Linear Relationships Chapter - Pure Maths Guide From Love of Maths

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"The true spirit of delight, the exaltation, the sense of being more
than man, which is the touchstone of the highest excellence, is to
be found in Mathematics as surely as in poetry."
Bertrand Russell
"Sometimes a theorem can just be so elegant. It can draw together.

It can take a problem which seems to be intractable, almost
impossible to get your head around. And yet, within a few lines,
you can discover that you can demonstrate that this is absolutely
true and beyond dispute, and always will be. A sense of power and
beauty in that which can’t be replicated anywhere else."
John Waterman
Acknowledgements
I am hugely grateful for numerous helpful comments and suggestions from
Ian Christie and Mike Fairbank, Abbey College London, Alan Gregory MBE,
Prof Alastair McDonald, Barry Ainge, Sam Waterman, Steve Gooch, Ilona
Hurrell, Joe Waterman and Mike McGuire.
I particularly want to thank Matt Joy who, as a seasoned journalist, patiently
pointed the need for simplicity and succinct brevity. And Victor
Lunn-Rockliffe, with whom I spent many hours exploring how best to make
the layout and presentation as inviting as possible.
I want to thank Dan Balis and two of my grandchildren, Ethan and Sekai,
who road-tested some of it in the latter stages of development.
Most importantly, I need to acknowledge the hundreds of other students
whom I have had the privilege to teach, and who have contributed
immeasurably, albeit unwittingly, to this book.
Finally to my wife Anne who, despite having not the slightest interest in
Mathematics, patiently encouraged me over the many times it looked like it
would never get finished.
John Waterman, May 2019
Love of Maths Pure Maths Guide First edition published by Love of Maths Ltd
June 2021.
Contents
6 LINEAR RELATIONSHIPS 6-1

6.1 Linear Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2
6.2 Formulating linear equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-14
6.3 Changing the subject of a formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-22
6.4 Linear Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-32
6.5 Linear Simultaneous Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-39
6.6 Combining inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-56
6.6.1 Examples involving one variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-56
6.6.2 Examples involving two variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-59
6.7 Linear modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-68
Chapter 6
LINEAR RELATIONSHIPS
Overview
6.1 Linear equations. For example
7x 1 25.9 3y−2 1
7y − 1 = 3(y + 5), 8
+ 12 = 3x, x
= 0.88, 8
= 10 y.
6.2 Formulating linear equations. Solving problems by converting textual

information into mathematical equations.
6.3 Changing the subject of a formula. The technique follows on naturally

from the method for solving linear equations. Formulae such as
1−t 2
q
1 1 x−2 4
y = 4 x+ 2 , y= 2 , V = 3 πr 3 , T = k a+x
a−x
, x = 2+t 2
6.4 Linear inequalities. For example

3x − 1 < 5, 2(1 − 3a) ≤ a + 1.
6.5 Simultaneous linear equations. Solving pairs of equations in two
variables. For example
x−1
x + y +1 =0 2(p − q) =1 3
=y
and 2x + 3y =1 and 4p − 5 =q and y − 4x =7
6.6 Combining linear inequalities. One variable and two variable case.
For example In the two variable case, solving using a graph.
6.7 Linear modelling. Practical examples.
6-1
CHAPTER 6. LINEAR RELATIONSHIPS
6.1 Linear Equations

Wherever Maths is applied to real life problems linear relationships and
linear equations are ubiquitous.
To take one example, economists build highly complex mathematical

models, capturing the interactions between economic variables, mostly1
using linear equations. A whole branch of mathematics has been developed
to study these relationships, which when combines with some statistical
techniques comes under the heading of Econometrics.
A linear equation (in the variable x) is one involving x terms and constant
terms only, like the ones on the previous page. It can’t contain, for example,
p
terms in x 2 , x1 , x or sin x.
This section is about making sure you can to solve any linear equation you
come across. If you are wondering whether you can skip this section, look at
the Exercises at the end. If you’re comfortable with all of them, go straight to
Section 5.2.
To solve an equation we need the last line to read “x = something". There is a

standard procedure for getting to this, which always works. The first thing we
have to do is
move every term that includes the variable onto one side;
move everything else onto the other side.
How do we do this? By using the principle that
we can do whatever we like to the equation,

provided we do the same to both sides.
To be precise, we do this
by repeatedly applying inverse operations.
We’ll see how this works in practice—and clarify what we mean by an inverse
operation—using examples. Don’t be put off by the fact that the first
example is trivially simple—it’s easy to work the answer out in your head. It’s
purpose is to spell out what our strategy will be, which we can then apply to
any linear equation. After that the examples get progressively harder.
1
Non-linear relationships are sometimes considered.
PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 6-2

Example 1. Solve the equation 3a + 7 = 19.
Solution
Think of the equation like a set of weighing scales that are in balance. On the
left we have three boxes each weighing a kg and a box weighing 7 kg. They
are in exact balance with a box weighing 19 kg on the right.
19
a a a 7
Since we want to end with the statement “a =something", we need to get any
terms involving a onto the left hand side and anything not involving a on
the other side. We can do this by taking 7 kg from both sides.
When we do this the scales will still be balance, looking like this:
12
a a a
∆
Mathematically we can describe what we’ve done like this. We have put in
the bracket on the left what we are doing to each side of the equation:
(−7) 3a + 7 − 7 = 19 − 7
3a = 12.
The answer is now obvious: a = 4. But as it won’t always be obvious, so we
need to articulate the process for getting there. The two sides will still be in
balance if we reduce what’s on each side by the same fraction. In this case we
divide each side by 3, leaving a kg on one side and 4 kg on the other.
(÷3) 3a ÷ 3 = 12 ÷ 3
a = 4.
a 4
∆

Using the scales analogy helps to get us thinking in the right way. In practice
we’ll simply apply the steps mechanically. The first step is to get rid of the +7
on the left hand side. We do this by applying the operation −7 to both sides of
the equation, because this is the inverse (or opposite) operation to +7, it
“unwinds" it. Put another way, adding +7 and then adding −7 is equivalent
to doing nothing.
Next we want to get rid of the 3 in front of the a. Subtracting 3 wouldn’t work
this time because our starting point was a × 3 not a + 3. The operation that
‘unwinds" ×3 is ÷3, so we divide both sides of the equation by 3.
Once we understand what’s going on, we can abandon the scales analogy
and write the complete solution:
3a + 7 = 19
(−7) 3a = 12
(÷3) a = 4.
Writing in the steps—the (−7) and the (÷3)—is not essential, but experience
suggests it is a very good idea until you are quite fluent with the method.
Example 2. Solve the equation 7y − 4 = 2(y + 8).
Solution
There is a y term on r.h.s. which we will want to combine with the one on the
l.h.s., but it is “wrapped up" in a bracket, so the first thing we need to do is
multiply out the bracket.
7y − 4 = 2y + 16
Let’s start with the numbers. On the l.h.s. we have a −4. The inverse operation
to this is +4, so adding 4 to both sides we have
(+4) 7y = 2y + 20
Now we want to collect the y terms on the l.h.s. For this we need to get rid of
the 2y on the right hand side: we do this by applying the operation −2y, i.e.
by subtracting 2y from both sides.
(−2y) 5y = 20
(÷5) y = 4
We end with a division as the last step (the inverse operation to multiplying
by 5).

4x
Example 3. Solve the equation = 2x − 5.
3
Solution
The fun starts when we introduce fractions. The good news is that
we can always turn an equation that contains fractions into one that
doesn’t, by multiplying both sides by some number.
In this case we obviously multiply by by 3, and recalling what we learnt in

section ?? on page ??
4x 3 4x
3× = × = 4x
3 1 3
which allows us to get rid of the fraction:
(×3) 4x = 3(2x − 5)
4x = 6x − 15
Notice we had to “unpack" the bracket (multiply it out) so we could separate

out the term that involves x and the one that doesn’t.
Now think of the expression 6x − 15 not as a subtraction but as two numbers
6x and −15 added together. (See section ?? on page??.) The natural next step
would be to subtract 6x from both sides. That would get all the x terms on
the l.h.s and leave the only number on the r.h.s. However, because 6x is
bigger than 4x it’s easier to collect the x’s on the right and numbers on the
left.
4x = 6x − 15
(−4x) 0 = 2x − 15
(+15) 15 = 2x
15
(÷2) = x
2
A brief diversion: suppose you had collected the x terms on the left?

Beginning as before:
4x = 6x − 15
(−6x) − 2x = −15
−15 15
(÷− 2) x = =
−2 2
We ended up with a negative coefficient of x in our penultimate line. Here
we divided by that negative number to get the answer. Instead we could have
multiplied both sides by − 1:
−2x = −15
−
(× 1) 2x = 15 etc.
or we could have swapped sides to get rid of the minus signs:

−2x = −15
(+15) −2x + 15 = 0
(+2x) 15 = 2x etc.
Use whichever approach you prefer.

3x x
Example 4. Solve the equation = 2− .
10 15
Solution
We could, of course, multiply through by 10 and then by 15, or simply
multiply by 150. A better choice would be 30, the LCM of 10 and 15. Notice
that we need to multiply every term by 30, not just the fractions.
30 3x 30 x
(×30) × = 30 × 2 − ×
1 10 1 15
9x = 60 − 2x
To “move" the −2x term over to the left hand side, we apply the inverse
operation, i.e. we add 2x to both sides.
(+2x) 9x + 2x = 60 − 2x + 2x
11x = 60
60
(÷11) x =
11
QQ
Solve these equations:
x
(a) 8x = 5(x + 3) (b) 2x = 4 + 5 (c) 17 − 3y = 2(y + 1)
2x x
(d) − = 1.
3 4
The answers are in the footnote2
So far all the fractions have had arithmetic denominators. It’s just as easy to
deal with algebraic ones.
2 20 12
(a) x = 5 (b) 8x = x + 20 ⇒ x = (c) y = 3 (d) 8x − 3x = 12 ⇒ x = .
7 5

5
Example 5. Solve the equation 4 = .
y
Solution
Multiplying both sides by the number y:
(×y) 4y = 5
5
(÷4) y = or 1.25
4
3 1
Example 6. Solve the equation +4 = .
2x x
Solution
The LCM of x and 2x (the smallest number they both divide into) is 2x, so
(×2x) 3 + 8x = 2
(−3) 8x = −1
1
(÷8) x = −
8
When there is more than one algebraic denominator in an equation, the LCM
is very often simply their product. Look at the next example.

4
Example 7. Solve the equation = 5.
1−3x
Solution
Multiplying both sides by 1 − 3x (and remembering to put it in a bracket on
the right hand side):
(1 − 3x) 4
XXX
= 5(1 − 3x)
X
×X
1 1−
X3xX
X
4 = 5(1 − 3x)
4 = 5 − 15x
1
which quickly leads to the solution x = 15 .
2x x+1
Example 8. Solve the equation = .
6x−5 3x
Solution
We start by multiplying both sides by 3x and by 6x − 5. This is sometimes
called “cross-multiplying".
It appears to give a quadratic equation:
6x 2 = (6x − 5)(x + 1)
but multiplying out the brackets we see that the x 2 terms cancel each other
out:
6x 2 = 6x 2 + x − 5
(−6x 2 ) 0 = x −5
(+5) 5 = x
The next example is the sort of equation we come across routinely in

trigonometry.

Example 9. Solve the equation
h sin 60◦ = 12.

Solution
First sin 60◦ = 0.8660 (to 4DP), so the equation is
h × 0.866 = 12.
This is no different from an equation like 3a = 12, except that the answer is
not obvious. In both cases we just need to
divide by the number in front of the variable.
In the case of the equation 3x = 12 it was the 3, in the current example it’s the
0.866.
12
(÷0.866) x= = 13.86 (4 SF)
0.866
Don’t be put off by the fact that, despite dividing, we get an answer that’s
bigger than 12. Can you see that we will always get an answer bigger than the
number we started with if we divide by a number less than 1? For example
had we divided 12 by 0.5, we would be asking how many halves are there in
12. The answer is 24.
This example reminds us of a slip that is very easy to make. It’s incorrectly
solving an equation like this:
6x = 2.
Can you see what we are getting at? (See the footnote3 )
3
Then answer is x = 13 , not x = 3. We divide by the number in front of the variable.

There are lots of ways to skin a cat (as they say). This applies to solving
equations: the order we do things in can be changed. But only up to a point.
Take this example:
4x = 3 − 5x
Since we are aiming to get to an equation starting x = . . ., we might be tempted
to begin by dividing by 4. This isn’t going to get us very far because it still
leaves an x term on the right hand side:
3 − 5x
x=
4
Happily there is an order which always works (see below). It’s the order we
have used in all the examples. (An algorithm is an ordered sequence of steps
for solving a problem—like the instructions for putting together a piece of
self-assembly furniture.)

Algorithm for solving a linear equation
1. If there are any fractions, to get rid of them by multiplying (by the
LCM).
2. Expand any brackets.
3. Collect terms, by adding or subtracting.
4. Divide by the number in front of the variable.
For ease of memorising the steps can be summarised as
• Fractions
• Brackets
A
!
A
• Collect Terms
A
A
• Divide
Notice that dividing is the last thing we do.

If a step isn’t needed, we just miss it out.
We shall be returning to this list later, because with one or two
embellishments it also serves as the basis for a fool-proof algorithm for
changing the subject of a formula.
QQ

2 2 1 4x+1
(a) = 5 (b) = 1− (c) = 3
x 3x x x−2
x x−2
(d) = (e) 0.125y = 2
x+4 x
The answers are in the footnote4
4 2 5
(a) x = (b) x = (c) x = −7 (d) x 2 = x 2 + 2x − 8 ⇒ x = 4 (e) y = 16.
5 3

Precision
A word about precision before we go on. This is the number of decimal points
or significant figures we use when writing down a number. It is different from
accuracy: an inaccurate answer is deficient in some way. The distance from
the earth to the moon is 240, 000 miles, a figure that is perfectly good enough
for me, but not for anyone planning a lunar landing! The distance varies of
course as it’s orbit is elliptical, and it depends on exactly where we measure
from and to; the precision needed depends on the context.
For our purposes if an answer comes out as a fraction we generally leave it as
a fraction, rather than convert it to a decimal. And there’s rarely anything to
be gained by converting a top-heavy (improper) fraction to a mixed fraction.
If an exact answer isn’t possible the question will normally state the level of
precision required e.g. “give your answer correct 5 to 2 SF" or “to 1 DP". If the
question doesn’t specify a level of precision, use you common sense, but it’s
generally safe to give the answer correct to 3 SF.
However—and this is important—whatever the precision required for the
answer, don’t round until the end, otherwise you risk introducing A
!
A
rounding errors. How much extra precision to keep in? There is no A
simple rule, but 2 or 3 extra figures is usually sufficient6 . A
5
For a reminder of the meaning of SF and DP turn to page ?? in Appendix A
(or click on the page number).
6
This tells an examiner that you recognise the need for extra precision in working.

6.2 Formulating linear equations

A common type of exam question is one that requires the formulation—and
then solution—of an equation 7 .
What’s usually involved is
finding two expressions for the same quantity—and making them equal
To do this we will often need to define a new variable.
Sometimes we only need to find one expression because we know the value
of one of them already.
Bear in mind this is what we are trying to do when looking at the following
examples.
Example 10
There are two alternative tariffs available for a mobile phone. Under tariff A
there is a fixed monthly charge of £5 plus 2p per minute for all calls. Under
tariff B there is no fixed change, but all calls cost 4.5p per minute. At what
level of monthly calls does it becomes cheaper to go for tariff A?
Solution
This is the same as saying at what level of usage is the cost the same on both
tariffs. We’ll call that level N minutes per month. Now we can write down a
formula for what the cost would be under tariff A, and what it would cost
under tariff B. The two formula will give the same result, i.e. the same cost,
when the two expressions are equal. We call this the break-even point.
Under tariff A the total monthly cost will be (in pence) 500 + 2N . Under B it
will be 4.5N . The two tariffs will cost the same if
500 + 2N = 4.5N
This is easily solved to give N = 200 minutes per month. Above this level A is
cheaper; below it B is cheaper.
7
Sometimes we need to form, and solve, more than one equation.
For now we’ll confine ourselves to a single equation.

Example 11
Find two positive numbers whose difference and quotient are both equal
to 3.
Solution
The quotient of two numbers is the result of dividing one by the other. At first
sight, it appears we have two numbers to find. But we can easily reduce it to
one by calling the smaller one x and the larger one x + 3— incorporating one
of the pieces of information about the two numbers right at the outset. (We
could of course assign them the other way round, i.e. make the two numbers
x and x − 3.)
Now since the quotient is a number > 1 and both numbers are positive 8 , the
larger of the two must be in the numerator of the division, i.e.
x +3
=3
x
This solves easily to give x = 32 and the two numbers are 3

2
and 92 . A quick
check verifies that this is correct.
Sometimes a problem can appear to be more difficult just because of the

numbers involved. Look at this next example.
8
You might like to try and solve the same problem but this time with both numbers
negative.
Hint: does it still make sense to divide the larger number by the smaller?

Example 12
The problem is to find length of the hypoteneuse in a 30◦ , 60◦ , 90◦ triangle
that has a total perimeter of 20 cm. We are looking for an answer that is
correct to 3 SF.
Solution
We start by defining a variable: the obvious one to choose is the thing we are
trying to find, the length of the hypoteneuse, b. As with Example 1 we find
two expressions that must be equal. In this case there are two ways of
expressing the perimeter: one as a formula based on b, the other the value
we know it must have i.e. 20. (We always drop any units during the course of
a calculation, and re-introduce them into our final answer.)
A

c

b

30◦

B a C
We have assumed9 that B = 30◦ and A = 60◦ , and adopt the usual
convention: BC = a and C A = B .
Using SOHCAHTOA
a b
= cos 30◦ and = sin 30◦
c c
a = c cos 30◦ = 0.86603c and b = c sin 30◦ = 0.5c
We now have two expressions for the perimeter:
0.86603c + 0.5c + c and 20
so we can write
0.86603c + 0.5c + c = 20
2.36603c = 20
20
c = = 8.45298
2.36603
The length of the hypoteneuse is 8.45 cm (3 SF).
For a juicier example, turn to Appendix A, page ?? (or click on the page
number).
9
The result would be the same if we made B = 60◦ and A = 30◦ .

Summary
All these examples illustrates the three steps in formulating and solving an
equation:
1. Define a variable to stand for what we are trying to find.
2. Find two expressions involving that variable and make them equal.
3. Solve the equation.
Later in the chapter we will meet problems in which there are two quantities
we don’t know (so we’ll need two variables). In that case the information
we’re given will lead to two equations, each involving both variables. We call
these simultaneous equations, because we need to find values for the
variables that satisfy both equations simultaneously.
Real life problems may require a great many variables and as many
equations. There are some techniques for solving such equations, but
sometimes a (computer based) numerical solution is needed.

Exercises 1
1. Solve these equations. In each case express the answer as an integer or

a fraction.
(a) 4x + 1 = 13 (b) 2y − 5 = 3 (c) 7 + x = 16
(d) 3 + 2a = 11a (e) 7y − 1 = 3(y + 5) (f ) 4(1 + 3x) = 2x + 9
(g) 8b = 4 − 2b (h) x = 1 − x (i) 18a − 2(5a − 3) = 0
1 1 2y
(j) 3y + 4 = 8y (k) 7t − = 3t + (l) =1
2 2 5
6 3 x 4
(m) =1 (n) 2x+ = 4x (o) + = 1
2x 2 3 3
y 4 7a 2
(p) 4+ = 2y (q) x− = 1 + 2x (r) 3 = a+
5 3 3
2y+1 y 2x 1 4 3
(s) − =0 (t) + =x (u) y = y + 1
4 8 5 3 7 14
7x 1 11 5
(v) + = 3x (w) y = − y
8 12 10 6
2. Solve these equations. If expressing the answer as a decimal, give it

correct to 3 S.F.
(a) 0.2x = 3 (b) 1.6y = 1 (c) 8 = 0.417x
3 1 1
(d) =8 (e) = (f ) 0.707L = 3.5
x y+1 4
1 y 2 25.9
(g) 0.03x = 8 (h) = (i) = 0.88
0.7 3 x
1
(j) 0.31 =
9y
3. Solve these equations. Give each answer as a rational number.

2 1 2 y
(a) 4x− = (x + 1) (b) (6y − 1) = = 2
3 3 5 5
1 3y−2 1
(c) 3z− (1 − z) = 0 (d) = y
2 8 10
2 1
(e) x(4x − 1) = (2x + 1)(2x − 3) (f ) =
x 3x
+1
2y+1 5 3 1
(g) =6 (h) + − =2
y 4x 2x x
4 1 11 2
(i) = (j) − =0
1+2x 2x x x+1
0.4 3 1 3
(k) = (l) =
y y−2 1−0.1x 0.1x
3a−1 1 x 2 +5
(m) = (n) x =
3a+4 2 x+1
4x 2 +5 3+x
(o) = 2x + 1 (p) 4x− =1
2x 2
2 1−3y 3 2x+1
(q) y = y− (r) − = 4−x
5 10 x 2

4. In the table below the sum of the numbers in each row is given in the
right hand column. Find the values of the variables a to e.
2 a 1 7
b −1 a 8
3a −b 3 c
c −2a −b d
1 ad e −4
5. Find the ages of Teddy and Harry by formulating and solving equations.
(a) In 11 years Teddy will be four times as old as he was last year.
(b) In twenty years time Harry’s age will be twice what it’s going
to be in 3 years.
6. The sum of three consecutive numbers is 78. Find the smallest of the
numbers.
7. When I divide a certain number into 10 the answer is one more than the
answer I get when I divide the same number into 6. Find the number.
8. Electricians Douggie and Elsa charge differently for the work they do.
Douggie charges a £50 call-out fee and then £35 per hour; Elsa’s
call-out charge is only £30 but her hourly rate is £45.
(a) Write down formulae for how much Douggie and Elsa would
charge (in pounds) for a job that takes h hours.
(b) They both estimated the same time for a job and quoted the same
charge. How much did they quote for the job?
9. Amira is taken to school by car and walks home, along the same route.
Her average walking speed is 4 km h−1 and the car travels at an average
speed of 12 km h−1 . The total time she spends travelling to and from
school each day is 40 mins.
(a) How far is the journey to school?
(b) On a particular day they leave for school at the usual time but
Amira wants to get there 5 mins earlier than usual. What would the
average speed of the car need to be in order to achieve this?
10. What is the earliest time after 3 pm that the hour hand and the minute
hand of a (12 hour analogue) clock are aligned?

Solutions 1
1. (a) x = 3 (b) y = 4 (c) x = 9 (d) a = 13

1 2 1
(e) y = 4 (f) x = (g) b = (h) x =
2 5 2
3 4 1 5
(i) a = − (j) y = (k) t = (l) y =
4 5 4 2
3 20
(m) x = 3 (n) x = (o) x = −1 (p) y =
4 9
7 1 1 5
(q) x = − (r) a = (s) x = (t) x =
3 2 3 9
14 2 2 3
(u) y = (v) x = (w) y = − (x) x =
5 51 3 5
1
In (k) we could get rid of fractions by adding to both sides.
2
3
2. (a) x = 15 (b) y = 0.625 (c) x = 19.2 (d) x =
8
14
(e) y = 3 (f ) L = 4.95 (g) x = 4.17 (h) y = or 0.467
3
(i) x = 29.4 (j) y = 0.358
In (e) the denominators must be the same so y + 1 = 4.
3 12 1 10
3. (a) x = (b) y = (c) z = (d) y =
7 13 7 11
5 1 7
(e) x = 1 (f) x = (g) y = (h) x =
3 4 8
7 1 11 4
(i) x = (j) x = (k) x = − (l) y = −
8 6 9 13
5
(m) x = 7.5 (n) a = 2 (o) x = 5 (p) x =
2
5 1 2
(q) x = (r) y = (s) x =
7 9 3
4 30
In (k) multiply (both numerators) by 10, to give =
y y−2
4. a =4 since a + 3 = 7,
b=5 since b − 1 + 4 = 8,
c = 10 since 12 − 5 + 3 = c,
d = −3 since 10 − 8 − 5 = d ,
e =7 since 1 − 12 + e = −4.
5. (a) Toby is 15. T + 11 = 4(T − 1)
(b) Harry is 14. H + 20 = 2(H + 3)

6. The smallest number is 25.

If the number is x, the three numbers are x, x + 1 and x + 2,
and their sum is 3x + 3. So 3x + 3 = 78.
More directly, the middle number is 78 ÷ 3 = 26.
7. The number is 4.
10 6
If x is the number then = +1 ⇒ 10 = 6 + x.
x x
8. (a) Douggie: 50 + 35h; Elsa: 30 + 45h.
(b) £120. 50 + 35h = 30 + 45h ⇒ h = 2.
9. (a) 2 km.
40 mins = 32 hour. Let distance between home and school be d km.
d d 2
+ = ⇒ d =2
4 12 3
(b) 24 km h−1 .
2 1
Normal journey time to school is = hour = 5 mins.
12 6
So need to halve the journey time, i.e. double the speed.
2 1
Or set up an equation. = , where v = new car speed.
v 12
180
10. minutes after 3.
11
We work out how many degrees each hand has moves in t minutes:
minute hand hour hand
360◦ in 60 mins 30◦ in 60 mins
1◦
6◦ in 1 min in 1 min
2
t◦
6t ◦ in t mins in t mins
2
(At each step, we either multiply or divide by our chosen number.)
If the hands are aligned at t mins past 3, then
t
6t = 90 +
2
which we solve in the usual way (12t = 180 + t , etc).

6.3 Changing the subject of a formula

If you are very good at rearranging formulae you may be able to skip this
section, but if you’re considering doing this check the examples in the
Exercises at the end, to make sure you can do the harder ones.
So why is this topic here? Because the process involved is an exact parallel of
the method we use for solving linear equations.
To change the subject of a formula, treat it like an equation,

in which everything except the subject variable is a number.
What do we mean by this? Take the formula10

v = u + at
Suppose we want to make t the subject. If we knew the values of u, v and a
(say 7, 25 and 3), finding t would be very straight forward:
25 = 7 + 3t
(−7) 18 = 3t
(÷3) 6 = t
The steps are the same ones we use for solving equations (see page 6-12):
• Fractions
• Brackets
• Collect Terms
• Divide
In this simple example we only needed the last two steps.
It’s a small step from here to the completely algebraic version. We treat all
the variables as if they were numbers, expect t , the variable we are trying to
find.
Example 13 Make t the subject of the formula v = u + at .
v = u + at
(−u) v − u = at
v −u
(÷a) = t
a
Next an example that uses all four steps.
10
It describes the velocity of an object, initially traveling with velocity u, after
accelerating steadily at a rate a for a length of time t .
You may have met it if you are taking M1, or in Physics.

2a
Example 14 Make x the subject of the formula y = .
a+x
Solution
Now a and y we regard as numbers and we treat the formula as an equation
in x.
× (a + x) y(a + x) = 2a [Fractions]
y a + y x = 2a [Brackets]
(−a y) y x = 2a − y a [Collect Terms]
a(2−y)
(÷y) x = y [Divide]
Notice that we factorised the numerator in the last line; this is not essential
but it is good practice.
QQ
Rearrange these formula. The required subject is in the square bracket.
π
(a) y = k(1 + x), [x] (b) v 2 = u 2 + 2as, [a] (c) L = , [x]
2x
1 3
(d) ax + b y = c, [y] (e) +y = , [t ]
2t t
The answers are in the footnote11 .
The next example looks quite similar to these, but there is a crucial difference:
the subject variable appears more than once. We’ll see that this means we
have to introduce a new step.
11
y−k v 2 −u 2 π c−ax
(a) x = (b) a = (c) x = (d) y =
k 2s 2L b
5
(e) Multiply by 2t to give 1 + 2t y = 6 ⇒ t =
2y

k+3x
Example 15 Rearrange the formula y = to make x the subject.
2k+x
Solution
We start in the usual way.
y(2k + x) = k + 3x [Fractions]
2yk + y x = k + 3x [Brackets]
y x − 3x = k − 2yk [Collect Terms]
This is the stage where we would normally divide, leaving x on the left hand
side. Because there are now two x terms we can’t do this.
The problem is solved by factorising the left hand side. Because we have
collected terms, it will always factorise.
x(y − 3) = k − 2yk [Factorise]

k(1 − 2y)
x = [Divide]
y −3
The factorising step we can think of as combining the two terms on the left
hand side into a single term, in this case an x term with coefficient (y − 3).
We’ll add this factorise step to the algorithm.

At the same time we’re going to “top and tail" the list with two more steps,
whose purpose will soon be clear. That completes the list; any rearragement
will yield to this algorithm.
• Roots
• Fractions
• Brackets A
!
A
• Collect Terms A
• Factorise
A
• Divide
• Roots

1 1 1
Example 16 Make v the subject of the formula + = .
u v f
Solution
This is a formula from optics. The subject variable only seems to appear
once, so it looks as if we won’t need to do any factorising. What we’ll see is
that after we’ve got rid of fractions v does appear more than once.
We start by multiplying every term by the LCM of u, v and f , which is uv f .
(We don’t know the values of these variables, so they have no known
common factor. The smallest number we can be sure they all divide into is
uv f .) Remember: treat u and f as if they are numbers12 .
v f +uf = uv [Fractions]
uf = uv − v f [Collect Terms]
uf = v(u − f ) [Factorise]
uf
= v [Divide]
u−f
Notice that we have chosen to collect the v terms on to the right hand side,
to avoid having a negative term , −u f , on the right hand side13 .
QQ
2 p px
(a) y = , [x] (b) y = , [x] (c) y = , [x]
1−x p+q x p+q x
1 1 a+x b
(d) + = a, [y] (e) = , [x]
x y b−x a
It’s time to see where the Roots steps at the start and finish of the algorithm
come in.
12
If you can’t immediately see what to do, try putting in some values for u and f ,
1 1 1
e.g. + = . Multiplying by the LCD 12v we have 3v + 12 = 4v.
4 v 3
13
This is not a must; it just makes life a bit simpler. See the Example on page 6-5
for a fuller discussion of this.
14
y−2 p(1−y) py x
(a) x = (b) x = (c) x = (d) y =
y qy p−q y ax−1
b 2 −a 2 (b+a)(b−a)
(e) x = b − a. Because a(a − x) = b(b − x) ⇒ x = = .
b+a b+a

q
l
Example 17 Make l the subject of the formula T = 2π g
.
Solution
The formula gives the period of oscillation T of a simple pendulum of length
l , where g is gravitational acceleration 15 .
Don’t be put off by all the symbols. Think of everything, except l , as a

number. You may even qwant to put in some numbers to make this crystal
l
clear, for example 5 = 6 10
.
We start by squaring (everything on) both sides to get rid of the square root.
³ ´
T 2 = 4π2 gl [Roots]
T 2g = 4π2 l [Fractions]
2
T
= l [Divide]
4π2
³ ´
A very common mistake is to write the first line: T 2 = 2π2 gl . It’s one of
those mistakes that, in isolation few student would make, but with so much
else to think about, easily slips under the radar.
So the Roots step at the beginning generally means get rid of any roots
(usually square roots). Now let’s look at an example where we need to use the
Roots step at the end.
2+t 2
Example 18 Make t the subject of the formula y= .
1+t 2
Solution
We want the last line of our rearrangement to start t = . . ., but the formula is
in t 2 . That’s not a problem: we’ll rearrange it making t 2 the subject and then
take the square root. (Or we could substitute t 2 = T , make T the subject and
then replace T with t 2 . It amounts to the same thing.) Notice in the first line
we need to put the 1 + t 2 in a bracket.
y(1 + t 2 ) = 2 + t 2 [Fractions]
y + yt2 = 2+ t2 [Brackets]
yt2 − t2 = 2− y [Collect Terms]
t 2 (y − 1) = 2 − y [Factorise]
2− y
t2 = [Divide]
y −1
s
2− y
t = ± [Roots]
y −1
15
A constant that is approximately 9.8 m s −2 . “Simple" means a mathematical
pendulum in which the “string" is weightless and the thing hanging on the end
has no size.

QQ

q
p A k
(a) L = x+y [y] (b) r = [x] (c) y = [x]
πh 1+x 2
y2
(d) x 2 + y 2 = a 2 [x] (e) x = [y]
1−y 2
That’s all you need at the moment. But if you want something to get your teeth
into before doing some exercises, read on.
q
16
k−y
(a) y = L 2 − x (b) A = πr 2 h (c) x = ±
y
q
p x
(d) x = ± a 2 − y 2 [Note that this is not a − y] (e) y = ±
1+x

p
Example 19 Make x the subject of the formula y = a x 2 + b2.
Solution
p p p
To start with, don’t be tempted to write x 2 + b 2 as x 2 + b 2 , i.e. x + b. If
you are not sure why this is wrong, see page ??.
The presence of the square root means that as it stands we can’t separate out
the x term. Remembering that we can do what we like to an equation as long
as we do the same to both sides, we can squaring both sides. This gets rid of
the square root.
We’re going to take this slowly, because there are some pitfalls to look out for.
First it’s important to remember that the whole of the left hand side and the
whole of the right hand side must be squared.
p
y 2 = [a x 2 + b 2 ]2 [Roots]
p
= a 2 ( x 2 + b 2 )2
y2 = a 2 (x 2 + b 2 )
y2 = a2 x 2 + a2b2 [Brackets]
y 2 − a2b2 = a2x2 [Collect Terms]
y 2 −a 2 b 2
= x2 [Divide]
a2 q
y 2 −a 2 b 2
x = ± a2
[Roots]
p
y 2 −a 2 b 2
x = ± a

kx
Example 20 Make x the subject of the formula y =p .
m(k 2 −x 2 )
Solution
k2x2
y2 = m(k 2 −x 2 )
[Roots]
y 2 m(k 2 − x 2 ) = k x 2 2
[Fractions]
m y 2k 2 − m y 2 x 2 = k 2 x 2 [Brackets]
2 2 2 2 2 2
my k = k x +my x [Collect Terms]
m y 2 k 2 = x 2 (k 2 + m y 2 ) [Factorise]
2 2
my k
= x2
k 2 +m y 2
[Divide]
r
m y 2k2
x = ± k 2 +m y 2 [Roots]
q
m
or x = ±k y k 2 +m y2
Example 21
(a) Find the surface area S of a solid cylinder of radius r and height h.
(b) Find a formula for h in terms of S and r .
(c) Find a formula for the volume of the cylinder in terms of S and r only.
Solution
Try not to be put off by all the symbols; remember they are just numbers
(whose values we don’t yet know). One other thing to mention: when doing
work involving π, we tend to leave it as the symbol π rather than give it a
numerical value.
(a) S = 2πr 2 + 2πr h.

S−2πr 2
(b) Rearranging this to make h the subject: h = .
2πr
(c) The volume is given by: V = πr 2 h, but we are asked to find a formula that
doesn’t contain h, so we get rid of it by substitution, using the formula we
πr 2
derived in part (b). Notice we write πr 2 as as a prelude to cancelling.
1
S − πr 2¶
µ
V = πr 2
2πr
Ã !µ
πr 2 S − πr 2
¶

=
1 π
2 r
r (S − πr 2 ) 1
= or r (S − πr 2 )
2 2

Exercises 2
1. In each case derive the second formula from the first.

iR i −I
(a) I = R+r , r = I
x2 y2 b
p
(b) a 2 + b 2 = 1, y = a (a 2 − x 2 )
x−2 2
(c) y = x , x = 1−y
bx+a yb−a
(d) y = b−x x = b+y
Er IR
(e) I = R+r r = E −I
1 1 1 Rx
(f) R = x + y y = x−R
2. Rearrange each formula to make the variable given in a square bracket

the subject.
(a) y = 41 x + 21 [x] (b) y = x+2
3
[x]
(c) E = mc 2
(c > 0) [c] (d) V = 34 πr 3 [r ]
k
(e) V = 13 πr 2 h (r > 0) [r ] (f) y = x 2 [x]
1 p
(g) I = 2
m(v 2 − u 2 ) (v > 0) [v] (h) y = a x + b [x]
q
l +x
(i) T = 2π g
[x] (j) A = π(R 2 − r 2 ) (R > 0) [R]
y 2 +1 y a
(k) W = y 2 −1 [y] (l) x = x−1 [x]
B B
(m) Y = A+ X [X ] (n) Y = A+ X 3 [X ]
1−t 2
q
(o) x = 1+t 2 (t > 0) [t ] (p) y = k a+x
a−x
[x]
1
3. Rearrange the formula y = 1+ 1 to make x the subject.
1+ 1+x
Check your answer by putting the value x = 0 into the above formula,
and substituting the resulting value of y into the rearranged formula.
4. Given that v = u + at and s = ut + 12 at 2 , find a formula for s in terms of

v, a and t .
1−t 1
5. If y = 1+t , where t = x , express x in terms of y.
6. The surface area and volume of a sphere are given by the formulae
4
S = 4πr 2 and V = πr 3 respectively.
3
Find a formula for V in terms of S.

Solutions 2
3−2y
q
E
2. (a) x = 2(2y − 1) (b) x = y (c) c = ± m
q q q
(d) r = ± 3 3V
4π
(e) r = ± 3Vπh
(f) x = ± ky
p
2I −mu 2 y−b 2 g T 2 −4π2 l
³ ´
(g) v = ± m
(h) x = a (i) x = 4π2
q
y
q
2
(j) R = ± A−πr
π (k) y = ± W +1
W −1 (l) x = y−a
q q
B
(m) X = Y −A (n) X = 3 Y B−A (o) t = ± 1−x
1+x
y 2 −k 2
(p) x = a y 2 +k 2
3−2y
3. x = y−2
1 2+x 2+x 3+2x
Numerator 1+ 1+x = 1+x , so y = 1+ 1+x = 2+x .
3
When x = 0, y = 2 .
3−2y 3
x = y−2 . When y = 2 , x = 0.
4. s = v t − 12 at 2 .
u = v − at , s = (v − at )t + 21 at 2 = v t − at 2 + 21 at 2 .
1−y
5. x = 1+y .
1− x1 x−1
y = = x+1 [Multiplying top and bottom by x.]
1+ x1
3 q
S2 1 S3
6. V = 1 or 3 4π . [No ± needed as V is a physical quantity.]
3(4π) 2
q
S S
¢ 12 S
¢ 23
r3 =
¡ ¡
r= 4π = 4π so 4π
3 3
S
¢ 32 4π S 2 S2
V = 43 π
¡
4π = 3 3 = 1.
(4π) 2 3(4π) 2

6.4 Linear Inequalities

Inequalities17 are like equations but instead of an = sign there will be one of
these 18 : <, ≤, > or ≥.
They might be described using phrases like
< “less than"

≤ “less than or equal to"; “no greater than"
> “greater than"
≥ “greater than or equal to"; “no less than"; “at least".
If you have skipped over the previous section on Linear Equations—because

you are comfortable with them—it may still be a good idea to remind
yourself of the algorithm we use to solve them. This is because with one
exception exactly the same algorithm solves inequalities. You will find the
method summarised on page 6-12. We’ll cone to the exception shortly; first
let’s see some examples.
An equation will have a specific number of solutions: a linear equation will
have one, a quadratic equation will have up to two, a cubic equation up to
three etc. An inequality can, and generally will, have an infinite number of
solutions.
Example 22 Solve the inequality 7x + 1 < 22.
Solution
We don’t need a formal method in this case: by inspection 7x must be less
than 21, so x must be less than 3. The solution is x < 3.
We’ll solve it using the formal method nevertheless, to prepare us for
examples where the answer is far from obvious.
7x + 1 < 22
(−1) 7x < 21
(÷7) x < 3
Or in set notation {x : x < 3}.

Represented own the number line

H
H ◦
−2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
Notice that we use an empty circle to indicate that the value x = 3 is not
included.
17
They are occasionally referred to as inequations.
18
If you don’t automatically know the difference between < and >, just remember
that the bigger number is at the “fat" end of the sign, and the smaller number
at the “thin" end.

Example 23 Solve the inequality 2x ≥ 3(10 − x).
Solution
We can’t see just by looking at it which values of x satisfy this inequality.
Multiplying out the bracket we have:
2x ≥ 30 − 3x
(+3x) 5x ≥ 30
(÷5) x ≥ 6
Let’s pause for a moment. We are saying that for every number bigger than 6,
it is also true to say that 2x ≥ 3(10 − x). Take x = 8 for example: 2x = 8 and
3(10 − 8) = 6; the l.h.s. is indeed bigger than the r.h.s. We are also saying that
if x = 6 the inequality also works: the l.h.s. is 12 and so is the r.h.s. It all
makes sense.
Now an example involving fractions. And after that, what is this exception we
referred to at the start of the section?

4x
Example 24 Solve the inequality ≤ 2x − 5.
3
Solution
(×3) 4x ≤ 3(2x − 5)
4x ≤ 6x − 15
(−4x) 0 ≤ 2x − 15
(+15) 15 ≤ 2x
15
(÷2) ≤ x
2
Compare this with Example 3. But for the sign in the middle every line is
identical.
So far everything we have done with linear inequalities carries over directly
from our work with linear equations.

So when does it not? What works for equations that doesn’t work for
inequalities? To see what the problem is, we’ll take an extremely simple
equation:
−x = 6
There are two ways to solve it. (Please bear with me, there is a point to it.)
(a) By adding and subtracting:
−x = 6
(+x) 0 = 6+x
(−6) −6 = x
(b) By multiplying
−x = 6
−
(× 1) x = −6
The two answers are the same, which is exactly what we’d expect to find.
Now let’s see what happens if we do the same with the inequality
−x ≥ 6
As before we’ll do it using both methods.

(a) By adding and subtracting:
−x ≥ 6
(+x) 0 ≥ 6+x
(−6) −6 ≥ x
or x ≤ −6
(b) By multiplying:
−x ≥ 6
−
(× 1) x ≥ −6 ???
The answers are different! What it tells us is that
if we multiply or divide an inequality by a negative number,

we must also reverse the sign.
Try this out for your self. Write a down an inequality you know to be correct,
like
−3 < 7 or − 2 < −1.
Multiply each side by −1 (or by any negative number). It only remains
correct if we also reverse the sign.

Let’s go back to Example 24 to see this rule in action.
4x
≤ 2x − 5
3
(×3) 4x ≤ 3(2x − 5)
4x ≤ 6x − 15
(−6x) − 2x ≤ −15
(×− 1) 2x ≥ 15 (reversing the sign)
15
(÷2) x ≥
2
The answer agrees with the one we got before, on page 6-34.
It’s important to stress that the sign doesn’t need to change if all we are doing
is adding or subtracting negative numbers, nor if we multiplying or dividing
by positive numbers—only if we are multiplying or dividing by negative
numbers.
We appear to have a method for solving any linear inequality. Well not quite,
as you will see in a later module. But we have everything we need for now.
QQ
x
(a) 8x < 5(x + 3) (b) 2x > 4 + 5
x 2x
(c) 17 − 3y ≥ 2(y + 1) (d) 4 − 3 ≤ 1
19 20
(a) x < 5 (b) 8x > x + 20 ⇒ x > (c) y < 3
7
12
(d) −5x ≤ 12 ⇒ 5x ≥ −12 ⇒ x ≥ −
5

Exercises 3
1. Solve these inequalities.

(a) 3x − 1 < 5 (b) 2 + 6y > 9y (c) 4x − 1 ≥ 2(x + 3)
3y
(d) 2(1 − 3a) < a + 1 (e) 3x + 2(4x + 1) ≤ 0 (f ) 2 > 1
2. Solve these inequalities.

4 1 2y
(a) x+ 5 ≤ 3x (b) 3 − 3 < 1
3 4x+1 x
(c) y+ 4 ≤ 2 + 3y (d) 3
−2> 0
2 1
(e) y < 9 − 3 y (f) 2.5x < −0.1
3 1
(g) 0.6t > 4 (h) 3z− 2 (1 − z) ≤ 0
3+y
(i) 3y(2y − 3) < (6y + 1)(y − 1) (j) 4y− 2 > 1
3 2x−1
(k) x − 2 ≤ 4 − x
3. In 14 years time Myra will be more than 3 times as old as she is now.
Write this statement in the form of an inequality and simplify it. Start
by assuming Myra’s current age to be x years.
4. (a) Show that if a and b are two numbers such that

a(b + 4) < b(a + 2)
then b > 2a.
(b) Comment on this reasoning:
a(b + c) < b(a + c)
⇒ ab + ac < ba + bc
⇒ ac < bc
⇒ a < b
5. Consider the inequality

x
<1
x +1
and whether it always holds true, whatever the value of x.
The following argument appears to prove that it does:
“The fraction must be less than 1 because the denominator is larger
than the numerator."
Find a value of x for which the fraction is not less than 1. (What we call
a counterexample.)
6. x and y are real numbers such that x > y > 0.
(a) Show that x + y > 2x.

(b) Hence, or otherwise, prove that
1 2 1
< <
x x+y y
justifying every step in your reasoning.
(c) Use the result in part (b) to show that
1 2
p <p < 1.
2 2+1

Solutions 3
2 7 1
1. (a) x < 2 (b) y < 3 (c) x ≥ 2 (d) a > 7
2 7
(e) x ≤ − 11 (f) y > 3
2 5 2
2. (a) x ≥ 5 (b) y > 1 (c) y ≥ − 8 (d) x > − 5
1 5 1
(e) y < 6 (f) x < −0.04 (g) t > 4 (h) z ≤ 7
1 5 6
(i) y > 14 (j) y > 7 (k) x ≥ 7
3. x + 14 > 3x. x > 7.
4. (a) ab + 4a < ba + 2b ⇒ 4a < 2b ⇒ b > 2a.

(b) Correct up to penultimate line, but cannot divide both sides by c,
because c might be negative.
5. If we multiply both sides by x + 1 we get the inequality x < x + 1, or 0 < 1,

which suggests the statement is true for all values of x.
However the direction of the inequality is reversed if we multiply by a negative
number, i.e. if x + 1 < 0. So any x < −1 provides a counterexample.
−2
For example, if x = −2 the fraction is −1
= 2.
6. (a) Add x to both sides of the inequality y < x, to give x + y < 2x

(b) Divide the inequality by x + y and by x.
(We can do this because x and y are both positive.)
1 2
Hence x < x+y . The other inequality is proved similarly.
p
(c) Substitute x = 2 and y = 1, which satisfy the condition x > y > 0.

6.5 Linear Simultaneous Equations

We shall be returning to inequalities in the next section, where we will be
combining more than one inequality. Before we do that we are going to look
at the simpler case of combining two linear equations.
For this section you’ll need to be comfortable with solving linear equations
(see Section 6.1).
All the equations we’ve studied so far in the book have involved a single
variable. For example the equation 3x − 8 = x is a statement about that
variable x; it specifies a relationship that the value of x must obey. In this
case x must be 4, and it’s the only value of x that satisfies the equation.
What about an equation with more than one variable? For example x + y = 9.
There isn’t just one solution to this. We could have x = 2 and y = 7, x = 15 and
y = −6, and so on. There are infinitely many solutions, each one consisting
of an x,y pair. The pair could be represented by a point on a graph.
If we plot all the solutions of x + y = 9 what do we get? The line x + y = 9, of
course. The equation is linear so we get a straight line.
Now suppose x and y need to satisfy two equations at the same time. For
example:
x+y = 9
and y = 2x.
Each equation taken on its own has an infinite number of possible solutions,
but typically a solution to one will not be a solution to the other. For example
x = 4, y = 5 fits the first but not the second; x = 12, y = 24 fits the second but
not the first. Solving them simultaneously means finding a value of x and a
value of y that fits both equations.
In our example we are looking for two numbers, one of which is twice as big
as the other, and which add up to 9. The answer is x = 3, y = 6. If we can see
what answer is without doing any work, we call this solving by inspection.
If we can’t see the solution, we could try a few numbers, in other words use
trial and error. In an exam we are unlikely to be able to find the solution this
way. We need a systematic method.
You are going to see three methods. Which one you use will depend on the
problem. 20 .
20
Real life is usually a complicated affair, so when we use mathematical models to
solve problems we typically find ourselves with equations involving a great many
variables—sometimes hundreds. If this interests you and you want to see some
practical applications, turn to page ?? in Appendix A (or click on the page number).

The three methods for solving simultaneous equations are:
(i) Equating expressions for y.

(ii) Substitution.
(iii) Combining the equations.
Actually the first method is just a particular case of the second, as you will
see, but we tend to think of them as different. The objective of each method
is the same: to eliminate one of the variables. That will take us from two
equations in two variables to one equation in one variable 21 . In this chapter
that equation will be linear (which we know we can solve), so it will give us a
strategy for solving any pair of linear simultaneous equations. (In Chapter 7
we’ll meet simultaneous equations that are non-linear.)
Sometimes it makes no difference which method we choose; at other times

one will be decidedly simpler than the others two. We’ll work through a
couple of the examples using more than one method, to bring out their
differences. Choosing the best method can sometimes make life quite a bit
simpler.
In the first example we will use all three.
21
If we have more than two variables the approach is the same. For example if we
have three equations in three unknowns we eliminate one of them to give two
equations in two unknowns; we then eliminate another variable to give one equation
in one unknown. Once we are down to one equation in one variable we know we can
solve it. This strategy works for any number of variables.

Example 25
Solve these simultaneous equations:
y = 5−x
y = 2x − 1
Solution
(i) We start with the first method: equating expressions for y. To satisfy the
first equation y must be 5 minus the value of x; to satisfy the second y must
be one less than twice the value of x. The only way y can satisfy both
equations, therefore, is if
5 − x = 2x − 1
or 6 = 3x
x = 2
Now we know that x has to be 2, we can substituting this value into either
equation (written in any form) to tells us that y must be. The answer is y = 3.
We say the solution is x = 2, y = 3.
(ii) The substitution method means finding an expression for one of the
variables—using one of the equations—and substituting this into the other
equation. In fact this is what we just did, substituting y. But we could have
chosen x.
To substitute x we need to re-write the first equation:
y +x = 5
x = 5− y
and where we see x in the second equation, replace it with this expression:
y = 2(5 − y) − 1
y = 10 − 2y − 1
3y = 9
y = 3
Once again putting this value back into either equation, we get x = 2.
(iii) We can also use this example to describe the third method, which is
combining equations. We start by writing each equation with the constant
term on the right and the variable terms on the left—in the same order22 .
One way to do this would be:
x+y = 5
2x − y = 1
Now we are going to add these two equations. Why can we do this? We will
explain shortly.
x + y + 2x − y = 6
3x = 6
x = 2
Because we have we have a +y in one equation and a −y in the other, adding
the equations makes the y’s disappear; it leaves an equation in only one
variable. We say we have eliminated y.
It remains to find x, which is easily done by substituting in any of the
equations.
22
So that the x’s and he y’s line up vertically.

That’s all three methods.

Now we’ll explain why adding equations makes sense. If fact we’ll see that
the equations can be combined in many different ways.
All becomes clear if we see what happens with these two (extremely simple)
equations:
A = 4
B = 1
Adding the two equations gives A + B = 5, which is evidently correct. Or we

could subtract them, to give A − B = 3, also evidently correct.
Taking this a step further we could take a multiple of each of them and then
add or subtract. For example 3A − 2B = 10. This is also correct.
In Example 1 we were “lucky": we had a y in one of the equations and a −y

in the other. . One way of re-writing the equations would be:
y +x = 5
y − 2x = −1
Now adding them isn’t going to help: we’d get 2y − x = 4. (Neither variable
disappears and we are no further forward.)
Because we have +y in both equations,subtracting them does the trick:
y + x − (y − 2x) = 5 − (−1)
y + x − y + 2x = 6
3y = 6
x = 2
and the solution is the same as before. Notice we have to be particularly

careful when subtracting negative numbers.
Before moving on to some slightly tricker examples, a brief look at the

geometric significance of solving simultaneous equations.

Geometrical interpretation of linear simultaneous

equations
Any linear equation can be represented by a straight line.
We’ll use the equations in Example 1, which can be written
y +x = 5
y = 2x − 1.
For every point on y + x = 5, its x-coordinate plus its y-coordinate equals 5;

The coordinates of the point on y = 2x + 1 satisfy a different relationship.
At the point where the two lines cross, the x and y coordinates satisfy both
relationships, so the solution of the simultaneous equations tells us where
the two lines cross.
This is illustrated in the diagram below: the lines cross (or intersect) where
x = 2 and y = 3.
y

6

@ 6
+1

@
2x
@
5@
y=

@
@
4 @

@
@ • (2, 3)
3
@
@
y+
@
2
x
@
=
@
5

1 @
@

@
x
@ -

−1 0 1 2 3 4 5@ 6
@
−1 @
@

−2

−3
We shall return to the graphical interpretation of linear relationships later in

the chapter when we consider linear inequalities.

Example 26
2x + 3y = 5
x − 2y = 6
Solution
First by substitution (Method (ii)). We can use either variable but it’s much
easier to substitute x in this case, because using y will immediately
introduce fractions. (For this reason Method (i) would not be the most
sensible way to go.) From the second equation
x = 6 + 2y
Substituting x into the first (i.e. replacing x with 6 + 2y) we have
2(6 + 2y) + 2y = 5
12 + 4y + 3y = 5
7y = −7
y = −1
Substituting y = −1 back into x = 6 + 2y
x = 6 + 2(−1) = 4.
We could have substituted in any of the equations, but since we have already
taken the trouble to find an expression for x in terms of y, we may as well use
that version.
The solution is x = 4, y = −1.
We could also use Method (iii), combining equations, although in this case
simply adding or subtracting the equations isn’t going to work. But we can
make them match if we do some multiplying first (as we described on page
6-41).
Doubling the second equation would mean both equations having a 2x
term:
2x + 3y = 5
2x − 4y = 12
Subtracting these we have:

3y − (−4y) = 5 − 12
7y = −7
y = −1.
Substituting y into either of the original equations gives x = 4, as expected.

By the way we could have chosen to eliminate y rather than x, but that
would have meant multiplying both equations. In the next example we have
no choice but to do this.

Example 27
7q = 6p + 5
4(p + q) = 1
Solution
With no easy way of finding an expression for p in terms of q (or vice versa)
we’ll use Method (iii) (combining the equations). We start by getting rid of
the brackets:
7q − 6p = 5
4q + 4p = 1
We can choose to eliminate q by multiplying the first equation by 4 and the

second by 7:
28q − 24p = 20
28q + 28p = 7
Adding 52p = −13
1
p = − .
4
Substituting back we have:
4q − 1 = 1
4q = 2
1
q = .
2
The solution is 1 1
p =− , q= .
4 2
We could of course have started by eliminating q rather than p.

QQ
Solve these simultaneous equations using any method. The answers are in
the footnote23 .
(a) y = 2x − 1 (b) y =4 + x (c) a + 4b = 2

y = 8−x x+y = 7 3a − b = 19
(d) 7x − 2y = 1
3x + 4y = 15
23
(a) x = 3, y = 5 (b) x = 1.5, y = 5.5 (c) a = 6, b = −1 (d) x = 1, y = 3

Example 28 3y
x+ +1 = 0
2
17 − 2y
= 5
x
Solution
The issue here is that both equations include fractions, however as we saw in
Section 6.1, we can always get rid of fractions from an equation by
multiplying by a suitable number, in this case 2 and x respectively. This gives
us:
2x + 3y + 2 = 0
17 − 2y = 5x
rearranging into the standard format
2x + 3y = −2
5x + 2y = 17.
Complete this example for yourself. The answer is in the footnote24 .
Example 29
'$
A drive belt passes over two cylindrical drums,
r each of radius r m. The axes of the drums are
6 parallel and a distance L m apart.
&%
L The total length of the belt is 3 m, and for
'$optimum efficiency the distance between the
centres of the two drums must be four times
r
? their radius.
&%
What is the ideal radius of the drums?
Solution
The belt can be thought of comprising the complete circumference of a
circle radius r m plus two straight sections each of length L m, so
2L + 2πr = 3
The other relationship is L = 4r .
By substituting L into the first equation (and remembering that π is just a
number)
8r + 2πr = 3
2r (4 + π) = 3
3
r =
2(4 + π)
= 0.210 m (3SF).
Finally, simultaneous equations can arise in the context of function notation.
24
x = 5, y = −4. With no variable having a coefficient 1 anywhere use method (iii).

Example 30
A function f is defined by the formula
f (x) = ax + b.
Given that f (1) = 3 and f (3) = −1. Find the value of f (4).
Solution
f (1) = a + b and f (3) = 3a + b, so we have simultaneous equations:
a +b = 3
3a + b = −1
Subtracting then gives

2a = −4
a = −2
Substituting this value of a back into the first equation
−2 + b = 3
b = 5.
The function is
f (x) = −2x + 5,
so f (4) = −3.

Exercises 4
1. In each case determine which of the points represent possible
solutions to the equation.
(a) y = 4x
(0, 0), (4, 1), (1, 4), ( 12 , 4 21 ), ( 12 , 2)
(b) x + y = 6
(0, 0), (5, 1), (−3, 9), (2a, 4a), (4b, 6 − 4b)
(c) 5x + 3y = 1
(3, −5), (2, −3), (0, 13 ), ( 15 , 0), ( 21 , − 12 )
y x
(d) − =1
5 2
(0, 5), (−2, 0), (2, 10), (2, 5), (−1, 2.5)
(e) y = 2x + k, where k is a constant
(1, 2 + k), (k, 3k), (− k2 , 0), ( k2 , 2k), (−k, k)
2. Solve these simultaneous equations using the substitution method.

(a) y = 3x (b) x + y +1 = 0
x + 2y = 14 2x + 3y = 1
(c) 5y − x = 38 (d) y −x +8 = 0
x = 1 − 2y 5x + 4y + 5 = 0
(e) 2(p − q) = 1 (f ) 3x − 2y = 11
4p − 5 = q 2x + 3y = 0
3. Solve these simultaneous equations by equating expressions for one of

the variables.
(a) y = 3x + 4 (b) y = x −1
y = 12 − x x+y = 4
(c) a = 5+b (d) y = 6x

b = 2a − 8 3x − y = 1
1 x−1
(e) y = x +1 (f ) y =
2 3
y = 2x − 5 y − 4x = 7
4. Solve these simultaneously by the method of combining equations.

(a) 3x + y = 7 (b) 2x + 5y = −6
5x − y = 9 2x − 3y = 11
(c) y − 2x = 3 (d) 4s − 3t = 5
3y + x = 16 8t − 3s = 7
(e) 3(x + y) = 2 (f ) 2x = 5y
5x + 7y = 2 8y − 7x = 38

5. Solve these simultaneous equations using any method.

(a) 4x + 5y − 6 = 0 (b) y = x +1
x +3 = y 7x + 3y = 0
(c) x+y = 3 (d) y = 2x + 5

3x + 5y − 12 = 0 y = −3x
2
(e) 0.4x − 1.3y = 9 (f) y = x −1
3
3
2x − 0.5y = 3 y = x +4
2
6.
The diagram shows a rectangular pane of
glass measuring x m wide by y m high.
y
The perimeter of the pane is 7.0 m. and the
ratio of its height to its width is 3 : 2.
Find the dimensions of the pane of glass.

x
7. A small company makes a specialised component which it delivers

directly to customers. The component comes in two sizes, small and
large, weighing 3 kg and 4 kg respectively (including packaging). On a
particular day the delivery driver loaded her van with 12 of the
components. Their total weight was 46 kg.
How many component of each size were delivered on that day?
8. A flag pole is partly supported by a wire of length 13 m attached to two

points A and B on horizontal ground and making angles of 30◦ and 60◦
with it, as shown in the diagram. The points A and B are 9.5 m apart.
Find the height of the pole (to 2 SF).
C
""J
" J
"
" J
" J
"
" J
"
" J
" J
"
"
" 30◦ 60◦ J B
J
A "
9. In this question, p(x) and q(x) are polynomial function, a and b are
constants.
(a) p(x) = 6x 3 + ax + b, p(0) = 3 and p(1) = 11. Find a and b.

Hence show that p(−1) = −5.
(b) q(x) = ax 2 + bx + 1. Find the values of a and b,
given that q(2) = 5, and q(−1) = −4.
10. A 135 mile journey takes in motorways, where an average speed of

60 mph is maintained, and other types of road where the average
speed is 45 mph. The whole journey takes 2 h 20 mins.
How much of the journey is on motorways?

11. A healthy breakfast cereal only has two ingredients, rolled oats and
freeze dried berries. The oats cost the manufacturer 0.15 p per gram
and the berries 5.0 p per gram. A typical pack contains 250 g of cereal,
costing the manufacturer 86 p.
Find the breakdown by weight of oats and berries in a typical pack, and
hence find the percentage (by weight) of berries in the cereal.
12. (a) Solve the simultaneous equations
2x + y = 5
5x − 2y = 1
(b) Solve, in terms of a, the simultaneous equations
2x + y = a
ax − 2y = 1
(c) Explain why the solution you found in (b) is only valid if a 6= −4.
13. Solve the simultaneous equations

1
x
− 1y = 1
2
y = 6x
by making the substitutions X = x1 , Y = 1y .
14. (a) Find, in terms of p, q and r , the solution to the equations
2px + q y = 7r
px − 2q y = r.
(b) Show that, for these values of x and y
px = 3q y.
15. The following is a set of linear equations in three variables.
2x + y − z = 6
4x + 2y + z = 9
x − y + 3z = −2
(a) Find an expression for z in terms of x and y.

(b) By substituting this expression for z into both of the other
equations, show that the variables x and y satisfy the two
equations
6x + 3y = 15
7x + 2y = 16
(c) Solve these two equations simultaneously and hence find the
solution to the three simultaneous equations.
(d) Verify that this is the correct solution by substituting the values
into all three equations.

16. Find the ages of all the children by formulating and solving equations.
(a) In seven years time Sekai will be three times as old as she was five
years ago.
(b) Ethan is 7 years older than Fred and the sum of their ages is 12
years.
(c) Ralphie is three times as old as Sam and their ages differ by 12
years.
(d) In two years Toby will be twice as old as Zoe is now, and their ages
will add up to 35 years.

Solutions 4
1. (a) (0, 0), (1, 4), ( 21 , 2)

(b) (5, 1), (−3, 9), (4b, 6 − 4b)
(c) (2, −3), (0, 13 ), ( 15 , 0), ( 21 , − 12 )
(d) (0, 5), (−2, 0), (2, 10), (−1, 2.5)
(e) (1, 2 + k), (k, 3k), (− k2 , 0), ( k2 , 2k), (−k, k)
2. (a) x = 2, y = 6 (b) x = −4, y = 3 (c) x = −3, y = 7

3
(d) x = 3, y = −5 (e) x =2, q = 1 (f ) x = 3, y = −2
5 3
3. (a) x = 2, y = 10 (b) x =2, y =2 (c) a = 3, b = −2
1
(d) x = − 3 , y = −2 (e) x = 4, y = 3 (f) x = −2, y = −1
4. (a) x = 2, y = 1 (b) x = 1, y = −3 (c) x = 1, y = 5

1 4 2
(d) s = −1, t = 2 (e) x =3, y = −3 (f) x = −10, y = −4
3 7 3 3
5. (a) x = −1, y = 2 (b) x = − 10 , y = 10 (c) x =2, y =2
(d) x = −1, y = 3 (e) x = 3, y = 6 (f) x = −6, y = −5
6. x = 1.4 m, y = 2.1 m.
y 3
= , so 2y = 3x and the other equation is 2x + 2y = 7.
x 2
Substituting 2y = 3x into the second equation, 5x = 7.
7. 2 small, 10 large.
Assume delivery of x small components, y large components.
Two equations are: x + y = 12 and 3x + 4y = 46.
8. Height 4.1 m.
Let AC = x and BC = y. Then AB = x cos 30◦ + y cos 60◦ .
Two equations are: x + y = 13 and 0.866x + 0.5y = 9.5.
Doubling the second equation and subtracting: 0.732x = 6.
Height of pole = x sin 30◦ = 4.098 m.
9. (a) a = 2, b = 3.
p(0) = 3 ⇒ b = 3. p(x) = 6x 3 + ax + 3, so p(1) = 11.
(b) a = −1, b = 4
q(2) = 5 ⇒ 4a + 2b + 1 = 5, which simplifies to 2a + b = 2.
Similarly a − b = −5.

10. 120 miles on motorways.

7
2 h 20 mins = hours.
3
Let x = distance on motorways, y = distance on other roads.
x y 7
Equations are: x + y = 135 and + = .
60 45 3
Second equation reduces to 3x + 4y = 420.
11. 4% berries.
Assume x g of berries and y g of oats in a 250 g pack.
Cost (in pence) of ingredients in a pack = 5x + 0.15y.
5x + 0.15y = 86
x + y = 250
Solving gives 4.85y = 1164, y = 240.
10 1
Proportion of berries = = .
250 25
11 23
12. (a) x = ,y=
9 9
2a+1 a 2 −2
(b) x = ,y=
a+4 a+4
2x + y = a
ax − 2y = 1
Hence 4x + ax = 2a + 1 ⇒ x(4 + a) = 2a + 1
(remember a is a constant)
Hence a y + 4y = a 2 − 2 ⇒ y(a + 4) = a 2 − 2
(c) If a = −4 the values of x and y are undefined (the

denominators are zero), and the equations become
2x + y = −4 and 2x + y = 21
which are inconsistent (they can’t both be true).
13. x = 53 , y = 10.
The equations become X − Y = 12 and X = 6Y ,
which solve to give X = 53 , Y = 10
1
.

3r r
14. (a) x = ,y=
p q
2px + q y = 7r
px − 2q y = r
Hence 5px = 15r ⇒ px = 3r

and: 5q y = 5r ⇒ q y = r
(b) We have two equation connecting the three variables

p, q and r :
px = 3r and q y = r.
The relationship we are asked to prove does not contain r ,
so we eliminate it by substitution
px = 3(q y)
15. (a) z = 2x + y − 6.
(c) Hence 9x = 18,

so x = 2, y = 1, z = −1.
16. We use the first letter of the name to denote the age.
(a) S = 11. S + 7 = 3(s − 5)
1 1
(b) E = 2 2 , F = 9 2 . E = F + 7, E + F = 12
(c) R = 6, S = 18. R = 3S, R − S = 12
(d) T = 20, Z = 11. T + 2 = 2Z , (T + 2) + (Z + 2) = 35

6.6 Combining inequalities

6.6.1 Examples involving one variable
(a) Suppose for example that x is such that x > 2 and x ≤ 5.
Rather like with simultaneous equations, the variable x has to obey both
inequalities at the same time.
In set language x belongs to the intersection (or overlap) of the two sets
X = {x : x > 2} and Y = {x : x ≤ 5}, which we write: x ∈ X ∩ Y . Because x is
bounded below by 2 and above by 5, we cam write these two conditions in a
single satement:
x ∈ X ∩ Y = {x : 2 < x ≤ 5}
We don’t need to use set language, we could just say 2 < x ≤ 5.
On the number line diagram we indicate that 2 is not included but 5 is using
an empty circle and a filled circle respectively:
X ◦ H
H

Y

H
H •
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
X ∩Y ◦ •
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
When we discussed pairs of sets in Chapter 1 we saw that there are three
possible configurations: one set could be entirely inside the other (one is a
subset of the other), they could partially overlap or they could not overlap at
all. The example above is the middle case; here are example of the other two
cases.
(b) One is a subset of the other. For example x ≥ 5 and x > 3
X = {x : x > 3} ◦ H
H

Y = {x : x ≥ 5} • H
H

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
The intersection is the set Y :
X ∩Y = Y • H
H

0 1 2 3 4 5 6
(c) The third case is where there is no overlap. For example x < 3 and x ≥ 5.
X = {x : x < 3}

H ◦
H
Y = {x : x ≥ 5} • H
H

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
In set language we would say the intersection is the empty set: X ∩ Y = φ.

Alternatively there may be more more than one inequality but it is sufficient
for x to obey only one of them.
(a) For example x < 3 or x ≥ 5.
In set language x belongs to the union of the two sets: X = {x : x < 3} and
Y = {x : x ≥ 5}. On the number line it looks like this:
X = {x : x < 3}

H ◦
H
Y = {x : x ≥ 5} • H
H

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
x ∈ X ∪ Y = {x : x < 3 or x ≥ 5}.
Unlike example (a) in the previous section it is not possible to combine these
two conditions into a single statement (in that case 2 < x ≤ 5).
As with the intersection of sets there are two other cases to consider.
(b) If one set is a subset of the other. For example x ≥ 5 or x > 3
X = {x : x > 3} ◦ H
H

Y = {x : x ≥ 5} • H
H

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Now the set {x : x ≥ 5} is entirely subsumed within {x : x > 3}:
X ∪Y = X ◦ H
H

0 1 2 3 4 5 6
(c) The third case is where there is a partial overlap, for example x > 2 or
x ≤ 5.
X = {x : x > 2} ◦ H
H

Y = {x : x ≤ 5}

H
H •
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

H
H
X ∪Y = R H
H

0 1 2 3 4 5 6
The union of these two sets is the entire number line, i.e. every real number.
Any number we choose will obey one of these inequalities; some will obey
both. For example x = 3.5, because 3.5 ∈ X ∩ Y .
We say that x ∈ X ∪ Y if x belongs to X , Y or both X and Y .

QQ
Find the set of values of x for which:
(a) x > 10 and x > 8 (b) 4x < 3 and x ≥ −1 (c) x < 1 or x ≤ 6

x
(d) 2x + 1 < 9 and 2(1 + x) ≤ 3x + 1 (e) 2 > 3 or 1 − x > 4
3x
(f) x < 5 and (x − 1)(x + 3) < 1 + x 2 (g) 2 ≥ 1 or x < 2.
25 3
(a) x > 10 (b) −1 ≤ x < (c) x ≤ 6 (d) 1 ≤ x < 4 (e) x < −3 or x > 6 (f ) x < 2 (g) R
4

6.6.2 Examples involving two variables

When we only had one variable it was a case of pinning down where x could
lie on the number line. If there are two variables we need to move into two
dimensions.
Take the example y < 2x + 1. This involves two variables, x and y and the
possible values that one of the variables can take depends on the value the
other one takes.
For example x = 3 , y = 1 satisfied the inequality; x = 1, y = 4 doesn’t.
The point (3, 1) lies below the line; (1.4) lies above it.
y
At every point
6
+1

6 above the line: y > 2x + 1
2x

5 on the line: y = 2x + 1
y=

4 •(1, 4) below the line: y < 2x + 1

3
•
2

It is not hard too see why
this simple rule of “above,
1 •(3, 1) on and below" works,

- x because y tells us the
−1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 height of the line above the

−1 x-axis.

−2

So if the inequality is expressed in the for y < ......, or y > ..... we can easily
determine where all the solutions are: above the line > applies; below it <
applies.
If the inequality signs are ≤ or ≥ we simply include the points on line as well.
So for example y ≥ 2x + 1 corresponds to all the point on or above the line
y = 2x + 1.

So far so good, but if the inquality is not in this form, the simple “above" or
“below" rule won’t necessarily apply. Look at this example.
Check 26 first that the equation of the line 2x − 3y = 12 is right:
y
In this case, at every point
12
6
y = above the line: 2x −3y < 12
12 −3
3 y< 2x on the line: 2x − 3y = 12
x−

2 below the line: 2x −3y > 12

• •
- x
(6, 0)

12

(0, −4)•
>
3y

−
2x

So how can we tell which inequality applies on which side of the line?
We pick a point that we know for sure to be one side of the line and check to
see which inequality it satisfies. Since every point on that side of the line will
satisfy the same inequality, we have our answer.
We call this a test point and the best one to use is undoubtedly (0, 0). (Unless
the line passes through the origin.)
In our example (0, 0) satisfies27 the inequality 2x − 3y < 12, so every point on
that side of the line satisfies that inequality.
y
Another example. Consider the line y = 3 − 2x. AA 6
A
A
(0, 0) satisfies the inequality y < 3 − 2x A
A
So the origin lies in the region y < 3 − 2x A
y>
and the other side of the line is y > 3−2x. A

y<
A
3−
A
But we only chose the origin to keep the •
3−
2x
A
calculations simple. We could equally A
2x
A
well have chosen any point we know for
• A - x
certain to be one side of the line or the 0 A
AA
other.
y=
For example (−1, 1). Not surprisingly

3−
this point satisfies y < 3 − 2x.

2x
So to decide which side of a line corresponds to which inequality, pick any

test point.
If the line doesn’t pass through the origin the simplest one to use is the
origin.
26
(6, 0) and (−4, 0) both satisfy the equation.
27
Because 0 − 0 < 12.

Now suppose more than one inequality applies (where we have two
variables).
Example 31
Use shading to show on a graph the region for which

x + y < 5, y ≤ 2x and y > 1.
Solution
The three boundary lines are drawn on the graph below: x + y = 5, y = 2x

and y = 1.
We can use (0, 0) as the test point for the two lines that don’t pass through the
origin, and say (1, 0) for y = 2x.
This will tell us that all the inequalities are satisfied by the points in the
shaded region.
On the boundary lines themselves:
a solid line means points on the line are included;
a dotted line means the points are not included.
4 y = 2x
3
x+y =5
2
y =1
1
0 x
1 2 3 4 5 6
−1

Example 32
Show on a graph the region which satisfies all these inequalities:
x +1
y ≥ −2, y ≤ x, 2x + y ≤ 8 and y≤
2
Hence find the point in this region for which y takes its largest possible
value.
Solution
There is no easy way of answering the question algebraically, but a graph
makes it clear. First we draw the boundary lines. A simple way to do this is to
identify a pair of points on each of them.
For y = x we could use, say, (0, 0) and (4, 4), for 2x + y = 8, the points (4, 0) and
x+1
(0, 8) and for y = 2 the points (−1, 0) and (0, 12 ). It doesn’t matter which
points we choose but if we pick values of x or y that are simple to work with,
arithmetic errors are less likely.
5 2x + y = 8
4 y =x
3 x+1
y= 2
0 x
−2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
−1
−2
Using a test point for each inequality, they are all satisfied in the shaded area
(including its entire boundary). The largest value y can take within this region
x+1
is where y = 2 meets 2x + y = 8. Reading from the graph the point is (3, 2).
We can check this by substituting (3, 2) into both equations28
28
If we were to find they don’t satisfy both equations we can find the correct values by
solving the two equations simultaneously.

Not all inequalities are linear of course. In the next chapter we will be
exploring quadratic functions, including quadratic inequalities such as
y < x 2 − 3x + 2 or y + x 2 ≥ 4.
As a taster we will look at a simple example here.
Example 33
The graph shows the curve y = (x − 1)2 and a straight line that passes
through (0, 3) and (3, 0).
(a) Find the equation of the straight line.
(b) Write down the inequalities satisfied by the points in the shaded region.
(c) Write down the inequality in y satisfied by all the points in the shaded
region for which x = 1.
y
5
y = (x − 1)2
4
0 x
−1 1 2 3
−1
Solution
(a) The equation of the line is x + y = 3.
(b) Using (0, 0) as the test point, in the shaded region x + y < 3.
In the same way as with linear boundaries, points on one side of the curve
will satisfy y < (x − 1)2 , points on the other side y > (x − 1)2 and point on the
curve y = (x − 1)2 .
The test point (0.0) satisfies y < (x − 1)2 , so in the shaded region y ≥ (x − 1)2 .
It is ≥ not > because the solid curve tells us that points on the line are to be
included.
The answer is x + y < 3 and y ≥ (x − 1)2 .
(c) Within the shaded region, if x = 1, y must lie between 0 and 2, where 0 is
included but 2 is not. The inequality is therefore 0 ≤ y < 2.

Combining inear inequalities: practical applications

If the notion of combining linear inequalities seems rather too abstract to be
of much practical use, you would be mistaken. There is a mathematical
technique called Linear Programming which can be applied to a whole range
of problems that can only be specified using inequalities. The objective will
be to find an optimum value of some quantity (for example the maximum
profit or minimum cost) subject to a number of constraints, which is where
the inequalities come in.
Let’s take a simple example. Each day a bakery has a delivery of raw
materials (flour, sugar, etc) which it uses to make a range of products: bread,
cakes etc. The quantities used differ from product to product and they sell at
different prices. Various pieces of equipment are needed, of which the
bakery only has a limited number, and the amount of time needed on each
varies according to the product. Some products require more time on
manual tasks like packing. The problem is to find what combination of
products the bakery should make each day to maximise profits 29 .
What are the constraints? The total amount of each ingredient cannot
exceed the amount delivered. The total time spend on each piece of
equipment cannot exceed the length of the working day. A fixed number of
employees means a limit on the total time spent on manual tasks.
Each of these constraint can be expressed as an inequality, but there won’t
just be two variables x and y. For a large bakery there could be hundreds of
variables. As long as there are more than two we wouldn’t be able to visualise
where the solutions lie using a graph; we have moved into n dimensions.
Such problems are solved using an algorithm that systematically narrows
down the possibilities until it arrives at the optimum solution; a common
one is known as the simplex method. It’s possible to apply this method by
hand, but this is very tedious and invariably a computer package will be
used.
Airlines use Linear Programming for their flight scheduling: having aircraft
of sufficient capacity in the right place at the right time, with suitably trained
crew available. It’s an enormous task, and because the situation constantly
changes (aircraft develop faults, flights are delayed etc) scheduling decisions
need to be continuously updated. The constraints will run into the
thousands, the objective will be to minimise total costs.
If you are interested in a career that uses mathematical techniques like this
to solve practical problems, the field of work is called Operational Research
30
.
29
We may need to make some simplifying assumptions, for example that every item sells,
or that the machines don’t break down, but even these can often be expressed a further
constraints.
30
Or Operations Research. These days it may be grouped together with the related field
of Data Analytics, which is about finding patterns and relationships in large datasets.
Both involve the use of cutting edge mathematical and statistical techniques.

Exercises 5
1. Find the values of x for which

(i) x > 0 and 2x − 5 < 1 − x (ii) 2x − 13 ≤ 7 + x and 3(x + 5) < 5x + 3
(iii) x + 5 > 0 and 2(x − 1) < 0 (iv) x ≥ 3 and x ≥ 1
x 5x
(v) x ≤ 2 and 4 > 1 (vi) 4 + x 2 > (2 − x)2 and 2 < 1
(vii) 3x < 2 and 4x + 3 > 6(1 − 2x) + 1 (viii) x 2 ≥ (x − 2)(x + 4) and x > 1
2. The sets A, B and C are defined by

A = {x : x > 4}, B = {x : −1 ≤ x < 7}, and C = {x : x ≤ 2}.
Using set notation, describe each of these sets:
(i) A ∩ B (ii) A ∪ B (iii) B ∪C (iv) B ∩C (v) A ∩C (vi) A ∪C
3. Which of the regions defined by these inequalities contains the origin?

(a) y < 4x + 3 (b) 2y > 6 − x (c) x + y ≥ 1 (d) 4y − 3x < 2
x 2y+x
(e) 3y ≥ 5x (f ) 2 > 1 − y (g) 11y ≤ 2(x + 3) (h) 3
>1
4. Repeat question 3 for the point (0, 2).

5. The shaded region in the y
diagram is bounded by
6
the lines y = x, x = 5 and
x + 2y = 6. 5
x + 2y = 6 4 y =x
No points on the boundary
lie within the region 3 x =5
FInd the three inequalities 2
that define the region. 1
0 x
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
6. The vertices of the shaded triangle y

in the diagram are (1, −2), (7, −2) 6
and (3, 2).
(a) Find the equation of each of 4
the boundary lines.
(b) Hence determine the three 2 (3, 2)
inequalities that describe this
region, given that it includes all
0 x
the points on its boundary. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
−2
(1, −2) (7, −2)
−4
7. By drawing the appropriate straight lines, shade the region on a graph

defined by the inequalities
1
y ≥ x − 2, x + y ≤ 8, and x > 2.
3

8. The diagram shows a square with

y
vertices A(4, 0), B (0, 4), C (−4, 0)
and D(−4, −4). The midpoints of B
its sides are at P , Q, R and S.
(a) Write down the equation of Q P
each of the sides.
(b) Using inequalities describe C A
O x
each of these regions, where
a solid line indicates that the
boundary points are included R S
and a dotted line indicates that
they are not.
D
(i) ABC (ii) O AS (iii) OQC R
9. The diagram shows a quadrilateral O AP B formed by joining A(4, 6) to
C (−2, 0) and B (−4, 6) to D(2, 0). P is where AC and B D intercept the
y-axis. O is the origin coordinates.
y
B 6 A
P
2
C D
x
−4 −2 0 2 4
(a) By finding the gradient of AC show that the coordinates of P are
(0, 2).
(b) Find the area of the quadrilateral O AP B .
(c) Find the inequalities that describe the region inside or on the
perimeter of the triangle O AP .
(d) Hence describe the region inside or on the edges of the
quadrilateral O AP B .

Solutions 5
1. (i) 0 < x < 2 (ii) 6 < x ≤ 20 (iii) −5 < x < 1 (iv) x ≥ 3

2 1 2
(v) No solutions (vi) 0 < x ≤ 5 (vii) 4 < x ≤ 3 (viii) 1 < x ≤ 4
2. (i) {x : 4 < x < 7} (ii) {x : x ≥ −1} (iii) {x : x < 7}

(iv) {x : −1 ≤ x ≤ 2} (v) φ (empty set) (vi) {x : x ≤ 2 or x > 4}
3. (a), (d), (e), (g)
4. (a), (c), (e), (f ), (h)
5. y < x, x + 2y > 6, x < 5.
6. (a) y = −2, y = 2x − 4, x + y = 5
[Gradients are 2 and −1, so (y −− 2) = 2(x − 1) and (y −− 2) = −(x − 7)]
(b) y ≥ −2, y ≤ 2x − 4, x + y ≤ 5 .
7.
y
[The lines intersect at
8
(2, 6), (7.5, 0.5) and (2, − 43 )]
0 x
2 4 6 8 10
−2
8. (a) x + y = 4, y − x = 4, x + y = −4, x − y = 4 (or the equivalent).

(b) (i) y ≥ 0, x + y ≤ 4 and y − x ≤ 4 (ii) y ≤ 0, x − y ≤ 4 and y > −x
(iii) y < −x, y > x, y − x ≥ −4 and x + y ≥ −4.
9. (a) The gradient of AC is 1, so OP = 2.

(b) Area = 8 [For triangle O AP , base = 2, height = 4]
(c) x ≥ 0, y < x + 2 and y > 23 x.
(d) x ≥ 0, y ≤ x + 2 and y ≥ 23 x, or x ≤ 0, y ≤ −x + 2 and y ≥ − 32 x

6.7 Linear modelling

There are numerous situations in which the relationship between two
variables is linear. The simplest is when the variables are in direct
proportion, which we write as
y α x.
If we double x, it doubles y, if we halve x, it halves y and so on. This means
there will a constant number k such that
y = kx.
To find what k is all we need is a value of x and the corresponding value of y.
We know that inn general a linear relationship will be of the form
y = mx + c.
An example of direct proportion would be the cost of mobile phone calls
under a so-called Pay As You Go (PAYG) fee structure. There is no fixed
monthly fee, simply a charge per minute on calls made. Suppose that cost is
12p per minute, then the cots of 100 minutes would be exactly £12. In
general m minutes of calls cost C 1 = 12m pence. This kind of fee structure is
attractive for someone who makes few calls.
For a person who makes a lot of calls it may be better to have price plan with
a fixed monthly fee. Suppose that is £5, with calls costing say 2p per minute.
The monthly cost for them would be C 2 = 500 + 2n pence.
The breakeven point would be when C 1 = C 2 , i.e. 12m = 500 + 2n, or n = 50,
at which point the total cost under either tariff would be £6. We can illustrate
the difference using a graph.
C pence
1500
1000
500
m mins
0 50 100 150
The first tariff would be better for someone who makes fewer than 50
minutes of calls each month; above this it is better to be on the second
tariff31
With the first tariff we say the marginal cost of calls is 12p per minute (the
additional cost for each extra minute); with the second tariff the marginal
cost is 2p. The marginal cost is represented by the gradient of the
corresponding straight line.
A fixed marginal cost means a constant gradient which means the
relationship is a linear one.
31
In practice the fixed monthly fee is likely to be higher and include text messages and data,
but the principle is the same.

With gas and electricity charges the situation is similar: there is normally a
standing charge (the fixed cost) and a marginal cost i.e. the cost per unit of
energy consumed (usually expressed in Kilowatt hours32 ).
Directly proportional tariffs are available but most have a fixed cost element.
What this is, and the corresponding marginal cost, for each tariff is readily
available on suppliers’ websites. These can be used to to find the best tariff.
Alternatively a price comparison website like USwitch will do the calculation
for you based on your anticipated annual consumption.
In these examples there is an exact relationship between the variables. In

practical situations we often don’t know what the relationship is. We may
suspect is a linear one, we may not. To find out we can look at some data,
and if we get a straight line when we plot them on a graph deduce that it is
linear. In real life situations the points will not lie exactly on a straight line
but they may be sufficiently close that we can reasonably suppose that the
underlying relationship is linear, and we can express not as a formula.
We would call this formula a model. It’s not a physical model, in the way that
we might make a scale model of a building or a car, but a mathematical
model. It is a model in the sense that it represents a physical reality. If we
have such a model it helps us to understand the exact nature of the
relationship and from this we can infer things beyond anything we have
observed.
Models are used in such different contexts as economics, engineering and
business planning. The only way to make any kind of economic forecast is to
build a model. This will be a set of equations that describe relationships
between key factors such as tax and wages, or inflation and borrowing. In
the days before mathematical modelling engineers would sometime build a
physical scale model, or a bridge say. Nowadays the model will be
programmed in a computer, allowing the engineer to subject the bridge to
extreme forces before construction even starts. In a business environment
management decisions rely on calculations about future events; that means
modelling.
Not all these models will be linear ones, and in many cases, where
forecasting is involved, there will be a lot of uncertainty around how reliable
the model will prove to be. Techniques have been developed to help deal
with this. One of these is computer simulation, where a set up or a decision
is tested against a range of future scenarios.
For the present we will only be concerned with simple linear models.
32
1 KWh is the energy consumed by a 1 Kilowatt appliance left running for 1 hour.

Example 34
The table gives the speed of a car as it accelerates away from its starting
point over a period of 5 seconds.
Time t secs 0 1 2 3 4 5
Speed v m/s 0 3.2 6.4 9.6 12.8 16.0
(a) Draw a graph to show that during this time the speed increases at a linear
rate.
(b) Find the formula for the speed of the car v after t seconds.
(c) Write down the acceleration of the car over this period.
(d) If the car continues to accelerate at the same rate, find how long it takes
to reach a speed of 24 m/s.
Solution
(a) y
20
15
10
x
0 1 2 3 4 5
(b) Equation: v = 3.2t .

(c) Acceleration is 3.2 m−2 . It is the amount by which the speed increases
every second. It is a constant amount in this case. We call this uniform
acceleration.
Notice the units we use: every second the speed increases by 3.2 metres per
sec (or ms −1 ), so the acceleration is 3.2 metres per second per second (or
ms −2 ).
(d) 24 = 3.2t , i.e. t = 7.5 seconds.
This example is very artificial because there is a straight line that passes
exactly through every data point. The graph was not strictly necessary to
answer all the questions. The next example is more realistic because the data
points only lie approximately in a straight line. We call this a regression line.
There are techniques for determining statistically the line that fits the
points“best". For now we shall simply plot the point on a graph—called a
scatter graph— and fit a line by eye. That means when you do the examples
below your line may not have exactly the same equations as mine. That is
fine provided the coefficients are not too different.
We can use a regression line to estimate values within the range of values we
have already observed. This is called linear interpolation. Estimating values
outside this range is called linear extrapolation.

Example 35
The table shows the average fuel consumption (measured in miles per
gallon) for a number of saloon cars with different engine capacities
(measured in litres).
Car model A B C D E F
Engine capacity E (l ) 1.5 1.2 2.0 2.4 1.5 1.8
Ave. fuel consumption F (mpg) 34.3 36.0 27.1 23.3 35.1 31.7
(a) By drawing a scatter graph show that the relationship between average
fuel consumption and engine size is approximately linear.
(b) If the formula for F in terms of E is F = aE + b, use the graph to estimate
the values of a and b.
(c) Describe in words what the gradient represents physically.
(d) Estimate the fuel consumption for a car with an engine capacity of 2.2 l .
(e) Give one reason why it would be unwise to use the formula for values of E
too far outside the range 1.2 l litres to 2.4 l .
Solution
(a) F mpg
40 (1, 39.5)
30
(2.5, 21.0)
20
E litres
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
The points lie approximately on a straight line, so for the relationship for
these data points is approximately linear.
(b) If we could read off where the line crosses the F -axis, the intercept would
give us the value of b. In this case we can’t see that point, but it passes
through (1, 39) and (2.5, 21), so we can find a and b by solving the
simultaneous equations:
9.5 = a + b
21.0 = 2.5a + b
⇒ a = −12.33 and b = 51.83 (2 DP)
We could have chosen any two points on the line, but to keep the calculation
as simple as possible, we have picked easy values for E .
(c) The estimated change in average fuel consumption for a 1 l increase in
engine capacity.
(d) F = −12.33(2.2) + 51.83 = 24.7 mpg (to 1DP).
(e) The relationship cannot be linear for all vales of E otherwise it would be
possible to estimate the fuel consumption for a car with zero engine capacity.

Exercises 6
1. A tour guide charges a flat fee of $20 plus $4 per person. A second guide
charges $8 euros per person and no flat fee.
(a) Write down a formula for how much each would charge for a group
of N people.
(b) For what size group would each guide group charge the same?
(c) In a particular week each guide operates 12 tours and they take the
same total number of people on a tour. However the first guide earns
twice as much. How many people did they take on a tour during that
week?
2. A lady buys a new car costing £20, 000 on 1st Jan 2018. While she has the
car its value will depreciate at the rate of £2, 500 per year. She decides
she will sell it when it has depreciated by 60%.
(a) With down a formula for its value after t years.
(b) When does she plan to sell the car?
3. A website designer offers two fee structures :

(A) £500 plus £40 per page, or
(B) £1, 200 plus £16 per page,
(i) Write down the formula for producing a p page website under each
fee structure.
(ii) For what size website is the costs the same under both structures?
To attract new clients the designer decides to offer a discount on the
fixed part of fee (A), so that a website with 25 pages would be 20%
cheaper. What should the new fixed part of that fee be?
4. A company estimates that in addition to their wages the cost of

employing each member of staff is £200 per week in fixed costs
(accommodation etc). If every member of staff works a 40 hour week,
write down the formula for the cost of employing someone whose
hourly rate is £p.
In a particular office there are x staff members earning £6 per hour and
y earning £10 per hour. There are 7 members of staff altogether and
the total staffing cost for that office is £3, 400 per week. Find the values
of x and y.
5. On a particular type of savings account Tansander Bank charges

customers a monthly fee of £5 and interest is payable at 1.5% per year.
(a) Draw a graph to show the net annual income I a customer will
receive on a fixed balance £B . (Take values of B from zero to £10, 000).
(b) What is the minimum balance a customer should have in her
account to make it worthwhile holding it?
(c) On the same graph draw a line to show the net income for an
account with ABC Bank that charges no fee and pays 1.1% interest on
balances above £2, 000.
(d) It is more profitable to save with ABC Bank for balances up to £P .
Find the value of P .

6. The table below shows annual sales figures for a product and what the
company that makes it spent advertising that product during the
corresponding years. Plot the figures for sales S against advertising
spend A on a scatter graph and draw a straight line that fits the points
well.
Year 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
Sales (£ m) 36.4 38.0 41.8 42.4 55.0 48.1 59.1
Advertising (£ m) 1.52 1.25 1.75 1.60 2.35 2.10 3.06
(a) Write down the coordinates of the point where the line crosses the
S-axis.
(b) Find the gradient of the line by reading off the value of S when
A = 3.5. Hence, or otherwise, find the equation of the line.
(c) Say what the gradient of the line represents in terms of sales and
advertising expenditure.
(d) The company is relocating as as a result output will be limited to
sales of £50m. What would the recommended advertising spend be?
(e) Give one reason why it would it be unwise to assume the
relationship between advertising expenditure and sales is
approximately linear for all values of A?

Solutions 6
1. (a) 20 + 4N and 8N (b) N = 5 (c) 60 people. [12 × 20 + 4N = 8N ]
2. (a) 20, 000 − 2, 500t (b) May 2024 [20 − 2.5t = 8 ⇒ t = 6 yrs 4.8 months]
3. (i) 500 + 40p, 1200 + 16p (ii) 50 pages

New fixed fee = £200 [0.8(500 + 1000) = x + 1000]
4. 200 + 40p. x = 5, y = 2 [x + y = 7, 440x + 600y = 3400]
5. (a) and (c)

I (£)
100
50
0 B (×£1, 000)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
−50
−100
(b) £4, 000 [x × 0.015 = 12 × 5] (d) £15, 000 [x × 0.015 − 60 = x × 0.011]
6. S (£m)
70
(3.5, 68)
60
50
40
30
20
(0, 18)
10
0 A (£m)
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
68−18
(a) (0, 18) (b) 14.3 (to 3 SF) S = 14.3A + 18 [gradient = 3.5
]
(c) The extra sales generated by every additional £m spent on advertising.
(d) £2.24m [50 = 14.3A + 18] This is an example of linear interpolation.
(e) If it were linear there would be in principle no limit to the sales that could
be generated. In practice there is a so-called saturation point when all the
consumers in the market bought as much as they could use. (Extrapolating
beyond the range of existing data in invariably subject to a lot of uncertainty.)

Summary of key ideas

• Linear equations. For example
7x 1 25.9 3y−2 1
7y − 1 = 3(y + 5), 8
+ 12 = 3x, x
= 0.88, 8
= 10 y.
• Formulating linear equations. Solving problems by converting textual

information into mathematical equations.
• Changing the subject of a formula. The technique follows on from the

method for solving linear equations: treat the new subject as a variable,
everything else as a constant. Formulae such as
1−t 2
q
1 1 x−2 4
y = 4 x+ 2 , y= 2 , V = 3 πr 3 , T = k a+x
a−x
, x = 2+t 2
• Linear inequalities. For example 3x − 1 < 5, 2(1 − 3a) ≤ a + 1.

Rearrange just like an equation except never multiplying or divide by
a negative number.
• Simultaneous linear equations. Solving pairs of equations in two

variables. For example
x−1
x + y +1 =0 2(p − q) =1 3
=y
and 2x + 3y =1 and 4p − 5 =q and y − 4x =7
• Combining inequalities Linear and non-linear. One variable case

x
e.g. x > 2 and x ≤ 5, x ≤ 3 or x ≤ −1, 2 > 3 or 1 − x > 4
Two variable case. Graphical solution e.g. x + y < 5, y ≤ 2x and y > 1,
y ≥ (x − 1)2 and x + y < 3.

Linear Relationships Chapter - Pure Maths Guide From Love of Maths

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Linear Relationships Chapter - Pure Maths Guide From Love of Maths

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"Sometimes a theorem can just be so elegant. It can draw together.

6 LINEAR RELATIONSHIPS 6-1

6.2 Formulating linear equations. Solving problems by converting textual

6.3 Changing the subject of a formula. The technique follows on naturally

6.4 Linear inequalities. For example

6.7 Linear modelling. Practical examples.

6.1 Linear Equations

To take one example, economists build highly complex mathematical

To solve an equation we need the last line to read “x = something". There is a

How do we do this? By using the principle that

we can do whatever we like to the equation,

by repeatedly applying inverse operations.

PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 6-2

Example 1. Solve the equation 3a + 7 = 19.

PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 6-3

Example 2. Solve the equation 7y − 4 = 2(y + 8).

PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 6-4

In this case we obviously multiply by by 3, and recalling what we learnt in

Notice we had to “unpack" the bracket (multiply it out) so we could separate

PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 6-5

or we could have swapped sides to get rid of the minus signs:

PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 6-6

Solve these equations:

The answers are in the footnote2

PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 6-7

PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 6-8

The next example is the sort of equation we come across routinely in

PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 6-9

Example 9. Solve the equation

h sin 60◦ = 12.

divide by the number in front of the variable.

PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 6-10

PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 6-11

Algorithm for solving a linear equation

2. Expand any brackets.

3. Collect terms, by adding or subtracting.

4. Divide by the number in front of the variable.

For ease of memorising the steps can be summarised as

Notice that dividing is the last thing we do.

Solve these equations:

PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 6-12

PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 6-13

6.2 Formulating linear equations

To do this we will often need to define a new variable.

PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 6-14

This solves easily to give x = 32 and the two numbers are 3

Sometimes a problem can appear to be more difficult just because of the

PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 6-15

0.86603c + 0.5c + c and 20

PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 6-16

1. Define a variable to stand for what we are trying to find.

3. Solve the equation.

PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 6-17

1. Solve these equations. In each case express the answer as an integer or

2. Solve these equations. If expressing the answer as a decimal, give it

3. Solve these equations. Give each answer as a rational number.

PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 6-18

PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 6-19

1. (a) x = 3 (b) y = 4 (c) x = 9 (d) a = 13

In (e) the denominators must be the same so y + 1 = 4.

5. (a) Toby is 15. T + 11 = 4(T − 1)