Sociology

SEMESTER -3

A RESEARCH PAPER ON :

Issues of groundwater contamination in

india

SUBMITTED TO :
Prof. Vrinda mohan
Submitted by :
Divyanshu Singh
DIVISION B
Roll No : B059

Index:

Kirit P.Mehta School of law Page 1

Serial .no Topic Page .no

1. INTRODUCTION 3-4

2. Research methodology 5

3. Statement of purpose 6

4 Review of literature 6-7

5. Research objective 7

6. Analysis 8-12

7. suggestion 13-14

8. conclusion
14-15

9. bibliography
16

Introduction

Kirit P.Mehta School of law Page 2

Ground water is an essential and vital component of our life support system. The
ground water resources are being utilized for drinking, irrigation and industrial
purposes. There is growing concern on deterioration of ground water quality due to
geogenic and anthropogenic activities. The quality of ground water has undergone
a change to an extent that the use of such water could be hazardous. Increase in
overall salinity of the ground water and/or presence of high concentrations of
fluoride, nitrate, iron, arsenic, total hardness and few toxic metal ions have been
noticed in large areas in several states of India. Ground water contains wide
varieties of dissolved inorganic chemical constituents in various concentrations as
a result of chemical and biochemical interactions between water and the geological
materials through which it flows and to a lesser extent because of contribution
from the atmosphere and surface water bodies.

The crucial role groundwater plays as a decentralized source of drinking water for
millions rural and urban families cannot be overstated. According to some
estimates, it accounts for nearly 80 per cent of the rural domestic water needs, and
50 per cent of the urban water needs in India. Groundwater is generally less
susceptible to contamination and pollution when compared to surface water bodies.
Also, the natural impurities in rainwater, which replenishes groundwater systems,
get removed while infiltrating through soil strata. But, In India, where groundwater
is used intensively for irrigation and industrial purposes, a variety of land and
water-based human activities are causing pollution of this precious resource. Its
over-exploitation is causing aquifer contamination in certain instances, while in
certain others its unscientific development with insufficient knowledge of
groundwater flow dynamic and geo-hydrochemical processes has led to its
mineralization.

The period for which harmful contaminants persist in groundwater varies by huge
magnitudes – from few days or weeks for most biological contamination to
centuries or more for several pesticides and industrial pollutants. The extent of
impact of these pollutants on environment and human health also varies. Illness
like diarrhoea and viral infections generally subside within a week whereas
diseases such as Fluorosis and Arsenicosis can be lifelong afflictions. The social,
health and economic impacts of such groundwater contamination depend not only
on the spatial distribution of contamination in aquifers and the dependence of the
population on that contaminated water but also on other aspects such as awareness
Kirit P.Mehta School of law Page 3
of water quality, level of education and economic status of the populace at risk. A
detailed understanding of the physical processes, the socio-economic and
psychological behaviours behind the problem is necessary to provide a perspective
that can guide us towards informed policies for bringing about improvement in the
current situation.

Kirit P.Mehta School of law Page 4

Research methodology:
In recent years, the increasing threat to groundwater quality due to human activities
has become a matter of great concern. A vast majority of groundwater quality
problems present today are caused by contamination and by overexploitation, or by
combination of both. Rapid urbanization and industrialization in India has resulted
in steep increase of generation of wastes. Due to lack of adequate infrastructure
and resources the waste is not properly collected, treated and disposed; leading to
accumulation and infiltration causing groundwater contamination. The problem is
more severe in and around large cities as also various clusters of industries. In
many of these areas groundwater is only source of drinking water, thus a large
population is exposed to risk of consuming contaminated water. In this background
Central Pollution Control Board with the help of its Zonal offices, the National
Institute of Hydrology (NIH) and the Pollution Control Research Institute (PCRI)
of Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd. (BHEL) initiated a detailed survey of
groundwater quality in problem areas of industrial clusters and metro cities of
India. The results of this Survey with respect to 16 problem areas and 8 metro
cities are summarized in this Report.

The Report presents the environmental profiles of metropolitan cities and Problem
Areas identified by CPCB and their groundwater quality status. The groundwater
quality data obtained during Survey were evaluated against drinking water quality
requirements

Salinity, nitrate, Coliform & Fluoride are the main water quality issues in the metro
cities and problem areas of the country. Considering the competing demand on this
scarce resource, the Report highlights the judicious use of groundwater and also
remedial measures needed to overcome the problems. We hope the information
contained in the Report would be useful to all concerned

Kirit P.Mehta School of law Page 5

Statement of Purpose :
Groundwater is the foremost source of water for domestic, agricultural and industrial purposes in
several countries. Due to human and industrial activities the ground water is contaminated.This
is the serious problem now a day. Due to industrial, municipal and agricultural waste containing
pesticides, insecticides, fertilizer residues and heavy metals with water groundwater has been
polluted by leaching process. The effects of groundwater pollution are wide. In this paper the
overview of ground water pollution due to industrial as well as anthropogenic activities. Water
quality is affected by both point and non-point sources of pollution. These include sewage
discharge, discharge from industries, run-off from agricultural fields and urban run-off. Analysis
of the water quality is very important to preserve and prefect the natural eco system. The
assessment of the ground water various technologies has been developed and management
practices should be carried out periodically to protect the water resources.

Review of literature:

By Keith Schneider, Circle of Blue, December 4, 2018

In this article author had discussed about the basic data points collected by the Indian
government, and no longer veiled from public view, illustrate the widening emergency. India
uses or consumes more than 600 billion cubic meters (158 trillion gallons) of water annually.  Of
that amount, 245 billion cubic meters are drawn from aquifers. 

India is more dependent on water pumped from aquifers than any other nation

India is more dependent on water pumped from aquifers than any other nation — it accounts for
about a quarter of global demand for groundwater, according to the World Bank. More than 90
percent of groundwater in India is used for irrigated agriculture. The remainder — 24 billion
cubic meters — supplies 85 percent of the country’s drinking water. Roughly 80 percent of
India’s 1.35 billion residents depend on groundwater for both drinking and irrigation.

2. Not just scarcity, groundwater contamination is India’s hidden

crisis

By Malavika Vyawahare
In this article author had discussed about how three-quarters of India’s rural population depends
on groundwater for drinking, but the country’s aquifers are not only under tremendous stress, the
quality of water they provide is also deteriorating.
Government data says 94% of the population has access to improved water sources but this
number does not tell the whole story. If you dig deeper and question the quality of available
water, the crisis becomes murkier and more dangerous.

Kirit P.Mehta School of law Page 6

Surface water contamination receives a lot of attention because of the visible pollution of this
water. In India, 19 states have reported fluoride contamination of water and groundwater in at
least 10 states is contaminated with arsenic.
India has over 30 million groundwater extraction points and barring a handful, in all states a
majority of wells have registered declining water levels in the pre-monsoon months over a
decade from 2006 to 2015.
In pockets of Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Delhi, Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka, Maharashtra,
Punjab, Rajasthan, Telangana and West Bengal the problem is particularly acute.

Research objective:
To discuss about issues and consequences of groundwater contamination in india

To discuss about measures which can be taken to avoid groundwater contamination

in india

Research question:

What are various issues of groundwater contamination in india ?

How does groundwater contamination effect our environment and humans ?

What measures can be taken to avoid groundwater contamination in india ?

Hypothesis:

“The greater the credibility of the content of the message, the greater the
personal involvement in ground water conservation practices.”

Kirit P.Mehta School of law Page 7

7. Analysis
Impact of groundwater contamination in india
The incidence of fluoride above permissible levels of 1.5ppm occur in 14 Indian states, namely,
Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra,
Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal affecting a total of 69
districts, according to some estimates. Some other estimates find that 65 per cent of India’s
villages are exposed to fluoride risk. High levels of salinity are reported from all these states
except West Bengal and also the NCT of Delhi, and affects 73 districts and three blocks of Delhi.
Iron content above permissible level of 0.3 ppm is found in 23 districts from 4 states, namely,
Bihar, Rajasthan, Tripura and West Bengal and coastal Orissa and parts of Agartala valley in
Tripura.

High levels of arsenic above the permissible levels of 50 parts per billion (ppb) are found in the
alluvial plains of Ganges covering six districts of West Bengal. Presence of heavy metals in
groundwater is found in 40 districts from 13 states, viz., Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar,
Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil
Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, and five blocks of Delhi.

Non-point pollution caused by fertilizers and pesticides used in agriculture, often dispersed over
large areas, is a great threat to fresh groundwater ecosystems. Intensive use of chemical
fertilizers in farms and indiscriminate disposal of human and animal waste on land result in
leaching of the residual nitrate causing high nitrate concentrations in groundwater. Nitrate
concentration is above the permissible level of 45 ppm in 11 states, covering 95 districts and two
blocks of Delhi. DDT, BHC, carbamate, Endosulfan, etc. are the most common pesticides used
in India. But, the vulnerability of groundwater to pesticide and fertilizer pollution is governed by
soil texture, pattern of fertilizer and pesticide use, their degradation products, and total organic
matter in the soil.

Pollution of groundwater due to industrial effluents and municipal waste in water bodies is
another major concern in many cities and industrial clusters in India. A 1995 survey undertaken
by Central Pollution Control Board identified 22 sites in 16 states of India as critical for
groundwater pollution, the primary cause being industrial effluents. A recent survey undertaken
by Centre for Science and Environment from eight places in Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and
Haryana reported traces of heavy metals such as lead, cadmium, zinc and mercury. Shallow
aquifer in Ludhiana city, the only source of its drinking water, is polluted by a stream which
receives effluents from 1300 industries. Excessive withdrawal of groundwater from coastal
aquifers has led to induced pollution in the form of seawater intrusion in Kachchh and Saurashtra
in Gujarat, Chennai in Tamil Nadu and Calicut in Kerala.

Kirit P.Mehta School of law Page 8

There are no estimates of the public health consequences of groundwater pollution as it involves
methodological complexities and logistical problems. Nevertheless, levels of toxicity depend on
the type of pollutant. Mercury is reported to cause impairment of brain functions, neurological
disorders, retardation of growth in children, abortion and disruption of the endocrine system,
whereas pesticides are toxic or carcinogenic. Generally, pesticides damage the liver and nervous
system. Tumour formation in liver has also been reported. The presence of fluoride in water
cannot be detected without the help of water quality testing equipment. High fluoride content is
often detected from such symptoms on human beings as yellowing of teeth, damaged joints and
bone deformities, which occur from long years of exposure to fluoride containing water. Due to
this reason, by the time the community realises the “menace”, a large section of the population is
already affected. A recent survey by the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) in
north Gujarat showed 42 per cent of the people covered in the sample survey (28,425) were
affected; while 25.7 per cent were affected by dental fluorosis, 6.2 per cent were affected by
muscular skeletal fluorosis and 10 per cent by both.

The potential biological and toxicological effects of using fluoride contaminated water are also
dangerous. Study on fluorotic populations of north Gujarat revealed an increase in frequency of
sister chromatic exchange in fluorotic individuals indicating that fluoride might have genotoxic
effect. Fluoride had been reported to cause depressions in DNA and RNA synthesis in cultured
cells. Another study on the effects of fluorides in mice showed significant reductions in DNA
and RNA levels. Conditions including ageing, cancer, and arteriosclerosis are associated with
DNA damage and its disrepair. Prolonged exposure to water containing salts (TDS above
500ppm) can cause kidney stone, a phenomenon widely reported from north and coastal Gujarat.
Arsenic contamination of drinking water causes a disease called arsenicosis, for which there is
no effective treatment, though consumption of arsenic free water could help affected people at
early stages of ailment to get rid of the symptoms of arsenic toxicity.

Arsenic contamination is by far the biggest mass poisoning case in the world putting 20 million
people from West Bengal and Bangladesh at risk though some other estimates put the figure at
36 million people.

7.2 Issues in Tackling Groundwater Contamination and Pollution

The first step towards evolving measures to prevent and cure groundwater quality deterioration is
generating reliable and accurate information through water quality monitoring (WQM) to
understand the actual source/cause, type and level of contamination. However, there are a few
observation stations in the country that cover all the essential parameters for water quality and
hence the data obtained are not decisive on the water quality status. Secondly, WQM involve
expensive and sophisticated equipments that are difficult to operate and maintain and require
substantial expertise in collecting, analyzing and managing data. Since water technology is still
not advanced in India, it is very likely that the available data is less reliable. The existing
methodology for WQM is inadequate to identify the various sources of pollution. Integration of

Kirit P.Mehta School of law Page 9

data on water quality with data on water supplies, which is very important from the point of view
of assessing water availability for meeting various social, economic and environmental
objectives, is hardly done. And finally, in the absence of any stringent norms on water quality
testing, results can change across agencies depending on sampling procedure, time of testing, and
testing instruments and procedure.

Now let us examine technical issues in mitigating contamination. For seawater intrusion,
artificial recharge techniques are available in India for different geo-hydrological settings.
Artificial recharge could push seawater-freshwater interface seawards. These techniques can also
be used to reduce the levels of fluoride, arsenic or salinity in aquifer waters on the principle of
dilution. But, the issue is of availability of good water for recharging in arid and semi arid
regions given the large aerial extent of contaminated aquifers. For industrial pollution, the issues
are of three types: pumping out polluted water from the aquifer; treated this water to safe limits;
and replenishing the depleted aquifer with freshwater. Technically feasible methods to clean
polluted water often dot exist due to highly toxic substances in trade effluents as seen in a case in
Rajasthan where a sulfuric acid manufacturing unit rendered drinking water source in 22 villages
useless. Finding enough freshwater for replenishment was also a problem there.

In Indian context, it is not economically viable to clean aquifers. In the case of arsenic, methods
for in situ treatment have already been in use in developed countries. In the United States,
zerovalent, iron permeable reactive barriers (PRBs) are used in situ to remove chromium and
several chlorinated solvents in groundwater and are tested successful for removing arsenic. India
is too poor to afford some of the technologies that are successfully tried out in the West,
especially United States because they are prohibitively expensive. The cost of cleaning the
aquifer in the Rajasthan case was estimated to be Rs. 40 crores.

In India, groundwater quality monitoring is primarily the concern of the Central Ground Water
Board and state groundwater agencies, where each of them set up their monitoring network. But
there are issues concerning adequacy of scientific data available from them:

 The network of monitoring stations is not dense enough.

 Water quality analysis excludes critical parameters that help detect pollution by fertilizer
and pesticide, heavy metals and other toxic effluents.
 The available scientific data, particularly that on pollution is of civil society institutions,
and there is a paucity of such institutions that are capable of carrying out such
professionally challenging, technologically sophisticated, and often politically sensitive
tasks.

Kirit P.Mehta School of law Page 10

The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) and the State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs)
are the pollution watchdogs in India. Though monitoring of groundwater quality has come under
their purview only recently and water quality of rivers is being monitored. But monitoring does
not cover “non-point” pollution from agriculture. An analysis of the performance of the Gujarat
State Pollution Control Board (GPCB) in Sabarmati river basin showed that of the four priority
areas identified by the Board for operations, its performance has been satisfactory in only
identification of areas facing severe pollution. The monitoring ability itself was doubtful as the
agency maintains only two observation wells for groundwater quality monitoring in the entire
basin. The GPCB also lacks adequate staff to carry out its functions.

There are problems associated with institutional design itself. The SPCBs perform the dual
functions of monitoring pollution and enforcing pollution control norms. But, the fact that
regular WQM and its proper dissemination itself could question the existence of the Boards as an
enforcement agency creates a disincentive for them to perform the first function meaningfully.
Also, the agency lacks legal teeth and administrative apparatus to penalize polluters. This
reduces the effectiveness of the agency in enforcing pollution control norms. The fact that cost of
pollution is much less than the cost of treatment works as a disincentive for polluters, whereas
the Boards are not mandated to execute environmental management projects.

Groundwater contamination most often occurs due to geo-hydro chemical processes activated by
pumping. Once contamination starts, very little can be done to check it except a total ban on
pumping. But this is very difficult, as millions of rural families in India depend on groundwater
for sustaining irrigated agriculture and livelihoods. Any legal/regulatory interventions to ban
pumping would mean depriving communities of their traditional rights. Though de jure rights in
groundwater are not clear, land owners enjoy de facto right to extract groundwater under their
land. While nitrate pollution can be properly controlled through following recommended dosage
of fertilizers, crop rotation, proper timing of fertilizer application, and use of organic manure
instead of chemical fertilizers, there are no institutional regimes governing fertilizer use and
dumping of animal waste.

Kirit P.Mehta School of law Page 11

7.3 Challenges
The available treatment systems work on the principles in physics and chemistry. Hence, their
efficiency depends heavily on maintaining certain specified operating conditions. This would call
upon qualified technical manpower for system operations, and regular operation and
maintenance, which are mostly absent. The Gujarat Water Supply and Sewerage Board set up 28
desalination systems since 1989. All of them became dysfunctional within a very short span of
time. Most of the 117 desalination plants commissioned in eight states by government agencies
became non-operational due to lack of technical manpower for maintenance and improper
selection of membrane. Most of the treatment systems for drinking water have to be tried out at
the community level to be cost effective and affordable. With no major revenues being accrued
by government agencies from domestic water supply services, any additional investment for
provision of safe water for drinking and cooking purposes would induce unprecedented financial
burden. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to build and operate water treatment systems on
the principle of full cost recovery. The water supplied from the system has to be affordable to all
classes of the society as drinking is essential for survival. Therefore, unit cost of production
should be minimized for commercial viability. The unit cost of production could be brought
down considerably by running the plant at peak capacity, which means creating sufficient
demand. Higher demand means lower selling price of water for commercial viability. Whereas
increase in plant capacity can reduce unit cost, this lowers the chances of running the plant at full
capacity, which means higher operating costs. Hence, optimal plant design, proper selection of
membrane, generating sufficient demand etc. are important for bringing down the cost of
production. The level of professional inputs that go into management of public water supply
systems would be far less than adequate to manage these systems. Over and above, operating
costs for agency-run systems are likely to be high due to high administrative overheads. As a
result, new techno institutional models need to be evolved to manage the system in order to make
them self sustaining. Involving private sector in provision of clean and safe drinking water would
be a major step towards achieving this. It is ordinary people who raise the alarm about poor
water quality. Civil society/institutions need to be strengthened to respond to water quality
problems quickly. This is possible through better knowledge and information about the nature of
groundwater contamination, potential sources of threats to groundwater quality in their region
and degrees of vulnerability, the ill-effects of using contaminated water, and the possible
preventive measures.

Kirit P.Mehta School of law Page 12

8.Suggestion
Water Treatment Technologies
Several major companies and research laboratories are addressing the question of developing
technologies to treat polluted water. New biological and viral filters are being introduced. A
recent technology from the National Chemical Laboratory, Pune consists of new generation
filters using ultra-fine porous membranes that do not allow viral and bacterial organisms from
passing through the pores. Such innovations are predicted to change the scenario of water
treatment in the coming years. Solutions for Fluoride and Arsenic removal also exist. But, many
harmful pollutants such as pesticides and some heavy metals cannot be removed by these
purification techniques. Aquifer remediation by pumping out the polluted water is still a
futuristic, expensive technology even for much developed countries.

Overcoming Attitudinal Problems

The aspect of technology though important, seems to be over-shadowed by other important
issues. Less expensive filters for Fluoride removal such as Activated Alumina (AA) exist, but
unless there is a basic awareness and urgency, simple aspects such as periodical cleaning
(regenerating crystals) of filters become an impediment towards proper functioning of these
systems (Shah and Indu, 2004, IWMI-Tata, unpublished). Most communities take clean drinking
water for granted and spending even a minor proportion of their income towards obtaining
quality drinking water is seen as a burden. Along with these, there is also a sense of denial on
part of the government agencies in accepting the magnitude of the problem, partly due to
prioritizing health problems. In North Gujarat, it was found that the government, NGOs and the
doctors as well do not like to declare or diagnose ‘Fluorosis’ as such, rather they would like to
cover ‘Fluorosis’ behind the mask of MSD (MusculoSkeletal Disease). It might be ignorance,
indifference or apathy towards Fluorosis. A similar situation existed with respect to Arsenic in
West Bengal where it is now finally accepted as a serious health risk.

Drinking Water Market

For both short and long term quality problems, preventive action is certainly the best course.
However, prophylactic action is seldom followed in case of water quality because of its long-
term effects and endemic nature. Dissatisfied with the quality of water provided by urban
municipalities and due to pollution of groundwater, many urban areas are witnessing a growth in
packaged drinking water markets for meeting their domestic needs, for example in North Gujarat
(Indu, 2003). Some cities such as Chennai have as much as 20% of their water supplies being
met by tanker water (Londhe et al, 2004). In Vadodara city, it is estimated that the economy of
informal water markets is as large as the municipal water supply itself (TOI, 2005). Much of this
water arrives from urban fringes and surrounding rural areas, therefore leading to conflicts in

Kirit P.Mehta School of law Page 13

water rights, as observed in Tiruppur city (Janakarajan, 1999). A reaction partly to the problem
of polluted groundwater in urban

Some positive moves in the implementation of pollution control laws and treatment procedures
for industrial effluents are worth noting. In Ankleshwar, for example, a Centralized Secure
Landfill facility has been operated by a local group of industries. In 5 years of its operation, it
has collected and disposed off 200000 MT of hazardous solid waste. Another common effluent
treatment plant in the same area treats effluent from 225 member industries. These landfills and
treatment facilities operated by groups of companies offer a good working model that can be
followed by other such heavily industrialized zones across the country. Similar common
treatment plants are also coming up in other industrial towns of the country such as Tirrupur city
in Tamil Nadu.

9.Conclusion :
Preventive and curative mea sures against pollution and contamination of groundwater may
continue to receive low priority for years to come, and technological measures to prevent the ill
effects on human health will get priority in short term. Demineralization using RO system can
remove all hazardous impurities from drinking water and would be cost effective in many
situations where TDS, nitrate and fluoride in groundwater are above permissible levels. The cost
of demineralization is falling rapidly. Saudi Arabia meets 20 per cent of its total water needs
from desalinated sea water, and Saudi technologists believe desalination costs would fall so
rapidly over the coming decades that desalination will be cheaper than pumping coastal aquifers.
Low cost treatment methods are available for removal of arsenic from groundwater.

There are, however, challenges that water utilities would face such as building technical and
managerial skills to design, install, operate and manage water treatment systems, making people
pay for treated water and building knowledge and awareness among communities about
groundwater quality issues and treatment measures. For the long run, policies need to be focused
on building scientific capabilities of line agencies concerned with WQM, water supplies, and
pollution control; and restructuring them to perform WQM and enforcement of pollution control
norms effectively and to enable them implement environmental management projects.

The above discussion leads us to think the following:

 Implementation of pollution control laws for prevention of future contamination of
aquifers. These laws need to be region-specific.
 Sensitizing and building behavioural practice of people towards understanding that good
quality water is essential for overall personal health. The expense for good quality water
is a cost of prevention for their future healthcare.

Kirit P.Mehta School of law Page 14

  The Public system needs to supply good quality drinking water to heavily polluted areas
and for communities whose socio-economic conditions prevent them from being able to
obtain/afford good quality water. This involves a cost and therefore separate mechanisms
need to be developed locally e.g., dyeing units paying for water treatment in Tiruppur
city.
 Where possible, create institutions that can adopt new technologies for water treatment
and sustain their management, like Panchayat based water treatment in villages and
captive water treatment

Kirit P.Mehta School of law Page 15

10. Refrences:
Agrawal, G. D., Lunkad, S. K. and T. Malkhed, 1999, Diffuse agricultural Nitrate pollution of
groundwaters in India, Water Science Technology, Vol. 39, No. 3, pp. 67-75.

Chowdhury T. R., G. K. Basu, B. K. Mandal, B. K. Biswas, U.K.Chowdhury, C. R. Chanda, D.

Lodh, S. L. Roy, K. C. Saha, S. Roy, S. Kabir, Q. Quamruzzaman and D. Chakraborti., 1999,
Arsenic poisoning in the Ganges delta Nature, 401, 545-546.

Indu, Rajnarayan, 2003, Fluoride-free drinking water supply in North Gujarat: The rise of
Reverse Osmosis plants as a cottage industry, Unpublished report of IWMI-Tata Water policy
programme, Vallabh Vidyanagar, India.

Jalan, J., Somanathan, E. and Choudhuri, S. (2004). Adoption of safe drinking water practices :
does awareness of health effects matter. (Policy brief ; no. 4-04). Kathmandu, Nepal, SANDEE

Janakarajan, S., 1999, Conflicts over an invisible resource in Tamil Nadu: Is there a way out, In
Rethinking the Mosaic: Investigations into Local Water Management, edited by Marcus Moench,
Elisabeth Caspari and Ajaya Dixit.

Kumar, D. and T. Shah, 2003, Groundwater pollution and contamination in India, In Hindu
Survey of the Environment.

Londhe A., Talati J., Singh L. K., Vilayasseril M., Dhaunta S., Rawlley B., Ganapathy K.K and
R. P. Mathew, 2004, Urban-hinterland Water interactions: A scoping study of six Class I Indian
Cities, Presented in Annual Partner’s Meet, IWMI-Tata Water policy programme, Vallabh
Vidyanagar, India plants in urban housing societies

Kirit P.Mehta School of law Page 16