."

1. This quotation, dated 17 March 1923, is from Warburg's notes for a lecture he delivered on the "Serpent Ritual"
almost 30 years after making the journey to the American Southwest. Warburg delivered the lecture at a neuro
logical clinic in Kreuzlingen, Switzerland, where he had been admitted for depression and possible schizophrenia,
as a way of proving that he had been rehabilitated. These notes, translated by E.M. Gombrich and included in
Aby Warburg: An Intellectual Biography, do not appear in the published lecture (for a full text of the published lec
ture see Warburg [1923] 1995).

Kathleen M. Gough is a Lecturer in Theatre Studies at the University of Glasgow. She has published
in Modern Drama, Performance Research, Screen, and New Theatre Quarterly, as well as in edited
collections on performance and ecology, interculturalperformance in the Caribbean and Southern US
contexts, and the South in the Atlantic World. She is currently completing a monograph entitled Haptic
Allegories: Kinship and Performance in the Black and Green Atlantic. By examining how attention
to gender and performance revise historiographical practices in Atlantic Studies, Haptic Allegories also
revises, reimagines, and redeploys key concepts central to performance studies, katie.gough@glasgow.ac.uk

TDR: The Drama Review 56:3 (T215) Fall 2012. ©2012

New York University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology

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 With the publication of James Harding and Cindy Rosenthal's edited collection The Rise of
Performance Studies: Rethinking Richard Schechner's Broad Spectrum (2011), Schechner continues
to hold pride of place as one of, if not the pioneer of performance studies. I, too, wish to rethink
Schechner's "broad spectrum," and particularly his "restoration of behavior," by turning back
the clock to a time that predates the film technology that animates Schechner's theory in order
to explore the work of Aby Warburg.

Aby Warburg (1866-1929) is considered to be one of the most original art historians of
the late 19th and early 20th century. Moving between the disciplines of art history, anthropol
ogy, philosophy, psychology, and theatre, Warburg developed a performance paradigm in the
late 19th century that he called the "pathos formula," which was conceptualized around still
images of the figure of woman-in-movement, who he referred to as "Nympha." The most pro
found manifestation of this paradigm was his unfinished project, Mnemosyne (memory), a ges
tural knowledge-montage: an artistic composite of juxtaposed heterogeneous images intended
to illuminate what can be understood about historical transmission and recurrence by focusing
solely on gestural correspondences between historical and contemporary images. The images in
the montage comprise "reproductions of works of art, or manuscripts, photographs cut out of
newspapers or taken by Warburg himself" (Agamben 2009:28). At his death in 1929, Mnemosyne
comprised almost 80 plates and over 1,000 images.
In tracking these analogical correspondences between Schechner's restoration of behav
ior and Warburg's pathos formula, and in slowing down the moving image to focus on the still
images of Warburg's Nympha, it becomes clear that there is a particularly gendered dimension
to the restoration of behavior theory that is obscured when one remains "enamored by tech
nology's supposed originalities," and in thrall to thinking of the "still" as always a lag behind
(Schneider 2011:144). By considering Warburg's theories as an antecedent to Schechner's res
toration of behavior, it becomes apparent that the invocation of film strips as culturally neutral
(Schechner's "strips of behavior") inflected performance studies from the outset with a gen
dering that has been reified, reflected, and contested ever since.2 In looking to the archive as
the repertoire, I find that Warburg's Nympha has taught us, and continues to teach us about
"restored behavior."

The intricacies of Schechner's ideas and his interventions helped make possible the rise of
indiscipline in the academy. Performance studies—as a field of exploration that brings disciplin
ary preoccupations into relation—came into visibility in the academy in the 1980s with perfor
mance constituted as a critical lens. This developing field joined a larger intellectual movement
that sought to shift emphasis away from linear models of analysis that catalogue quantifi
able differences as a way of understanding human behavior (differences between past/present,
cause/effect, form/content) to an emphasis on the processes of "framing, editing and rehears
ing" (Schechner 1985:33). This emphasis underscored a desire to move away from the tenacity
of origin stories that often guide methodologies across disciplines, and direct attention to the
immediate and ephemeral present of human activity, which Schechner referred to as "actuals"
([1970] 1977:3-35). Schechner elaborated this interdisciplinary intervention (and the impor
tance of "actual"—present, immediate, ephemeral—reality) by demonstrating the "points of
contact" between theatre and anthropology, and their shared interest in the study of human I

2. Over the past two decades feminist performance studies theorists such as Elin Diamond, Rebecca Schneider, and
Diana Taylor have tacitly critiqued "the restoration of behavior" by returning to the question of mimesis. These
theorists make explicit how the body of woman — like "strips of film/behavior" in Schechner's theory—gives
meaning a place to occur without becoming meaningful itself. By implicitly gendering the strips of film/behav
ior metaphor and granting agency to the image/object, they differently highlight the gendered lacunae in the res
toration of behavior where it is the body of woman — as image or construct—that becomes the third term that
animates the between of theatre and anthropology, representation and social reality (Diamond 1997; Taylor 2003
esp. 79-93; Schneider 2011 esp. 138-68).

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 action.3 Thus, he writes, "performance means: never for the first time. It means: for the sec
ond to the nth time. Performance is 'twice behaved behavior'" (1985:36). In Between Theater and
Anthropology, Schechner discusses a near limitless number of performance practices from around
the globe (rituals, church ceremonies, happenings, theatre, dance, trance, etc.), and charts a
stunning range of interrelations between aesthetic and social behavior, between acting and non
acting, and between modes of framing and rehearsal processes. In this model, Schechner gives
performance the status of an ontological condition, and he develops this most fully in his theory
of restoration of behavior.

As Schechner explains:

Restored behavior is living behavior treated as a film director treats a strip of film. These
strips of behavior can be rearranged or reconstructed; they are independent of the causal
systems (social, psychological, technological) that brought them into existence. They have
a life of their own. How the strip of behavior was made, found and developed may be
unknown or concealed; elaborated; distorted by myth or tradition. (1985:35)

Redeploying Erving Goffman's "strips of activity" as outlined in Frame Analysis (1974),

Schechner's use of the technological metaphor of film to fashion the restoration of behavior
as "strips of behavior" is central to an understanding of how it works. This deployment of film
suggests an even more radical break from origin stories and historicist foundations than are evi
dent in Schechner's paradigm. Schechner is clearly invested in questions of historical transmis
sion through human action, aesthetic creation, and the rehearsal process, and he argues for a
break from historicist foundations in stating that "strips of behavior" have a "life of their own."
Yet if strips of behavior do, indeed, have a life of their own, what would happen if agency were
granted to the strips themselves (and not to the imaginary subject/film director who treats, rear
ranges, and reconstructs them)? Is the "strip" not "actual"? And, if not, why not?
Schechner's reliance on the medium of film to animate how restoration of behavior works
locates performance in the fast-paced, technological, and morphological world of the late 20th
century. Indeed, "film" becomes the third term that animates the between of theatre and anthro
pology, which, in this model, morph into "living behavior strips" (where aesthetic and social
activities are indistinguishable). However, when he explains this theory at greater length, we
find that: "the strips of behavior are not in themselves process but things, items, 'material'" (35).
The strips of behavior are objects, "material," and Schechner imagines the repertoire of human
behavior to be externally manifested in objects that can be rearranged and reconstructed. I want
to remind the reader at this point that in common parlance this would be referred to as "mon
tage"—a heuristic device that has, of course, also played a distinctive role in the development of
film theory and cultural theory. Similar to the way Walter Benjamin thinks of historiographical
montage, or dialectical images that reveal invisible correspondences, this embodied knowledge
passes through objects, and then back into bodies, and then back again to objects, and so on.
Just as living behavior in Schechner's model does not distinguish between aesthetic and social
activities, the strips of behavior that capture these behaviors make no distinction between osten
sibly real subjects and representational objects. In fact, these subjects and objects mobilize each
other. Similarly, the cultural construction of a social actor who has objective reality, and the
production of images that purportedly "represent" social actors (and their behavior in the the
atre and everyday life) animate each other. The agency of the social actor and the agency of the
image compete for presence. They are both the "actual."

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O 3. In order to keep the intellectual genealogy clear, Schechner developed the concept of "actuals" in an essay first
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published in 1970 and later in his 1977 publication Essays in Performance Theory. "Points of Contact" was devel
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of "restoration of behavior." Because my intention is to focus on the culmination of these concepts as they ani
-6 mate Between Theatre and Anthropology, I discuss them as part of the same formation.
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 When Schechner writes that "how the strip of behavior was made, found and developed may
be unknown or concealed; elaborated; distorted by myth or tradition," he writes with an his
torian's mind—a mind trying to animate acts of transmission that are found in the archive,
one that is interested in an object's truth claims, and curious about the repetition of tradition.
Schechner maintains his past/present distinction through his reference to film. In order to dis
tinguish how transmission of "actual" human behavior worked in the past and how it works
in the present, he writes: "neither painting, sculpture or writing shows actual behavior as it is
being behaved. But thousands of years before movies, rituals were made from strips of restored
behavior: action and stasis coexisted in the same event" (1985:36).
These two short explanatory sentences set forth two significant claims. First, Schechner sug
gests that "movies" show "actual behavior as it is being behaved" (for the sake of argument let
us believe this is the case). Second, he places stasis in the past, for stasis—as a category—is only
mentioned in relation to painting, sculpture, and writing. Before film, people relied on "painting,
sculpture and writing"; but now, because theatre and social performance as "living behavior" are
both embedded in the strips of behavior, the "actual" becomes a (necessarily) slippery category.
There is, of course, as much action in the moving image as there is stasis in the strips of film
that underscore the "deconstruction/reconstruction of actualities" (1985:33) that is the spring
board for Schechner's theory. And just as all action is not located in the (film) repertoires of the
present strips of behavior, stasis is hardly an ancient category: painting, sculpture, and writing
are not simply ancient strips of behavior, but continue to be important acts for understanding
human behavior, aesthetic process, and historical transmission.
Furthermore, how do we know that painting and sculpture represented action and stasis in
the same event? That action and stasis did occur in the same event seems to be commonsense
(after all, we all have to pause sometime). What painting and sculpture teach us, however, is how
past cultures may have understood the significance of stasis and action, and how this was trans
mitted—through aesthetic objects—from one epoch to the next (how one epoch dreamed
the one before). Yet, these objects still needed a subject to activate their pedagogy. We owe our
commonsense knowledge that stasis and action were recorded and depicted in "still" objects to
Schechner's predecessor, Aby Warburg. Thus, it is to Warburg—an art historian with his own
performance paradigm — that I now wish to turn (back) to in order to slow down the mov
ing image. Warburg's Nympha, that female figure in rapid movement, holds the same place in
Warburg's pathos formula as film strips do in Schechner's restoration of behavior paradigm. In
this respect, the Nympha is the ghost in Schechner's restoration of behavior machine, where
she is a part of the system, but not part of the image of the system. For Warburg, the pathos
formula—as a forerunner of the restoration of behavior—does not operate without her image.

The Pathos Formula

About a century before Richard Schechner developed his notion of the restoration of behav
ior, Warburg moved through the fields of anthropology, art history, philosophy, psychology, and
theatre in order to conceptualize his pathos formula. Unlike the associations of pathos in the
English language with suffering and the pathetic,

the German usage concentrated on its overtones of grandeur and sublimity. Thus the
adjective "pathetic" in English means "arousing pity," while pathetisch in the German
evokes ideas not only of acting in the "grand manner" [e.g., gestures in rituals, and more
quotidian gestures of a "grand" kind] but also of the theatrical—aspects which are both
relevant to Warburg's use of the word. (Gombrich 1986:17)

Warburg, like Schechner after him, was interested in a "montage of attractions" (Eisenstein
[1923] 1974) where he wished to explore correspondences between human action and aesthetic
creation that kept slipping out of the picture frame, then onto the stage, then into social rituals,
and then continuing to move—both forward and backward—in a non-teleological feedback

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 loop. Thus, Warburg did not
think formally about "influences"
from one artist to another, and
did not think about the his
tory of art as a story of aesthetic
progress. Instead, he created a
gestural knowledge-montage
and, thus, rejected the matri
ces of intelligibility on which so
much intellectual work depends
(see Didi-Huberman 2007:13).
Georges Didi-Huberman
explains that the pathos formula

gave art history access to

a fundamental anthropo
logical dimension—that
of the symptom. Here the
symptom is understood
as movement in bodies, a
movement that fascinated

Warburg not only because

Figures 1 and 2 (facing page). Hemis Kachina dance-—the dance of the growing he considered it "passion
corn. Warburg discusses the dramaturgy of the Kachina dance in his 1923 lecture, ate agitation" but also
Images from the Region of the Pueblo Indians of North America. Oraibi, because he judged it an
Arizona, May 1896. (Photo by Aby Warburg, courtesy of the Warburg Institute, "external prompting."
University of London) (2007:15)

In Warburg's analysis, the

object has agency: the subject is animating the object as much as the object is prompting the
subject. This external prompting led Warburg's attention beyond the Quattrocento paintings
of the early Italian Renaissance that he had studied and into the world of performance as it was
occurring in his own lifetime. In recollecting a trip he made to Native American settlements
in the 1890s (quoted in the first epigraph to this essay), Warburg stated that he had "acquired
an honest disgust of the aestheticizing of art history," and believed that "the formal approach
to the image [was] devoid of [an] understanding of its biological necessity." He took off for the
American Southwest in the same year that he published a theatre history of sorts, an analy
sis of the Intermedi performed at the Medici court in Florence in 1589, on the occasion of the
marriage between the Archduke Ferdinand I and Christina of Lorraine, who "was greeted by
the living compendium of Florentine festive pageantry" (Warburg [1895] 1999b:350). Having
located "Buontalenti's original designs and the account books for the theatrical costumes, as
well as a number of engravings" of the festival performances, Warburg wished to turn what,
to the contemporary eye, appeared as "dry and bizarre enumerations into vividly remembered
images" (350). Thus, he writes, "it is a pleasure and an honour for me to take the opportunity
which presents itself and, in an essay on art history, to attempt to describe the historical position
of the Intermedi of 1589 within the evolution of theatrical taste" (350).

When Warburg made his American journey in 1895-96, he was attempting to locate an
intermediary stage between image and text that he had found when examining theatre in the
bp
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Italian Renaissance archives. He continued to trace the "biological necessity" of representative
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o images by observing the ritual dances in the Native American repertoire (what Schechner would
s later describe as an "actual," where art is an event [Schechner 1988:36]). While Warburg did go
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looking for "survivals" from the past that were still present among "primitive" cultures, his real
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-s interest was in conducting an "ethnography of surfaces": an examination of what Alan Feldman
£

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describes as the "sites, stages,
and templates upon which his
tory is constructed as a cultural
object" (1991:2). In Warburg's
1923 lecture on his visit to the
American Southwest, he tells
his audience that he is "unable
to give depth to my impres
sions, as I had not mastered the
Indian language" and "a jour
ney limited to several weeks
could not impart truly profound
impressions" ([1923] 1995:1-2).
Instead, he took over 100 pho
tographs of the ritual partici
pants with particular attention
to costumes worn (see figs. 1 and
2), of totemic objects used in
the performances, and of every
day objects depicting images
that to Warburg were akin to
hieroglyphs.4

Warburg used the Native American ritual events to think through correspondences to his
work on the Intermedi performances at the Florentine court (see Michaud 1998). This is not
only evident in Warburg's attention to the colors of costumes, sounds of the instruments, dra
maturgy of the events, and movement of the Kachina dances in Oraibi that he photographs and
discusses in his 1923 lecture ([1923] 1995:21-30), but quite explicitly in the lone image of a
young woman carrying a pot on her head, which depicts a bird in flight (see fig. 3). In discuss
ing both the object and its movement through an examination of the body of the woman, he
states, "We have here an intermediary stage [...] between a realistic mirror image and writing"
(8). Thus, it is the body of the woman that mediates the between of image and text: she is the
"actual" event.

This fascination with live performance in both the historical archives and the Native
American repertoire was prompted by Warburg's earlier research for his dissertation in the
early 1890s, in which he turned to theatre to study Botticelli's The Birth of Venus and Spring. In
that study, he attempted to find evidence for how the depiction of "running Nymphs" in early
Italian Renaissance art had their "origins" in theatrical performances that were, perhaps, wit
nessed by early Renaissance artists:

Once we assume that festive performances set the character before the artist's eyes as liv
ing, moving beings, then the creative process becomes easier to follow. The program sup
plied by the humanist adviser loses its taint of pedantry: the inspirer is not imposing an >
object to be imitated, but simply facilitating its articulation. ([1893] 1999a:125)
cr

This was Warburg's first attempt to take the image out of the frame, to analyze it outside of the
I
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prescribed methods of tracking influences between artists and theories of aesthetic progress and crq

into the "actual" world of theatrical spectating. When he witnessed Native American rituals in PS
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the American Southwest, "the phenomena he had studied in Florentine Intermedi reappeared in hd
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effective form in the Native American performances as representations of enigmatic forces that -!

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4. Ninety of Warburg's American photographs—half of those that survive—are published in Photographs at the CO

Frontier: Aby Warburg in America 1895—1896 (Guidi and Mann 1998). a

B?
fir

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 borrowed human form to find
expression" (Michaud 2007:33).
It was the theatre that first made
painted figures and then social
rituals "actual" and "real" to
him. However, before embark
ing on his careers as theatre
historian and amateur anthro
pologist (or performance studies
theorist), Warburg began with
the question of the image—an
image that was unmanly and that
unmanned him throughout his
career: a rapidly moving female
figure performing acrobatic
flights across disciplines, histori
cal epochs, and a vast geographi
cal and theatrical terrain.

The Figure of Woman

in Movement

While doing archival research

on the Quattrocento art of the
early Italian Renaissance, and
attempting to understand how
artists had interpreted antiquity
in their paintings — how that
epoch had dreamed the one
before—Warburg began to
notice something that no art his
torian before him had fully con
sidered: he started to notice that

the paintings were moving (see

Figure 3. Young woman with pot depicting a bird in flight. This Gombrich 1986). While analyz
image is analyzed by Warburg in order to illuminate how the body ing Botticelli's The Birth of Venus
of the woman mediates the between of image and text: she is the and Spring he began to see a lot
"actual" event. Arizona, 1896. (Courtesy of the Warburg Institute, of fluttering: the fluttering of
University of London) draperies, of curls in the hair,
and—most significantly—the
fluttering of the dresses on the female models used to depict the nymphs (figs. 4 and 5). He
started to refer to these fluttering objects as "accessory forms in motion" ([1893] 1999a:l 17),
and this "material" (used quite literally here) can be considered as a forerunner to "strips of
behavior." Philippe-Alain Michaud explains this transition from the canonical view in art history
that Renaissance paintings of antiquity were modeled on the "motionless, well-balanced body"
to Warburg's theory that "the body was caught up in a play of overwhelming forces":

By placing the emphasis on the phenomena of transition over the treatment of bodies
J3
0[j at rest, on what divides the figure over what pulls it together, and on becoming over the
3
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motionless form, Warburg [...] replaced the model of sculpture with that of dance, accen
o
tuating the dramatic, temporal aspects of the works. (2007:27-28)
s
a
o
In many respects, Warburg's thinking was prompted by The Birth of Tragedy from the Spirit of
-5 Music (1872), in which Nietzsche outlines an intellectual dichotomy between Apollonian still
iS

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ness and Dionysian ecstatic
movement (see Gombrich 1986:
257-58; Michaud 2007:30).
This is one of the contexts that
allows for an understanding of
why Warburg's eyes kept seeing
the movement of nymphs and
thinking about their destabiliz
ing force. However, even in this
early dialogue with Nietzsche's
ideas, there is the seed of
another question. In notes from
September 1890, grouped under
the title "spectator and move Figures 4 and 5 (below). Sandro Botticelli, Birth of Venus,
ment," he writes:
c. 1486, and Spring, c. 1482. In Botticelli's The Birth of Venus
With the introduction of the and Spring Warburg began to see the fluttering of drapery, of curls

forward-moving figures, the in the hair, and—most significantly—of the dresses on the female

spectator was constrained to models used to depict the nymphs that he refers to as "accessory forms
in motion."
exchange comparative for
anthropomorphic [i.e., ana
logical] observations. The
question was no longer
"What does this expression
mean" but "Where is it mov
ing to?" [...]
Figures whose cloth
ing or hair is moved can
receive this movement from

their own bodily movements

[their agency], or else from
the wind [external prompt
ing], or from both together.
They move on a plane par
allel to the spectator, so that
the spectator can believe
in forward movement only
when he moves his eyes, (in
Michaud 2007:82)5

When Warburg shifted the question from "what does this expression mean?" to "where is it
moving to?" he opened up a labyrinth that he continued to move through over the next three
decades. For him, it was not that the expression did not have meaning, but that the objects on >
cr
which that meaning was predicated were not stable. The female figure in rapid motion was not
simply a symbol that referred to a higher level of meaning other than itself. That is, it was no
mere allegory. As Peter Burger has written, "the insertion of reality fragments in the work of art
fundamentally transforms that work. The parts are no longer signs pointing to reality, they are
reality" (1984:78). It is only in taking seriously the female figure in rapid motion (not what she

5. This passage, taken from Aby Warburg, "Grundlegende Bruchstucke zu einer pragmatischen Ausdruckskunde"
(Ground-laying fragments for a pragmatic study of expression), is an unpublished work translated and excerpted
in Michaud (2007).

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 represented but the real body, and those real "accessories in motion," depicted in the paintings
at the moment of the painting's making), that we can divine meaning at all.
For Warburg, pictorial allegories depicted in Italian Renaissance painting had haptic qual
ities. If we could come to understand where they were moving to, how they touched us, and
how they were a part of our own movement, we might better come to understand ourselves.
Warburg suggested this possibility when he sought to animate the figures on the same plane as
himself, as the spectator. When the figure steps out of the picture frame and starts to inhabit the
world, he posited that the spectator can now "believe in forward movement" because he "moves
his eyes." Yet how did Warburg experience this movement?
The haptic movements of the image took on various forms and lives in Warburg's think
ing between 1890 and his death in 1929. As he kept asking the question "where is the fig
ure moving to?" he found himself following it across geographical space and historical times.
He linked Quattrocento painting to theatrical performance through the image of the "run
ning Nymphs," used theatrical pageantry as the basis to understand Florentine art, connected
the contemporary Native American rituals in the American Southwest to the movement he
saw in Renaissance pageantry, and then returned to the figure of woman-in-movement in his
last project, Mne?nosyne (see fig. 6). Thus, while he moved — and his temporal and geographic
frames of reference moved—there was one movement that stayed constant: he never lost sight
of the Nympha. The female figure in rapid movement accompanied Warburg throughout his
nomadic and peripatetic wanderings. Whether he looked backward or forward, she held his
hand and walked with him the whole time. "Warburg was not content to discover the return of
pathos in motion in the works in question; he surrendered himself to the pathos of movement he
invented" (Didi-Huberman 2007:13). Thus, on the most profound of analogical levels, Warburg
understood that the Nympha was not just a part of him, but that he was a part of her.6

In the next section I explore how the fin de siecle epoch in which Warburg's own move
ments took place enabled his imagination of the Italian Renaissance. Furthermore, his dreams
of/for the past, activated through movements in his lifetime, enable my dreams of/for the
future by attempting to articulate the political possibilities that the Nympha suggests when she
finally befriends her long lost kin: those strips of living behavior that animate the restoration
of behavior.

Lessons from the Nympha

Although attuned to the Nympha's movement across continents and vast historical trajectories,
Warburg is quieter on the subject of how her movement in his own lifetime inspired his intel
lectual imaginings of the Italian Renaissance. What sort of connection did he fail to see because
he felt them so near—moving through them, in them, and with them? In the year 1900, when
Warburg was still trying to grasp the challenges of thinking with and through the female fig
ure in rapid motion, he and his friend Andre Jolles exchanged a series of fictitious letters to free
Warburg from having to think through the project in solely academic terms. It was a short-lived
correspondence, but Jolles's first letter to Warburg, written on 23 November 1900, begins the
process of making a series of correspondences that illuminate the fin de siecle preoccupation
with the images of the New Woman and the question of women's suffrage that animated polit
ical and social life at the turn of the century. Because Jolles's letter elucidates this relationship
between contemporary women and the classical image, I quote it at length:

bo
S
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6. In Flesh of My Flesh Kaja Silverman writes: "analogy is the correspondence of two more things with each other
S [...] Since we cannot affirm analogies linking us to other people unless we acknowledge that we are bound by the
c
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same limits, we are reluctant to do so" (2009:40). For a wider discussion of the importance of analogy in critical
ju
*6 and philosophical thought see "Orpheus Rex," in Silverman (2009:37-58).
s2

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Figure 6. Warburg's interdisciplinary search for correspondences between aesthetic and social activity
culminated in his last project, Mnemosyne, a gestural knowledge-montage comprised of over 80 plates and
1,000 images. Plate 39 ofAby Warburgs "Atlas of Images, "Mnemosyne, c. 1923. (Courtesy of the Warburg
Institute, University of London)
3
o

Behind them, close to the open door, there runs—no, that is not the word, there flies, or
rather there hovers—the object of my dreams, which slowly assumes the proportion of a
charming nightmare. A fantastic figure — should I call her a servant girl, or rather a classi
cal nymph? [...] This lively, light-footed and rapid gait, this striding step, which contrasts
with the aloof distance of all other figures, what is the meaning of it all? [...]

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 My condition varied between a bad dream and a fairy tale [...] Sometimes she was
Salome dancing with her death-dealing charm in front of the licentious tetrarch; some
times she was Judith carrying proudly and triumphantly with a gay step the head of the
murdered commander; then again she appeared to hide in the boy-like grace of little
Tobias [...] Sometimes I saw her in a seraph flying towards God in adoration and then in
Gabriel announcing good tidings. I saw her as a bridesmaid expressing innocent joy at the
Sposalizio and again as a fleeing mother, the terror of death in her face, at the Massacre of
the Innocents.

I lost my reason. It was always she who brought life and movement into an other
wise calm scene. Indeed, she appeared to be the embodiment of movement [...] but is it
very unpleasant to be her lover? [...] Who is she? Where does she come from? Have I
encountered her before? I mean one and a half millennia earlier? Does she come from a
noble Greek lineage, and did her great-grandmother have an affair with people from Asia
Minor, Egypt or Mesopotamia? (in Gombrich 1986:107-8)

Thus, Jolles begins to help Warburg chart two seemingly contradictory impulses at play
across a spectrum of contemporary and classical images representing the female body in move
ment. On the one hand, his discussion turns on different figures of a "generic image" that
seems both singular and ubiquitous. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, "the generic
image constitutes the connecting link between ideation and conception".7 Taking "conception"
by its literal definition as "the action of conceiving, or fact of being conceived, in the womb",8
Jolles ends his letter by asking, "Does she come from a noble Greek lineage, and did her great
grandmother have an affair with people from Asia Minor, Egypt or Mesopotamia?" What
Warburg is attempting to understand, and what Jolles is attempting to help him imagine, is how
the generic image connects our understanding of an idea and its conception. Warburg, him
self, struggles with his historical training, which demands that he look for origins and meaning
through the particularity of a single discipline, and his interest in performance and movement,
which obliges him to think not of origins, but recurrence, of seconds that are firsts, of copies
that are original, of citations, of doubles—i.e., the restoration of behavior.
This "history" of a generic image in movement is the acknowledgement that images that
appear as singular are repeated across time and space ("they have a life of their own"). They
are bound together through their analogical movements, and they are, in turn, bound to us if
we have the capacity to behold them. Beholding them requires us to think history as action,
to externalize psychology so that action and not "character" becomes the locus of inquiry.
"Because of the fact that this research was conducted through the medium of images," Giorgio
Agamben writes, "it was believed that the image was also its object. Warburg instead trans
formed the image into a decisively historical and dynamic element" (2000:53). The movement
of the image—seemingly unrestricted by time and space — that Warburg found simultaneously
fearful and full of "liberation and emancipation" (Gombrich 1986:127) was rendered visible less
through the machinations of photography and early film (as it is often theorized), than through
the fin de siecle New Woman asserting her right to "unrestricted movement" most evident
in the change from "tight-laced and restricted respectability of fashion" to "free flowing gar
ments" (Gombrich 1986:109). That is, "accessory forms in motion" were not simply an art his
torical conceit. The issue of women's dress was at the center of debates regarding social reform
and suffrage at the turn of the century—in the form of conduct books, journalistic editorials
and cartoons, and most significantly, it was manifested in the "actual" dresses worn by women,

bo
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o 7. OED Online, s.v. "generic image," www.oed.com/view/Entry/77527?redirectedFrom=generic%20image
s #eid 132862923 (21 March 2012).
CS
<L>
W 8. OED Online, s.v. "conception," www.oed.com/view/Entry/38137?redirectedFrom=conception#eid
(21 March 2012).

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which allowed them "unrestricted movement in sport and dance," that "was very much a live
issue at the time" (109; emphasis added).
This is not, of course, to say that photography and early film were not important to his
thinking, but that they have played a large part in obscuring some fundamental material details.
For instance, Michaud writes:

Warburg's method—the application of which ranged progressively from the analysis of

static figures in 1893 to the generalized montage of Mnemosyne, to which he devoted him
self from 1923 —was entirely based on an aesthetic of movement that was expressed at
the end of the nineteenth century by the nascent cinema. (2007:39)

Michaud's own methods in this sentence belie a progress narrative that is not only "enam
ored with technology's supposed originalities" (Schneider 2011:144), but also one that does
not account for "living behavior." The details that Warburg concentrated on in theorizing his
pathos formula (the Nympha, "accessories in motion") suggest that his thinking did not follow
a straight line from the still image to the moving image. In fact, like Schechner's decades-long
project of attempting to name the restoration of behavior, Warburg continued to think—in a
usefully circuitous fashion—through the pathos formula in a way that was both syncopated and
punctuated by the spectacular display of living bodies on which the argument for film technol
ogy is predicated. Between the painted (and photographic) image and the film projection lies the
theatre in all of its meta manifestations: the changing of costumes, the brandishing of placards,
and the movement of bodies on the street and on the stage.
Through the bodies of contemporary women changing their dress, and in the politics of his
own lifetime, Warburg began to see a decisively historical and dynamic movement depicted in
artistic images. Warburg's biographer, E.M. Gombrich, suggests that the "female figure in art
was naturally drawn into this conflict" (1986:109). While it is important that he acknowledges
that political and aesthetic movements at the fin de siecle were a part of the same conversation,
Gombrich (like Michaud in a different context) fails to acknowledge that she—the Nympha, the
New Woman, the dancer, the actress, the activist—made her first bodily appearances in stage
melodrama and in the tableaux vivant before taking up residence, quite naturally, in the theat
rical world of stage naturalism where playwrights attempted to come to terms with the New
Woman's appearance in social life. Given Warburg's interest in the theatre (he attended the
early dance performances of Isadora Duncan—a fin de siecle paradigm of the Nympha if there
ever was one); his professed kinship with the playwright George Bernard Shaw (Warburg wrote
a play on Hamburg social reform in 1896 which he and his family performed for his fiance,
the artist Mary Hertz9); and his ethnographic fieldwork in the American Southwest in 1895
(where he began to see in Native American rituals the impulse he noticed in Italian Renaissance
art that depicted theatrical scenes), the theatrical routes for his own performance theory bear
some remark.

It was via theatrical routes that he was able to conceptualize his pathos formula, which he
then manifested in his vast and ambitious gestural knowledge-montage, Mnemosyne. Major
studies of Warburg's theories, as evidenced by Gombrich and Michaud, operate by way of a
tacit antitheatrical prejudice. This is because of theatre's lack of medium specificity, an inabil
ity for theatre to stay within a clearly demarcated disciplinary framework so that the spectator
can enjoy sole agency over the "object" in question. In this respect these studies echo Michael
Fried's comments in his 1967 essay, "Art and Objecthood." In this essay, Fried states that "the
concept of quality and value-—and the extent that these are central to art, the concept of art
itself—are meaningful, or wholly meaningful, only within the individual arts. What lies between
the arts is theater" ([1967] 1995:142). Of course, wherever anti-theatricality looms, we find its

9. For a thorough discussion of Warburg's play see Russell (2006).

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 kinsman, anti-feminism, holding its hand tightly (see Diamond 1997). For Warburg, however,
what productively lies (and moves) between mediums is precisely the theater, and that "theater"
is animated by the figure of woman in movement.

The New Woman—as she appeared on the Ibsenite stage, in the dances of Isadora Duncan,
on bicycles, and in political rallies—in all of her vast incarnations at the turn of the century, was
the paradigm of the Nympha, while the Nympha was a paradigm for these ubiquitous incarna
tions. She was that force that allowed Warburg to see haptic qualities in the pictorial allegories,
while pictorial allegories allowed Warburg to see the real force of a political movement that
could never be separated from aesthetic movements. This is performance as "twice-behaved
behavior," where that move between the image and anthropology comes into view not through
the technology of film, but through the pervasive political and theatrical movements of women.

This long historical view traces a path from Warburg's theorizing of the "still" image in rapid
motion, to the image that still ghosts the strips of behavior that lie between theatre and anthro
pology in Schechner's restoration of behavior. As Gombrich has written in regards to Warburg's
reaction to the female figure in rapid motion, "the period flavor" of his thinking about the
Nympha is unmistakable, "but it should not blind us to the possibility that the special situation
in which [he worked] enabled him to see more than we see today" (1986:110).

Mnemosyne
Warburg's philosophy of the Mneme appeared to justify that what he called "a ghost story for the fully
grown-up" could be told in pictures alone.

—E.M. Gombrich (1986:287)

What does a document of a woman's pose document? Can a pose stand as evidence of active agency if the
essential action of a pose is theatrical, citational, or always in an anachronistic or temporally syncopated
relationship to action?

—Rebecca Schneider (2011:152—53)

At the time of his death in 1929, Warburg had not finished his Mnemosyne project. He left a
series of almost 80 plates that montaged over 1,000 images revealing gestural correspondences
that could be understood as prototypes for Schechner's "strips of behavior." Warburg col
lected "reproductions of works of art, or manuscripts, photographs cut out of newspapers or
taken by Warburg himself" (Agamben 2009:28). To make clear the complexity and ambition
of Warburg's project, Giorgio Agamben discusses, in detail, plate 46 (see fig. 7) based on the
theme Pathosformulen (the pathos formula). The plate is made up of 27 images "where what is in
question is the origin and history of the iconographic theme 'figure of woman in movement.'"
Agamben explains that one way of reading the plates is to try to arrange the "individual images
in chronological order by following the probable generic relations that, binding one to another,
would eventually lead us back to the archetype, to the 'formula of pathos' from which they
all originate." However, a closer look reveals that there is no one origin. That is, "none of the
images are original, just as none is simply a copy or repetition." In this way, just as "it is impossi
ble to distinguish between creation and performance, original and execution" so Warburg's for
mula of pathos comprises "hybrids of archetype and phenomena, first-timeness and repetition."
The figure of the Nympha, which at first glance seems to be the originary image reveals itself to
be both original and copy. "Or to be more precise, in accordance with the constitutive ambigu
ity of Plato's dialectic, the nymph is the paradigm of the single images, and the single images are
J3
be
53
the paradigms of the nymph" (Agamben 2009:29).
C
o What Agamben does not discuss in this brilliant formulation and articulation of Warburg's
s plate is that the theory used to understand what the plate is doing is inextricably tied to the
g
<L> content. The content is not incidental. "The figure of woman in movement" is the condition of
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possibility for a discussion that elucidates the impossible source of the "formula of pathos," for
£

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 £
Figure 7. Plate 46 ofAby Warburg's "Atlas of Images," Mnemosyne, c. 1923. (Courtesy of the Warburg
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being "neither archaic nor contemporary," and for underscoring the "constitutive ambiguity of hd
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Plato's dialectic." As Nicole Loraux succinctly argues in regards to the place of woman in Greek 3
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philosophy and myth as theorized by Plato, '"Out of the earth, the illustrious lame one mod 5
P

eled a being exactly like a chaste virgin.' In this is all the truth of the female: woman resembles
virgin, woman resembles woman, which is to say that she is entirely and essentially a semblance." CO
B
Thus, for the Greeks " 'false woman' is not a disguised man but woman herself" (Loraux c_

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 2000:6). Here, we return to the "deconstruction/reconstruction of actualities" that is the spring
board for Schechner's restoration of behavior by other means: means that make it possible to
consider Mnemosyne as a "ghost story for the fully grown-up" that both echoes and anticipates
Rebecca Schneider's question, "What does the document of a -woman'spose document?"
Schneider's question usefully captures the lacunae in the restoration of behavior that I am
discussing. In her Performing Remains: Art and War in Times of Theatrical Reenactment, Schneider
illuminates the relation between the "still," the "live," and the "still live," by thinking photog
raphy and theatre together. While she cites Schechner's "broad spectrum" on a number of
occasions, she also advocates "an increase in analysis less enamored of technology's supposed
originalities" (2011:144). In many respects, her project is so successful because she shuttles
backwards and forwards, montaging reproductions of works of art from the 15 th century; pho
tographs taken from newspapers; 19th-century theatrical stills; and 20th-century photographic
stills that are theatrically staged, alongside pictures taken by the author herself (where the "still
live" is brought together by means of contemporary Civil War reenactments).
Schneider's capacity to begin by way of analogical correspondences to bring together a mul
titude of unlikely kin in such a dexterous way makes one feel at home (but no less haunted and
uncomfortable for being there), peering into a world where Civil War reenactments, Cindy
Sherman's photography, a discussion of Abu Ghraib photos of torture, the plays of Suzan-Lori
Parks, a Ghent altar piece from 1472, and the Wooster Group share the same time-space. What
is, to me, equally fascinating is that in a book that reconceptualizes the restoration of behav
ior by means of interanimating the still image and the live body, the photographic and the the
atrical, Warburg's project is never mentioned; yet Schneider's thinking is deeply Warburgian.
Similar to Benjamin, whose dialectical images reveal invisible correspondences, Schneider
examines the repertoire as the archive in a way that is the counterpart of Warburg's examina
tion of the archive as repertoire — an examination that, in her words, "takes kaleidoscopic turns
in intersecting directions, touching on multiple times, variant places, and overlapping fields
of academic inquiry" (2011:1). That those running Nymphs would finally find kinship with
those strips of behavior through the work of a feminist performance studies theorist who has
profoundly moved our thinking in regards to the "constitutive ambiguity of Plato's dialectic"
seems — in hindsight—completely fitting.10

In fact, Schneider is telling a "ghost story for the fully grown-up," a story that is able to
move ahead of itself by moving behind, pausing the tape, and watching the still. I felt that
haunting, that recurrence, when I saw that the Nympha had flown in multiple directions, run
ning into herself in Cindy Sherman's photographs where she was actress, artist, director, and
photographer—singular and ubiquitous, seemingly still and always in motion. Alongside a
handful of other female photographer/artists in the 1970s, Sherman was a game changer.
Interestingly, her 1977-1980 series Untitled Film Stills "in which Sherman photographed her
self in a series of images that appeared to be stills from B-grade movies" (Schneider 2011:151)
occurred while Schechner was working out the prototype for what he eventually called the res
toration of behavior—theories of performance that were printed throughout the 1960s and
1970s in the pages of TDR, and then in his 1977 publication Essays on Performance Theory, before
culminating in his 1985 paradigm-shifting study Between Theater and Anthropology.

During the decades that Schechner was working on theatre's relationship to "actual"
human behavior, female photographers became both subject and object by eventually think
ing "strips of behavior" as "strips of film" that a film director could treat, rearrange, and recon
struct: operating the system and becoming the image of the system. Of course, that "still" was
bfi
3
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o
s§ 10. In addition to Schneider's Performing Remains, see Schneider (2001 and 2004) for further interventions
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into the ways that Platonic thinking has linked antitheatricality to antifeminism in an array of artistic and
JD
2 technological contexts.
o3

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also live and in stereo, as the new New Woman, or the new old woman, was back on the political
agenda and out on the streets in a way not seen, felt, or heard since that earlier feminist wave.
This is the Nympha's most profound political gesture-, her first "wave" at the turn of the cen
tury when Warburg theorized his pathos formula was felt, echoed, reverberated, and returned
during her second wave when Schechner was establishing his own performance paradigm. As
Schneider through Warburg, or Warburg through Schneider illuminates, while the Nympha
does not appear in the image of the restoration of behavior system, she was always and every
where the condition of possibility of its movement. It is not only Schechner's "passionate agita
tion" that is manifest in the pages of TDR, Essays on Perfoivnance Theory, and Between Theater and
Anthropology, but, like Warburg, Schechner's theory was also informed by a feminist "external
prompting" (Didi-Huberman 2007:15).
Performance studies' desire to undo or resist historicism does so at the risk of reifying
the very notion of "origin stories" that it seeks to dismantle. The interrelationship between
the visual arts and objects of performance studies research is typically theorized as begin
ning around 1968. This is the same moment that is cited as fomenting the antagonistic rela
tionship between theatre and performance studies (see Bottoms 2003). By taking a longer and
wider view, it becomes clear that the theatrical "real"—through the figure of woman in move
ment—has been mediating the "actual" relationship between aesthetic and social performance
across the disciplines for at least a century. What the Nympha teaches us when we look back
is that she is "still" here because she's been there—marching, walking, performing, directing,
and embodying paradigms in performance theory—the whole time. As Warburg knew only too
well, the movement that he saw—and felt—began long before he arrived on the scene, and
would continue long after he left the performance. Or, as Rebecca Schneider moves us out of
her moving and haunting work, "Never, Again. / And, now, again" (2011:186).

References

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