Exponential Equations & Logarithms Chapter - Pure Maths Guide From Love of Maths

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"The true spirit of delight, the exaltation, the sense of being more
than man, which is the touchstone of the highest excellence, is to
be found in Mathematics as surely as in poetry."
Bertrand Russell
"Sometimes a theorem can just be so elegant. It can draw together.

It can take a problem which seems to be intractable, almost
impossible to get your head around. And yet, within a few lines,
you can discover that you can demonstrate that this is absolutely
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John Waterman
Acknowledgements
I am hugely grateful for numerous helpful comments and suggestions from
Ian Christie and Mike Fairbank, Abbey College London, Alan Gregory MBE,
Prof Alastair McDonald, Barry Ainge, Sam Waterman, Steve Gooch, Ilona
Hurrell, Joe Waterman and Mike McGuire.
I particularly want to thank Matt Joy who, as a seasoned journalist, patiently
pointed the need for simplicity and succinct brevity. And Victor
Lunn-Rockliffe, with whom I spent many hours exploring how best to make
the layout and presentation as inviting as possible.
I want to thank Dan Balis and two of my grandchildren, Ethan and Sekai,
who road-tested some of it in the latter stages of development.
Most importantly, I need to acknowledge the hundreds of other students
whom I have had the privilege to teach, and who have contributed
immeasurably, albeit unwittingly, to this book.
Finally to my wife Anne who, despite having not the slightest interest in
Mathematics, patiently encouraged me over the many times it looked like it
would never get finished.
John Waterman, May 2019
Love of Maths Pure Maths Guide First edition published by Love of Maths Ltd
June 2021.
Contents
11 EXPONENTIAL EQUATIONS AND LOGARITHMS 11-1

11.1 Exponential equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3
11.1.1 Quadratic Exponential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-6
11.2 Exponential graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-13
11.3 The function y = e x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-17
11.4 Transforming exponential functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-22
11.5 Logarithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-28
11.5.1 Logarithms and exponential equations . . . . . . . . . . . 11-31
11.5.2 The fundamental laws of logarithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-32
11.5.3 Solving exponential equations using logarithms . . . . . . 11-36
11.5.4 Simplifying expressions involving logs . . . . . . . . . . . 11-39
11.5.5 More problems involving logs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-44
11.6 Exponential modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-52
11.7 Logs and non-linear data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-56
Chapter 11
EXPONENTIAL EQUATIONS AND

LOGARITHMS
Overview
Preview of the index rules underpinning the whole chapter.
11.1 Exponential equations. Where the solution can be found by

inspection, or after some simple manipulation. For example
3x = 81, 252x = 5, 16x = 8x+2 .
11.1.1 Quadratic Exponential equations. Equations containing exponents
that have an underlying quadratic structure, for example
32x − 3x − 6 = 0, 16x − 3(4x ) − 4 = 0, 9x = 36 − 3x+2 .
11.2 Exponential graphs. Sketching them. For example y = 2x and y = 2−x .
11.3 The function f (x) = e x What is special about the number e ?
Gradient function of e x and e ax .
11.4 Transforming exponential functions. Translating, stretching,
reflecting. Effect on intercepts with the axes and on the asymptote.
11.5 Logarithms. Definition: log A Y = X ⇔ Y = A X .
Hence log A A = 1, log A 1 = 0. Solving equations e.g. log3 x = 4, y = log10 1000
Logarithm Laws.
log X + log Y = log(X Y )
X
µ ¶
log X − log Y = log
Y
log X N = N log X
Solving exponential equations with logs e.g. 2x + 10, 22y+5 = 0.5, 4x = 121−x
1
Simplifying expressions e.g. 3 log 2 + log 5 − 2 log 4, ln e 2 , 2 log pq − log 3p 2 .
11.6 Exponential modelling. Example of practical problems e.g. population
growth, radioactive decay.
11.7 Non-linear relationships. Using logs to convert functions of the form
y = ax n or y = ab x to a linear relationship.
11-1
CHAPTER 11. EXPONENTIAL EQUATIONS AND LOGARITHMS
First a reminder of all the index rules, including negative and fractional
indices. These provide the basis for everything we’ll be doing with
exponential equations and logarithms.
a m × a n = a m+n
am
= a m−n
an
(ab)n = a n b n
¡ a ¢n a n
= n
b b
(a m )n = a mn
1
a −n =
an
m p p
a n = ( n a)m or n a m
PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 11-2

11.1 Exponential equations

Before we get started on this topic, some useful numbers. The bases you are
most likely to meet are 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, etc and you will be expected to recognise
the powers in the table below:
n 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2n 1 2 4 8 16 32 64 128 256 512 1024
3n 1 3 9 27 81 243 729
5n 1 5 25 125 625
Commonly occurring powers of 4 can be deduced from the powers of 2. For

example 45 = (22 )5 = 210 = 1024 and 93 = 36 = 729.
So what’s an exponential equation? It’s one in which the variable appears in
the index (or exponent). Some simple examples:
10x = 1000 Solution: x = 3

1
32 y = 2 Solution: y = 5
1
3z = 81 Solution: z = −4
x+3
2 = 256 Solution: x = 5
We can solve these equations by inspection, because we recognise the

numbers on the right hand side, and understand the laws of indices (see
page ??).
Let’s look a bit more closely at how this works; it will gives us a clue as to how
we can solve equations that are not so straight forward. Take the last
example 2x+3 = 256 we can write as 2x+3 = 28 . Because both sides are written
in exponent form and both bases are the same, their exponents must be the
same: x + 3 = 8, so x = 5. Here is another example.
Example 1 101−2x = 0.001
Solution
Since 0.001 = 10−3 , we have
101−2x = 10−3
∴ 1 − 2x = −3
4 = 2x
x = 2
Substitute x = 2 into the original equation to satisfy yourself that it’s correct.
We were able to express the right hand side in exponential form, using the
same base as the left hand side. Then all we had to do was equate the
exponents and solve the resulting equation.

Suppose both sides of the equation are already in index (or exponent) form
but the bases are different? You may remember in Chapter 2 we talked about
decomposing bases—breaking them down into factors. We can use this
technique here.
Example 2 54x = 25x−1
Solution
Since 25 = 52 ,
54x = (52 )x−1 = 52x−2
∴ 4x = 2x − 2
2x = −2
x = −1
We could have chosen to make the bases on each side1 25. It is generally
easier to convert to the smaller base.
Example 3 32 y = 8 y−1
Solution
In Example 2 we converted both sides to the same base. We could do the
5
same here. We could write 32 as 8 3 , and then proceed as before:
5
(8 3 ) y = 8 y−1
5y
8 3 = 8 y−1
5y
∴ = y −1
3
5y = 3y − 3
3 = 2y
3
y = −
2
The decomposition method is usually simpler, converting both bases to the
smallest possible value, in this case 2.
(25 ) y = (23 ) y−1

25y = 23y−3
5y = 3y − 3
3
y = −
2
1
The solution would then be
1
((25) 2 )4x = 25x−1
(25)2x = 25x−1
2x = x −1
x = −1

We end with an example that involves solving a quadratic equation rather

than a linear one.
2
Example 4 9x = 272x
Solution.
2 2
The expression 9x may look ambiguous to you. Does it mean 9(x ) or (9x )2 ?
It isn’t because, as an index, the 2 only applies to what it’s attached to, in this
case the x. We’d need to put in a bracket if we wanted it to apply to the whole
of 9x , i.e. (9x )2 .
Decomposing each base as we did in Example 3, we have
2
(32 )x = (33 )2x
2
32x = 36x
2x 2 = 6x
2x 2 − 6x = 0
2x(x − 3) = 0
∴ x = 0 or x = 3

11.1.1 Quadratic Exponential Equations

We have seen that the first thing to check with an equation that has a variable
in an exponent is whether or not it is of the form A B = C D . If it is, we may
be able to use decomposition to write it so that the bases are the same. You’ll
find out what to do if the bases can’t be made the same in C2.
Until then, if the equation doesn’t fit this pattern, the substitution technique
will always work. The examples we saw of this in the previous section were of
simultaneous exponential equations. Here we will use substitution to solve
exponential equations that have an underlying quadratic structure.
Example 5 22x − 2x − 12 = 0
Solution
The trick is to regard 22x as (2x )2 .
(We’ll be using this trick repeatedly.) Now we can write the equation as
(2x )2 − 2x − 12 = 0
Substituting2 y = 2x , the underlying quadratic structure emerges:
y 2 − y − 12 = 0
(y − 4)(y + 3) = 0
∴ y = 4 or y = −3
x
2 = 4 or 2x = −3
We appear to have two solutions. One of them, 2x = 4, yields the solution

x = 2, but the other, 2x = −3, has no (real) solution. This is because raising 2
to any power will give a positive number. (Making the power negative simply
turns it into a fraction.) So there is only one solution: x = 2. Check for
yourself that it’s a correct solution.
A key feature of this type of problem is that the quadratic structure can be
disguised in different ways. Look at this equation:
4x − 2x − 12 = 0
Can you see that

4x = (22 )x = 22x = (2x )2
so it is exactly the same equation! An examiner could make it appear even
less like a quadratic by writing it like this:
4x = 2x + 12
Notice that we can’t solve this by equating exponents; although tantalisingly

close, it is not of the form A B = C D .
2
Any variable will do. We could equally well use, say X = 2x .

Example 6 72x + 7x = 2
Solution
As before, we write 72x as (7x )2 and substitute y = 7x , giving
(7x )2 + 7x = 2
2
y +y = 2
2
y + y −2 = 0
(y + 2)(y − 1) = 0
∴ y = −2 or y = 1
x
that is 7 = −2 or 7x = 1
As we saw in the previous example, since 7x is always > 0, the only solution
comes from 7x = 1, that is x = 0. (A quick check tells us that x = 0 does
indeed satisfy the equation.)
Example 7 9t − 10(3t ) + 9 = 0
Solution
This example looks more complicated, but the clue is in the presence of a 3t
and a 9t , which can be written as (3t )2 . We use substitution. The choice of
variable is ours; all we are doing in effect is giving 3t a label. Putting x = 3t
(3t )2 − 10(3t ) + 9 = 0
x 2 − 10x + 9 = 0
(x − 1)(x − 9) = 0
∴ x = 1 or x = 9
and the solutions are given by 3t = 1 and 3t = 9, that is t = 0 or t = 2.
Example 8 22x = 2x+1 + 8
Solution
The clue that it is a quadratic is in the 22x term, which is (2x )2 . But we would
hope to see a 2x term; instead there is a 2x+1 term. This is a common
disguise: fortunately we can write 2x+1 = 2(2x ) and now we can see that the
equation is just like the previous example. Rearranging and substituting
y = 2x we have
(2x )2 − 2(2x ) − 8 = 0
y 2 − 2y − 8 = 0
(y − 4)(y + 2) = 0
Now we have had some practice, we can see that the factor (y + 2) doesn’t
provide a solution. The only one comes from y − 4 = 2x − 4 = 0, that is x = 2.

Example 9 2x − 12(2−x ) = 1
Solution
In this example the disguise is even more subtle. Notice the negative index in
the second term. With very few exceptions it’s safe to assume that whenever
we have a negative index it will help to convert it into fraction form. In this
case it changes the equation to
1
2x − 12 =1
2x
Now, substituting y = 2x , we have3
12
y− = 1.
y
Multiplying through by y and rearranging in the usual way, we have
y 2 − y − 12 = 0
You may recognise this as the exactly the same as the equation we derived in
Example 5. So the answer is x = 2.
Check.
2x − 12(2−x ) = 22 − 12(2−2 ) = 4 − 12 × 14 = 4 − 3 = 1.
Example 10 3x − 32−x = 8
Solution
In this example the disguise is even heavier. The negative index hidden within
1
the second term is the clue, because 3−x = x . We can re-write the second
3
term:
9
32−x = 32 3−x = x
3
and the equation is now
9
3x − x = 8
3
a form that you’ll recognise from the previous example. Putting y = 3x and
rearranging we have:
y 2 − 8y − 9 = 0
Solve this for yourself and hence find the roots of the original equation (the
answer is in the footnote4 ).
You don’t need to remember all these variations; you just need to know what
to look out for, which comes with practice.
3
The second term is 12 1 12
1 × 2x = 2x .
4
(y − 9)(y + 1) = 0 ⇒ y = 3 = 9 or y = 3x = −1. The only root is x = 2.
x

Exercises 1
1. Solve each of these exponential equations by inspection.

1
(a) 3x = 81 (b) 1000 y = 10 (c) 4x = 16 (d) 8 y = 32
(e) 25 y = 125 (f ) 10z = 0.1 (g) 9a = 1 (h) 64k = 18
¡ 3 ¢t
(i) 400x = 20 (j) 400x = 0.05 (k) 16 y = 0.125 (l) 2 = 0.6̇
2. Solve each of these equations.
(a) 102x = 1000 (b) 36−x = 9 (c) 27 y = 23+y (d) 52x − 5x = 0
2
(e) 43x+1 = 16 (f ) 5 y = 53y (g) 81x+1 = 9 (h) 2a+1 = 0.5
y x
(i) 92x = 3 (j) 8 3 =2 (k) 7 5 = 49 (l) 10−t = 0.01
3. Solve each of these equations.

(a) 16x = 8x+2 (b) 1002y = 1000 y+1 (c) 125x = 52−x
¡ 1 ¢x 1
(d) 272x = 81x−2 (e) 2 = 41−x (f) 16 y = 2 y
x
(g) 9(3x ) = 27 (h) 9(3x ) = 1 (i) 4 3 = 2x+1
4 2 2
(j) 16 x = 512x (k) 2x = 512 (l) 2x = 16x
2 2
(m) 3 y = 81 (n) 27 y = (3 y ) y (o) 5x −1
=1
4. Solve these equations.(This question is optional.)

3 1 2 2
(a) 2t = 256 (b) 10−y = 0.0001 (c) 4x = −2
2
2 ax 1
(d) 3 y = (3−y )2 (e) a 2x = a 3 (f) 8x = 2x+2
1 2 2 27x x
(g) 8x = 2x +2
(h) 9x = 3 (i) 5(x ) = (5x )x
5. Solve these simultaneous equations.
(a) 5x+y = 125 (b) 9x = 27 y

2 y−x = 32 x+y = 5
(c) 3x+2y = 3 (d ) 10 y+1 = 1000x
2x+y = 8 53x−2y = 625
(e) 2x + 5 y = 13 ( f ) 4x+1 + 2(3 y ) = 19
2x+1 − 5 y = 11 4x+21 + 3 y+1 = 31
(g ) 9x × 3 y = 81 (h) (2x ) y = 64
2x+1 − 5 y = 11 102y−x = 10, 000
x
(i ) 27 y = 9 (j) 7x − 6 y = 6
2x+7 = 161y 2(7x ) − 3(6 y ) = 11
6. In each case find the value of k.

(a) 2n+2 + 2n+1 = k.2n (b) 5(3n+1 ) + 3n+2 = k.3n
(c) 16n − 42n = k.4n (d) 2n − 2n−1 = k.2n−1

7. Solve these exponential equations.

(a) 32y − 3 y − 6 = 0 (b) 4x − 9(2x ) + 8 = 0
(c) 52x + 5x = 2 (d) 9t = 3t + 72
(e) 49 y − 8(7 y ) + 7 = 0 (f ) 16x − 3(4x ) − 4 = 0
(g) 42x = 4 + 3(4x ) (h) 22x + 2x+1 − 8 = 0
(i) 81 y − 9 y − 6 = 0 (j) 64x = 12 + 8x
(k) 25 y + 5 y+1 = 6 (l) 9x = 36 − 3x+2
2 1
(m) 4x + 4x =3 (n) 2x + 2x =2
x −x x
(o) 7 + 7 =2 (p) 4 + 8(4−x ) = 6
(q) 3 y = 10 − 9(3−y ) (r) 6 y+1 + 6 y = 42
(s) 3x + 31−x = 4 (t) 4x+1 + 4x−1 = 17
(u) 5t = 5t −1 + 20 (v) 2x − 23−x = 7
(w) 2x − 2x−3 = 7

Solutions 1
1. (a) x = 4 (b) y = 13 (c) x = −2 (d) y = 35

(e) y = 32 (f) z = −1 (g) a = 0 (h) k = − 12
(i) x = 21 (j) x = − 12 (k) y = − 34 (l) t = −1
2. (a) x = 23 (b) x = 4 (c) y = 12

(d) 0. Write the equation as 52x = 5x , or as 5x (5x − 1) = 0.
(e) x = 13 (f) y = 0 or y = 3, because y 2 − 3y = 0.
(g) x = − 12 (h) a = −2 (i) x = 41
(j) y = 1 (k) x = 10 (l) t = 2
3. (a) x = 6 (b) y = 3 (c) x = 12

(d) x = −4 (e) x = 2 (f) y = ±2
(g) x = 1 (h) x = −1 (i) x = −3
(j) x = ± 34 (k) x = ±3 (l) x = 0 or x = 4
(m) y = ±2 (n) y = 0 or y = 3 (o) x = ±1
4. (a) t = −2 (b) y = ±2
(c) No solution. a x is always positive. (d) y = 0 or y = −2
(e) x = −1 or x = 3 (f) x = 0 or x = 2
(g) x = − 21 (h) x = −1 or x = −2 (i) x = 1
2
or x = 1
5. Alongside the solution is the underlying pair of linear equations,

together with any substitutions.
(a) x = −1, y =4 x + y = 3, y −x =5
(b) x = 3, y =2 2x = 3y, x+y =5
(c) x = 5, y = −2 x + y = 3, x + 2y = 1
(d) x = 1, y =2 y + 1 = 3x , 3y − 2x = 2
(e) x = 3, y =1 X + Y = 13 , 2X − Y = 11
X = 8, Y =5 X = 2x , Y = 5y
(f) x = −1, y =2 4X + 2Y = 19 , 16X + 3Y = 31
X = 14 , Y =9 X =4 , x
Y = 3y
(g) x = 32 , y =1 4x = 3y + 3 , 2x + y = 4
(h) x = 2, y =3 xy = 6 , 2y − x = 4
or x = −6, y = −1 (x 2 + 4x − 12 = 0 or y 2 − 2y − 3 = 0)
(i) x = −1, y = − 32 3x
2y = 2 or 3x = 4y , x + 7 = −4y
(j) x = 1, y =0 X −Y = 6 , 2X − 3Y = 11
X = 7, Y =1 X = 7x , Y = 6y

6. (a) k = 6. [4(2n ) + 2(2n )] (b) k = 24. [15(3n ) + 9(3n )]

(c) k = 0. [16n = (42 )n ] (d) k = 1. [2(2n−1 ) − 2n−1 ]
7. The underlying quadratic equation is given in the bracket.

(a) y = 1 [x 2 − x − 6 = 0] (b) x = 0 or 3 [y 2 − 9y + 8 = 0]
(c) x = 0 [y 2 + y − 2 = 0] (d) t = 2 [y 2 − y − 72 = 0]
(e) y = 0 or 1 [x 2 − 8x + 7 = 0] (f ) x = 1 [y 2 − 3y − 4 = 0]
(g) x = 1 [Same as part(f)] (h) x = 1 [y 2 + 2y − 8 = 0]
(i) y = 12 [x 2 − x − 6 = 0] (j) x = 23 [y 2 − y − 12 = 0]
(k) y = 0 [x 2 + 5x − 6 = 0] (l) x = 1 [y 2 + 9y − 36 = 0]
1
(m) x = 0 or 2
[y 2 − 3y + 2 = 0] (n) x = 0 [y 2 − 2y + 1 = 0]
(o) x = 0 [Same as part (n)] (p) y = 0 or 2 [x 2 − 10x + 9 = 0]
(q) x = 12 or 1 [y 2 − 6y + 8 = 0] (r) y = 1 [6 y (6 + 1) = 42]
(s) x = 0 or 1 [y 2 − 4y + 3 = 0] (t) x = 1 [4x (4 + 14 ) = 17]
(u) t = 2 [5t (1 − 51 ) = 20] (v) x = 3 [y 2 − 7y − 8 = 0]
(w) x = 3 [2x (1 − 18 ) = 7]

11.2 Exponential graphs

An exponential function5 is one that can be written
y = ax + b
where a and b are constants. The variable x only appears in an exponent, or

index. In the examples we’ll be looking at here b = 0.
An example would be y = 2x .
We met this function in Chapter 2 (Indices and Surds).
You’ll find a summary of the rules of indices on page ??.
x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2x 1 2 4 8 16 32 64 128 256 512 1024
Although this starts off looking not very different from y = x 2 , by the time we
reach x = 10 they differ by a factor of about 10. We’ve drawn below the two
curves up to this point. The further we go the more dramatically they diverge:
for example 152 = 225 whereas 215 is approximately 33, 000.
We can perhaps see why the term exponential growth has entered ordinary
language to describe a very rapid rate of increase.
5
If you Google Exponential Function, you will see a different definition. The term
has in practice been co-opted for the specific function y = e x , where e is Euler’s
number. The reason for this, and what Euler’s number is, will become clear if you
go on to study A2 Maths.

What about negative values of x? In Chapter 2 we saw that a negative index

indicates a fraction:
1
a −x = x .
1 a
So for example 2−3 = 23 .
The table below covers the range x = −5 to +5
x −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5
1 1 1 1 1
2x 32 16 8 4 2 1 2 4 8 16 32
If we keep to low values of x, we can draw the curve fairly accurately:
y = 2x
30
25
20
15
10
x
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Outside this range it becomes difficult to draw: for large positive values of x
the graph is almost indistinguishable from a vertical line.
For large negative values x the curve will appear to be virtually horizontal. In
fact of course it is getting closer and closer to the x-axis—the curve is
asymptotic to the line y = 0.

The number we are raising to a power, in this case 2, is called the base.
(Confusingly “base" has different mathematical meanings in different
contexts.) If we use a bigger base, the function increases even more rapidly.
What happens if the base is < 1? For example
µ ¶x
1
y= .
2
Using the rules of indices, we can rewrite the function:
µ ¶x
1 1x 1
= x = x = 2−x .
2 2 2
The table of values for this function, in the range x = −5 to +5, is exactly the
same as before except that all the values have been “reflected" in the middle
value (20 ).
x −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5
1 1 1 1 1
2x 32 16 8 4 2 1 2 4 8 16 32
The curve looks like this ¡ 1 ¢x

y = 2−x = 2
15
10
x
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
As you may have guessed, this produces the curve for y = 2x reflected in the
y-axis.
We’ll be picking this idea up again in the next section. We’ll see that being
able to transform functions in various ways is a powerful aid to sketching
curves.
You will recognise y = 2x as an increasing function, so gradient functions
must be positive everywhere. Similarly y = 2−x as a decreasing function, so
its gradient function must be negative everywhere. We shall return to this in
the coming pages: the question of how to differentiate these functions.

Earlier in the chapter we solved lots of exponential equations. In every case

we solved them exactly; the answers were integers or a rational numbers6 .
What about an equation like this
2x = 13
The solution lies somewhere between x = 3 and x = 4.
The answer is x ≈ 3.70. If you check this using your calculator you will find
that 23.70 ≈ 12.996. But what does this mean?
37 p
10
23.7 = 2 10 = ( 2)37
We can see that it does have a meaning using what we understand about
fractional indices.
Later in the chapter we will see how to solve such equations, using
logarithms. For now the best we can do is the estimate it using a graph. The
value in this is not its practical use but to see that an equation such as
2x = 13 makes sense.
y = 2x
20
15
13
10
x
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
6
A fraction formed by one integer divided by another.

11.3 The function y = e x

The letter e stands for a very special number, rather like the number π.
π ≈ 3.141593, e ≈ 2.718282
They are both irrational7 numbers, so we can never write down their exact
values.
They are numbers that have a significance that is built into the way the
universe is constructed. In the case of π, it is the ratio of the circumference
of a circle to its diameter; we are about to see what that significant is for e.
We start by looking at the graphs of y = 2x and y = 3x , because
y = (2.718282)x must in some sense lie between them.
y = 2x y = 3x
30 30
25 25
20 20
15 15
10 10
5 5
x x
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
As expected y = 3x increases much more rapidly that y = 2x . At least it does

for positive values of x; for negative values of x the reverse is true, although it
is hard to see this clearly on the graphs, so we have drawn a close up for each
curve on the same graph.
y = 3x
8
y = 2x
x
−2 −1 0 1 2
7
An irrational number if one that cannot be written as one integer divided by another.

The next step is to look at the gradient function8 for each of them. We don’t
yet have the tools for differentiating them so you will have to take this on
trust.
Function Gradient function

f (x) = 2x f 0 (x) ≈ 0.693 × 2x
f (x) = 3x f 0 (x) ≈ 1.099 × 3x
This time we will compare each function with its gradient function. You see
something interesting which point the way the the function y = e x . To make
it clearer we are focussing in on the lower part of each curve.
This time the blue curve is f (x) and the red curve is the gradient function
f 0 (x).
f (x) = 2x f (x) = 2x f (x) = 3x f 0 (x) = 1.099 × 3x
6 6
f (x) = 3x
f 0 (x) = 0.693 × 2x
4 4
2 2
x x
−2 −1 0 1 2 −2 −1 0 1 2
Notice that the gradient function 2x is below the function itself, whereas the
opposite is true of the function 3x , where the gradient function is above
it–and very close to it because the factor 1.099 is close to 1.
There must be a function therefore, of the form f (x) = k x for which
f 0 (x) = f (x), where 2 < k < 3. This number is e.
A
x 0 x
If f (x) = e , then f (x) = e
!
A
A
A
It is this property that makes the number e so special, and why it is woven
into the fabric of the universe in the same way that π is.
But before we see how, we need to learn how to differentiate the function
y = e ax where a is a constant.
8
Many students are tempted to differentiate 2x by saying it is x2x−1 . This is wrong: the
rule that works for x n only applies if the index (i.e. n) is a constant.

Differentiating y = e ax
You don’t need to now why, but to the derivative of y = e ax is the same
function multiplied by a. (a is a constant.)
A
ax 0 ax
If f (x) = e , then f (x) = ae
!
A
A
A
We already know that when we multiply a function by a constant, that

constant remains when we differentiate it. Therefore if k is a constant and
f (x) = ke ax , then f 0 (x) = kae ax . Some examples
f (x) f’(x)
4e 2x 8e 2x
1 1
6e 2 x + 2 3e 2 x
2e −x − x 2 −2(e −x + x)
1 + αe −αx −α2 e −αx
e kx + e −kx k(e x − e −x )
1
= e −2x −2e −2x
e 2x
e 5x −1 e 5x 1
= e 3x − e −2x 3e 3x
+ 2e −2x 2x − 2x
e 2x e e
(e 3x + 2)2 6e 3x (e 3x + 2) e 6x + 4e 3x + 4
p 3 3x 1 3
e 3x 2
e2 (e 3x ) 2 = e 2 x

Why e is such a special number

We are now in a position to see why the exponential function is build into
the way the universe works.
Consider a variable that has the property that its rate of change is
proportional to the value of the variable.
For example an infectious disease spreading: if there are N infected people,
dN
its rate of spreading i.e. d t is proportion to N .
Radioactive decay has a similar feature. A mass m of radioactive material
dm
turns into radiation, at a rate proportional to the mass remaining: d t is
proportional to −m (negative because the mass is reducing over time).
dy
We can generalise this using the relationship ∝ y, i.e.
dx
dy
= k y for some constant k.
dx
We call this a differential equation for obvious reasons.
Now consider the function y = e kx . This is a solution of the equation, because
dy
= ke kx = k y.
dx
Check for yourself that y = C e kx also satisfies the equation, where C is any
constant. This is the equivalent of the constant of integration that we met in
Chapter 10.
dy
So the general solution of the equation = k y is y = C e kx .
dx

Example 11
(a) Find the gradient of the curve y = 3e 2x at x = −1, x = 0 and x = 2.
(b) Write down the gradient at x = 0 of the curves y = 1 + 3e 2x and y = 3e −2x .
(c) Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y = 3e 2x at x = 2 and
determine the coordinates of where the line meets the axes.
Solution
dy
(a) If y = 3e 2x , = 6e 2x ,
dx
6
So the gradients at x = −1 is 6e −2 = ,
e2
at x = 0 it is 6 and at x = 2 it is 6e 4 .
(b) At x = 0 the gradient of y = 1 + 3e 2x is 6, because the curve is a translation
of y = e 2x parallel to the y-axis.
y = 3e −2x is the reflection of y = 3e 2x in x = 0 so its gradient at x = 0 is −6.
(c) When x = 2, y = 3e 4 , so the equation of the tangent is y − 3e 4 = 6e 4 (x − 2)
i.e. y = 6e 4 x − 9e 4 or y = 3e 4 (2x − 3)
3
When x = 0, y = −9e 4 , when y = 0, x = .
2
The tangent therefore meets the axes at (0, −9e 4 ) and 23 , 0
¡ ¢
QQ
1. Differentiate each of these functions (the answers are in the footnote 9 ).

1
(a) e 4x (b) e −x (c) e kx (d) 2e 5x (e) 8e 2 x
1 2 e x +2
(f) e x (e x + 1) (g) e 2x (h) e x (i) e x (j) (e 2x − 1)2
2. Find the equation the tangent to the curve y = e 3x − 2 at x = 1.
3. Show that
1
1. (a) 4e 4x (b) −e −x (c) ke kx (d) 10e 5x (e) 4e 2 x
9
−2 2
(f) e x (2e x + 1) (g) 2x (h) 2e −x = x (i) −2e −x (j) 4e 2x (e 2x − 1)
e e
2. y = 3e 3 x − 2e 3 − 2

11.4 Transforming exponential functions

In Chapter 8 we examined the transformation of a number of functions. We
complete that work here looking at how translations, stretches and
reflections apply to the exponential function.
Example 12
The curve C is the function y = 2x .

When C is stetched by a scale factor 2 parallel to the y-axis it becomes C 1 .
When C is translated a distance −1 parallel to the x-axis it becomes C 2 .
(a) Sketch C and C 1 on the same graph.
(b) Explain why the curve C 2 is identical to C 1 .
Solution
(a) The curve C is in black; C 1 is in blue. We have labelled some points to

help us contruct what the curves look like.
C1
y = 2x
6
10
C
9
8 • (2, 8)
4
×2
7
5
6
4 • (2, 4)
2•
1•
-x
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
(b) If C represents the function y = f (x) = 2x then C 2 will represent the

function
y = f (x + 1)
= 2x+1
= 2 x × 21
= 2 f (x)
which is the curve C 1 .

It makes sense algebraically. What about geometrically? Visualise translating
C 1 to the left and satisfy yourself that the curve C 2 looks the same as C 1 . There
is a graph showing this on the next page.

C2
y = 2x
6
10
C
9
5
C 1
4 •(1, 4) • (2, 4)
2• • (1, 2)
1
-x
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4

Transforming y = e x
Owing to the importance of the function e x we will look more closely at
transformations of it. We know that e x → ∞ as x → +∞, and it → 0 as
x → −∞. We also known that the x-axis is an asymptote. Remembering what
we learned about curve sketching in Chapter 8, here are some examples.
We start with the curve10 y = e x . They all pass through (0, 1) because a 0 = 1.
Identify each of the transformations. The answers are at the bottom of the
next page.
(i) y = ex (ii) y = ex + 2
•
(1, e + 2)
• 3
(1, e)
2
1
x x
−2 −1 0 1 2 −2 −1 0 1 2
(iii) y = e −x (iv) y = e −x − 1
(−1, e)•
1
x x
−2 −1 0 1 2 −2 −1 0 1 2
−1
(v) y = −e −x (vi) y = 3 − e −x
3
2
x x
−2 −1 0 1 2 −2 −1 0 1 2
−1
Think of it as
y = −e −x + 3
10
All curves of the form y = a x look very similar when sketched (a is a constant); it is only
the scale that changes.

(vii) y = ex (viii) y = 2e x
•
(1, 2e)
•
(1, e)
2
1
x x
−2 −1 0 1 2 −2 −1 0 1 2
(ix) y = e x+1 = e.e x (x) y = e 2x
• (0, e) •1
( 2 , e)
1
x x
−2 −1 0 1 2 −2 −1 0 1 2
(xii) y = e −2x
x+1
(xi) y =e −2
•
• (0, e − 2) (− 12 , e)
x
−2 −1 0 1 2 1
x
−2 −2 −1 0 1 2
Answers
¡0¢
We use the vector notation to describe translations, e.g. −3 is −3 units
parallel to the y-axis.
(ii) trans 02 (iii) refl in y-axis (iv) refl in y-axis and transl −1
¡¢ ¡0¢
(v) refl in x-axis and refl in y-axis (vi) refl in x-axis and transl 03
¡¢
(viii) Stretch s.f. 2 ∥ y-axis (ix) transl −1

¡ ¢
or stretch s.f. e ∥ y-axis
1
¡−1¢0 ¡0¢
(x) stretch s.f. 2 ∥ x-axis (xi) transl 0 and transl −2
(xii) stretch s.f. 21 ∥ x-axis and refl in y-axis.

QQ
1. In each case sketch on the same graph the two functions given. Mark
where each curve meets the y-axis and any asymptotes. State the
transformation from the first function to the second function.
1
(a) e x and 3e x (b) e x and e x − 1 (c) e −x and 2e −x (d) e x and e 2 x
2
(e) e x and e x−2 (f) −e x and 2 − e x
(g) 2e x and e x (h) e 2x and e 2x−3
2. The sketches below are of the function y = ae bx + c. Find a possible
equation for each function, where b will either be +1 or −1.
(a) y y
(b)
x
−2 −1 0 1 2
x −1
−2 −1 0 1 2
−2
(c) y (d) y
1
x
−2 −1 0 1 2
e −3•
x
−2 −1 0 1 2
(e) y (f) y
3
2
4
x
2 −2 −1 0 1 2
x
−2 −1 0 1 2
The answers are on the next page.

Solutions
1.(a) y = 3e x (b)
y = ex y = ex
y = ex − 1
1 1
x x
−2 −1 0 1 2 −2 −1 0 1 2
−1
¡0¢
Stretch s.f. 3 // y-axis Translation −1
(c) (d)
y = 2e −x
y = ex
1
y = e −x y = e 2x
2
1 1
x x
−2 −1 0 1 2 −2 −1 0 1 2
Stretch s.f. 2 // y-axis Stretch s.f. 2 // x-axis

(e) (f)
y = ex 2
1
x
−2 −1 0 1 2
−1 y = 2 − ex
y = e x−2
³ ´ y = −e x
1 0, e12 • (2, 1)
x
−2 −1 0 1 2
¡2¢ ¡0 ¢
Translation 0
Translation 2
(g) (h)
y = e 2x
y = 2e −x y = 2e x y = e 2x−3
2
³ ´
1
0, e 3 ¡3 ¢
1 • 2,1
x x
−2 −1 0 1 2 −2 −1 0 1 2
−1
3
Reflection in y-axis Stretch s.f. 2 // x-axis
2.(a) 3e −x (b) e x − 2 (c) e x−3 (d) 1 − e −x (e) 2e −x + 2 (f ) 3 − e x

11.5 Logarithms
By the end of this page you will know what a logarithm is, but for the
moment bear with me. The story starts with an equation we solved earlier in
the chapter
10x = 1000 and 2 y = 32.
We call these exponential equations because the unknown is in the exponent
(another word for power or index).
The solutions, x = 3 and y = 5, are whole numbers (integers). We may be able
go a little further and solve an equation like this
9z = 27
because 3 p
9 2 = ( 9)3 = 27.
3
The solution in this case, z = 2 , is a fraction (rational number).
We call this solving by inspection. It relies on our recognising familiar powers
of certain numbers, in other words we have to be a bit lucky.
What about equations like this?
10x = 1047 and 2 y = 93 and 3.7z = 2.
No luck here. For equations like this we need logarithms.

The easiest way to understand the concept of a logarithm is to see that these
two statement are equivalent:
log10 1000 = 3 and 103 = 1000.
We can think of the (base 10) logarithm of a number as the answer

to the question:
what power of 10 gives us this number?
We have seen that y = e x is a very important function, so we will often want

to solve an equation like
e x = 4 or e 2t +1 = 0.6.
From the definition of logs: x = loge 4 and 2t + 1 = loge 0.6

Because base e logs occur so often, rather than loge 4 or loge 0.6 we would
write
ln 4 or ln 0.6
(ln is short for natural logarithm). Your calculator will have a ln button. The
inverse of which is the e x function, because in the same way
We can think of the natural logarithm (base e) of a number as the

answer to the question:
what power of e gives us this number?

If follows, for example, that
log10 100, 000 = 5 and log10 1 = 0.
And slightly more interesting
log10 0.01 = −2
because
1
10−2 = .
100
Some example using the natural log:
p 1
ln e = and ln 1 = 0.
2
A log can have any base, so for example
log2 64 = 6 and log3 81 = 4

because 26 = 64 and 34 = 81.
Taking this a stage further
1 1 p
3
log3 27 = because 27 3 = 27 = 3
3
5 5 p
and log4 32 = because 4 2 = ( 4)5 = 32
2
In general, a logarithm (to any base) can be defined by the statement:
A
X
log A Y = X ⇐⇒ Y =A
!
A
A
A

Before moving on to solving equations using logs, let’s make sure you are
clear about what a logarithm is.
QQ
Without using a calculator find the values of these logs (the answers are in
the footnote 11 ).
(a) log2 32 (b) log9 81 (c) log7 17 1

(d) log10 1000
p 1
(e) log13 1 (f) log2 2 (g) log3 3 (h) ln e 2
11 1
(a) 5 (b) 2 (c) −1 (d) −3 (e) 0 (f ) 2 (g) 1 (h) −2

11.5.1 Logarithms and exponential equations

Let’s see how this helps us to solve equations like the ones above.
For obvious reasons, base 10 logs are used for calculations12 . By convention
when using base 10 we can drop the suffix and simply write
log 1000 = 3.
Use the log button on your calculator to check that log 1000 = 3.
Now use your calculator to find log 1047. The answer is 3.0199 (to 4 DP). From
our definition of what a log is, this means that
103.0199 ≈ 1047.
We have solved the equation 10x = 1047.

(An answer slightly bigger than 3 is not surpising, given that 103 = 1000.)
Now use the 10x button to confirm that 103.0199 gets us back to
(approximately) 1047.
We say that the 10x function is the inverse of the log x function, and vice
versa; each one reverses what the other does.
This is all very well, provided the base is 10. It doesn’t help us with an
equation like
2 y = 93.
There is no log2 button on a calculator. To overcome this problem we are
going to have to learn more about the log function.
log A A = 1 A
!
A
log A 1 = 0 A
A
it is easy to see why, because A 1 = A and A 0 = 1.
12
Later in the course you will discover that an even more important base than 10 is the base
e. This is a special number, rather like π. It occurs naturally in the physical world—in such
areas as radioactive decay. The value of e is approximately 2.7183—a strange number to have
as a base for logarithms you might think.
So important is it that, like π, it earns its own buttons on a calculator: the e button and the
loge function which is almost always written ln (standing for natural logarithm).

11.5.2 The fundamental laws of logarithms

These govern how we combine them and manipulate them13 . We’ll state
them first and then talk about them.
For any base of logs

X
µ ¶
A
Y
!
A
A
N A
log X = N log X
To see why, all we have to do is go back to how a log is defined. We’ll use an
example to demonstrate:
8 × 16 = 128 or 23 × 24 = 27 .
From the definition of what a log is:

3 = log2 8, 4 = log2 16, and 7 = log2 128
so log2 8 + log2 16 = log2 (8 × 16)
3 + 4 = 7
Logs are, in effect, indices: we add them when multiplying numbers and
subtract when dividing them.
By extension we could have more than two number multiplied together, for
example
log 6 + log 0.5 + log 7 = log(6 × 0.5 × 7) = log 21.
The third law is now easy to demonstrate:
3 log 2 = log 2 + log 2 + log 2 = log(2 × 2 × 2) = log 23

a particular case of N log X = log X N .
You won’t be required in your exams to prove the laws. But you will need to
commit the laws to memory and be fluent at applying them. This is very
important because they are not intuitive. Later we will look at some the
common mistakes students make as a result.
13
There are some more laws but, for your syllabus, you won’t need them yet.

Some more examples of applying the log laws:

µ ¶
1
log + log 14 = log 7
2
log 1.8 − log 0.3 = log 6
log 0.257 = 7 log 0.25
µ ¶
1
log = − log 5
5
This last example always comes as a bit of a surprise. We get to the same
result a different way:
µ ¶
1
log = log 1 − log 5
5
= 0 − log 5
because log 1 = 0 in any base.

Sometimes we want to go the other way, as it were. For example
µ ¶
2
log = log 2 − log 3
3
1
log 25 = log 5
2
Time for some algebraic examples:
log 3a − log a = log 3

log pq + log 3p 2 = log 3p 3 q
µ 2¶
3 2 y
log x y − log x y = log = 2 log y − log x
x
And an example using a specific base:
log2 8x = log2 8 + log2 x = 3 log2 2 + log2 x = 3 + log2 x.

I cannot emphasis enough that, until you are extremely familiar with them,
you will have to tread very carefully when applying the log laws. You need to
follow them slavishly because you won’t be able to rely on your intuition.

Before you try some examples for yourself there are a couple of very common
pitfalls to watch out for. The commonest is to assume that something like
log 3 + log 2 is equal to log 5
rather than log 6.

Here is another. Look at this expression
log 3a 2 .
This could be written 2 log 3a. Right?

Look again. Can you see why this is wrong? If not, there is an explanation on
the next page.
The main purpose of the following questions is not so much about getting
the “right” answer (sometimes there is more than one). It’s really about
getting used to manipulating logs correctly.
Don’t be surprised if initially you make lots of mistakes; that’s how you learn.
QQ
In each case use the log laws to rewrite these expressions. (Some possible
answers are on the next page.)
1. (a) log 30 − log 6 (b) log 0.2 + log 8 (c) log 710
(e) log2 18 (f) 12 log 9

¡ ¢
(d) 2 log 6 − log 9
p
(g) log10 100
¡ ¢
3
(h) log3 3 (i) 4 log 5 − log 125
2. (a) log 10x − log 5x (b) log 2ab + log ab 2 (c) 2 log y 3
³ ´ ¡y¢
(d) log b 5 − 3 log b (e) log xy + log x (f) log K − log K12
(g) log 2x (h) log 52y + log 5 y

Why is log 3a 2 not equal to 2 log 3a?
The appropriate law is: log X N = N log X .

If the expression were log(3a)2 we could write it as 2 log 3a (putting X = 3a
and N = 2).
In our case only the x is squared.
Solutions to the question on the previous page.
1. (a) log 5 (b) log 1.6

(c) 10 log 7 (d) log 4 [log 62 − log 9 = log( 36
9
)]
1 1
(e) −3 [2−3 = 8 ] (f) log 3 [log 9 2 ]
1 p
(g) 2 − log10 3 [log10 100 = 2] (h) 21 [3 2 = 3]
(i) log 5 [log 125 = 3 log 5]
2. (a) log 2 (b) log 2a 2 b 3

(c) 6 log y or log y 6 (d) 2 log b or log b 2
(e) 0 [log 1] (f ) 3 log K or log K 3 [log K −2 = −2 log K ]
(g) x log 2 (h) 3y log 5 [2y log 5 + y log 5]

11.5.3 Solving exponential equations using logarithms

We are now in a position to solve the types of equation we started this
section with. To do so we simply take the log of each side of the equation14 .
We can choose any base but typically we use base 10.
Example 13
Solve these equations, giving your answer to 4 decimal places.

(i) 10x = 1047
(ii) 2a = 51
(iii) 72y+3 = 0.5
Solutions
(i) We have already solved this but we solve it again here to illustrate the
approach of “taking logs”.
10x = 1047
x
log10 10 = log10 1047
i.e. x log10 10 = x = log10 1047
= 3.0199 (to 4 DP)
(ii)
2a = 51
log10 2a = log10 51
a log10 2 = log10 51
log10 51
a =
log10 2
a = 5.6724 (to 4 DP)
A quick check reassures us that this is in the right ball park: 25 = 32 and
26 = 64, so 25.6724 will be somewhere between the two.
For the time being, when using base 10 logs we are going to drop the suffix.
This is a common convention: if no base is specified it means base 10.
(iii)
72y+3 = 0.5
log 72y+3 = log 0.5
(2y + 3) log 7 = log 0.5
log 0.5
2y + 3 =
log 7
= −0.356207
−0.356207 − 3
y =
2
= −1.6781 (to 4 DP)
Notice that we only rounded to 4 DP at the last stage. We carried a little more
precision in the intermediate calculations.
14
This is valid because an equation remains true provided we do the same thing to both
sides.

Example 14
Solve these equations, giving your answer to 3 significant figures.

(i) 4x = 121−x
(ii) e 2x+3 = 10
Solutions
(i) As before we are going to take logs on both sides. Although this has the
desired effect of getting rid of the exponents, the linear equation we get is
more awkward looking. Try not to be put off by this.
4x = 121−x
x log 4 = (1 − x) log 12
0.60206x = 1.07918(1 − x)
= 1.07918 − 1.07918x
1.68124x = 1.07918
1.07918
x = = 0.64190
1.68124
= 0.642 (to 3 SF)
(ii) A straightforward example of the use of natural logs.
e 2x+3 = 10
2x + 3 = ln 10
= 2.3026
x = −0.3487
= −0.349 (3 SF)

QQ
Solve these equations, where necessary giving your answer to 3 significant

figures (the answers are in the footnote 15 ).
(a) 3x = 174 (b) 4x = 1.9 (c) 11x = 13 (d) e x+1 = 0.1
(e) 84x−1 = 2 (f ) 0.2x = 6 (g) 52x−1 = 2x (h) 3x+2 = 43x
15 1
(a) 4.20 (b) 0.423 (c) −0.458 (d) −3.30 (e) 3 (f) −1.11 (g) 0.637 (h) 0.718
(e) is the only part that can be done without using a calculator.
8 = 23 so l.h.s. is (23 )4x−1 = 23(4x−1) . So 3(4x − 1) = 1.
If you had difficullty with (g) or (h) here is part of the solution to part (h)
(x + 2) log 3 = 3x log 4 ⇒ 2 log 3 = x(3 log 4 − 2 log 3) = x(log 43 − log 32 ) = x log 64
9

11.5.4 Simplifying expressions involving logs

Not all equations involving the use of logs are as simple as these. Sometimes
the equation itself will contain a log function. We need to be able to
manipulate, rearrange and simplify expressions containing logs.
Example 15
Express each of these as a single logarithm.

(i) 3 log 2 + log 5 − 2 log 4
(ii) log 2 + log(3x − 1) − 2 log(x + 1)
Solve the equation log(6x − 2) − 2 log(x + 1) = 0.
Solutions
(i) 3 log 2 + log 5 − 2 log 4 = log 23 + log 5 − log 42

= log(8 × 5) − log 16
40
= log
16
5
= log
2
(ii) log 2 + log(3x − 1) − 2 log(x + 1) = log(6x − 2) − log(x + 1)2
6x − 2
= log
(x + 1)2
The equation log(6x − 2) − 2 log(x + 1) = 0 can be written
6x − 2
log = 0
(x + 1)2
6x − 2
⇒ = 1
(x + 1)2
because log 1 = 0 (in any base). Hence
6x − 2 = x 2 + 2x + 1
0 = x 2 − 4x + 3
(x − 1)(x − 3) = 0
⇒ x = 1 or x = 3
You may like to substitute x = 1 and x = 3 into the equation

log(6x − 2) − 2 log(x + 1) = 0 to satisfy yourself that they are solutions.

Example 16
ab 2
(a) Express log pc in terms of log a, log b and log c.
x6
(b) If log x = 43 log y express log y in terms of log y.
Solutions
(a) ab 2 p
log p = log a + log b 2 − log c
c
1
= log a + 2 log b − log c
2
(b) x6
log = log x 6 − log y
y
= 6 log x − log y
6 4
= × log y − log y = 8 log y − log y
1 3
= 7 log y

QQ
1. Write each of these expressions as a single logarithm (the answers are in

the footnote 16 ).
(a) log 3 + log 7 (b) 2 log 6 − log 3 (c) log 3 + 5 log 2 − log 4
(d) 12 log 9 − log 5 (e) 3 log a + log ab − log b 2 (f ) 31 log x 12
(g) k log 4 + log 4 (h) log(x + y) + log(x − y) (i) log(x + 3) − log(2x − 1)
2. Write this expression in terms of log x and log y

x
log 5 + 3 log x y.
y
The next two pages are for those of you who feel confident with logs and want
a bit of a challenge. If you don’t, you can skip them; they are not necessary for
tackling the rest of the chapter.
4
1. (a) log 21 (b) log 12 (c) log 24 (d) log 53 (e) log ab
16
x+3
(f ) log x 4 (g) log 4k+1 (h) log(x 2 − y 2 ) (i) log
2x−1
x x4
2. 4 log x − 2 log y [log 5 + log x 3 y 3 = log 2 = log x 4 − log y 2 ]
y y

Common errors
If you are comfortable with the log rules and want to test yourself, here are
some examples illustrating some of the commonest errors:
log 2 + log 5 6= log 7
log 8a − log 2a 6= log 6a
log 5x 2 6= 2 log 5x
log 6
6= log 2
log 3
log(x + 4) 6= log x + log 4
The log rules can be applied to the first three examples: they could be
written log 10, log 4 and log 5 + 2 log x respectively.
The last two examples appeal to what we might call wishful thinking:
imagining that there is an alternative way of writing them. There isn’t17 . If
you are unconvinced, look back at the rules.
The following list of statements is designed to try and trip you up. Many of
them are incorrect. Some are correct, although perhaps not obviously so. See
if you tell which is which (the answers are over the page).
1. log 3 + 3 log 2 = log 24

2. log a + log a 2 + log a 3 = 6 log a
3. log 3y 2 − log y 2 = log 2y 2
4. log ba + log ba = 0
log x 3
5. log x
= log x 2
1 p p
6. 2
log x + 21 log y = log x + log y
7. If log X + log Y = 2 then X + Y = 2
¡ ¢3
8. log 2 = 3 log 2
log 16
9. 2
= log 8
log 16
10. 2
= log 4
11. log 8x 2 = 2 log 8x
17
At least not as envisaged here.

Answers to the questions on the previous page.
1. log 3 + 3 log 2 = log 3 + log 8 = log 24. This is correct.
2. log a + log a 2 + log a 3 = log a 6 = 6 log a. This is correct.

3y 2
3. Incorrect. log 3y 2 − log y 2 = log y
= log 3.
4. Correct. log ba + log ba = log 1 = 0
log x 3
5. log x cannot be simplified
1 p p p
6. Incorrect. 2
log x + 21 log y = log x + log y = log x y or 12 log x y
7. Incorrect. It assumes that log(X + Y ) = log X + log Y .

¡ ¢3
8. log 2 cannot be simplified
log 16
9. The statement 2
= log 8 is incorrect.
log 16 1
10. This one is correct. 2
is the same as 12 log 16 = log 16 2 = log 4
11. Incorrect. log 8x 2 = log 8 + 2 log x

11.5.5 More problems involving logs

Here we will be drawing together everything we have learned about logs.
Armed with these tools we will be able to crack some very interesting
problems, including some from apparently unrelated topic areas.
Example 17
1
log4 (x + 3) − log4 x =
2
Solutions
x +3 1
log4 =
x 2
x +3 1
= 42 = 2
x
x + 3 = 2x
x = 3
Example 18
Write down the value of log8 2.

Hence solve the equation log7 x = 6 log8 2
Solution
1
83 = 2 ⇒ log8 2 = 13
The equation becomes
log7 x = 2
x = 72
= 49

Example 19
Solve the equations 32x = 8(3x ).
Solutions
The key here is to see that 32x = (3x )2 .
This is a quadratic in 3x . Putting y = 3x , and remembering that we collect all
the terms of a quadratic onto one side, we have
y 2 − 8y = 0
y(y − 8) = 0
y = 0 or y = 8
i.e. 3x = 0 or 3x = 8
3x = 0 has no solution. We will explain why in a moment.

So the only solution is to the equation 3x = 8, which we know how to solve
(e.g. see Example 18).
So why does 3x = 0 not have a solution? Whatever power we raise 3 (or

indeed any number) to, we never get zero. This is confirmed by looking at
the graph of such a function (the graph of y = 2x in on page 11-14). The
curve approaches the x-axis but never reaches it.
Example 20
Solve these equations

(a) e 2x − 6e x + 5 = 0 (b) e x − 1 = 2e −x (c) e x−1 (e 3x + 1)2 = 0.
Solutions
(a) We can either use a substitution e.g. X = e x , or simply regard the equation
as a quadratic in e x . Either way we end up with
(e x − 5)(e x − 1) = 0, which has two solutions, arising from e x = 1 and e x = 5.
i.e. x = 0 or x = ln 5 = 1.61 (3 SF).
(b) Multiplying through by e x and rearranging the terms we have
e 2x − e x − 2 = 0, which factorises: (e x − 2)(e x + 1).
But e x > 0 for all values of x so e x + 1 = 0 has no (real) solution.
The only solution is from e x − 2 = 0, i.e. x = ln 2 = 0.693 (3SF).
(c) This is something of a trick question.
First we can say that either e x−1 = 0 or (e 3x + 1)2 = 0.
We know that the exponential function is never negative: e x−1 > 0 whatever
the exponent. The curve of e x−1 is e x translated +1 parallel to the x-axis.
For the same reason e 3x + 1 > 1 so this is never zero either. The equation has
no solutions. You would not be set a question like this in an exam.

Example 21
Find p and q, given that

p = 3q and log3 p + log3 q = 2
Solution
The equation log3 p + log3 q = 2 can be written log3 pq = 2
i.e. pq = 32 = 9.
Substituting p = 3q into this equation we have
3q 2 = 9
q2 = 3
p p
q = 3 or − 3
p p
and p = 3 3 or − 3 3
Notice that there are exactly two solutions to the equation.

p p p p
p = 3, q = 3 3 or p = − 3, q = −3 3.
p p
Mixing and matching doesn’t work (e.g. p = 3 with q = −3 3).
Example 22
Given that
4 log x − log x y + log 3x 2 = 0
Find y in terms of x.
Solution
The way the question is worded implies that we must get rid of logs
altogether, which we are going to do using two slightly different methods.
Method 1 log x 4 − log x y + log 3x 2 = 0

x 4 × 3x 2
log = 0
xy
3x 5
⇒ = 1 [A 0 = 1 for any A]
y
y = 3x 5
Method 2 log x 4 + log 3x 2 = log x y

log 3x 6 = log x y
x y = 3x 6
y = 3x 5

Exercises 2
Questions 1 to 5 involve transforming curves. To refresh your memory on this

see Section 6, or for a more extensive description go to Section 4 of Chapter 8.
1. Find the equation of the curve that results from stretching y = 5x by a

factor 25 parallel to the y-axis. Express your answer in the form y = 5a .
2. Show that 4x = 22x . Hence, or otherwise, describe the transformation

from the curve y = 2x into the curve y = 4x .
3. (a) Write down the coordinates of the point A where the curve y = 2x
crosses the y-axis.
The the point B (k, 8) lies on the curve. Write down the value of k.
(b) The curve y = 2x is transformed into the curve y = 2x − 1. Describe
the transformation geometrically.
The points A 0 and B 0 are the images of A and B under this
transformation. Write down their coordinates.
(c) Repeat part (b) but where the new curve is y = 2x−1 .
4. The curve C has equation y = 3x .

¡ p ¢
Verify that the point P 21 , 3 lies on C .
C 1 is the curve y = 2(3x ) and C 2 is the curve y = 32x .
Describe the transformations that turns (i) C into C 1 , and (ii) C into C 2 .
Write down the image P under each of these transformations.
4 e 2x −3
5. Solve the equations (a) e x − 5e −x = 4 (b) e x = 2 − (c) = 4
ex ex
6. Show that the curves y = 2x and y = 2x 2 meet at x = 1. By sketching the
curves show that there is one other solution at x = a, where −1 < a < 0.
7. On the same graph sketch the curves y = e x −1 and y = 2e −x . Show that

they intersect when x = ln 2 and find the y-coordinate at that point.
8. Find the coordinates of the point where the two curves y = 2+4e −x and
y = e x − 1 meet. Sketch the two curves on the same graph.
9. (i) Write down the equation of the reflection of y = 10x in the line
(a) y = 0, (b) x = 0.
(ii) How many solutions are there to these equations:
(a) 10x = 792, (b) 10x + 1 = 0
(iii) Show that y = 333x + 1 cuts the curve y = 10x at x = 0 and x = 3.
Hence write down the solutions to the equation 333x = 10x − 1.
10. Find where the curve y = 8x intersects the curve y = 641−x .
11. By sketching the curve y = 2−x , show that there is exactly one solution
to the equation 12 x = 2−x . Use trial and error to find that solution.
12. Without using a calculator find the value of each of these logs:
1
(a) log2 16 (b) log7 49 (c) log9 3 (d) log10 100 (e) log5 0.2
p 1
(f)log6 6 (g) log4 4 (h) log20 1 (i) loga a 4 (j) log2 p
3
2

13. Complete each of these statements:

(i) logä 32 = 5 (ii) log100 10 = ä (iii) loga a = ä (iv) log3 ä = 2
1 1
(v) log8 2 = ä (vi) log16 1 = ä (vii) logä 3 = 4
(viii) logp p3
=ä
14. Express each of these as a single logarithm, e.g. 2 log 10 + log 5 = log 500.
(a) log 5 + log 4 (b) log 18 − log 3 (c) 3 log 2 (d) log 7 + 3 log 2
(e) log 3 + log 4 + log 5 (f ) 4 log 4 − 6 log 2 (g) 3 log 4 + log 8 − 5 log 2
15. Simplify these expressions, using the log laws. There may be more than
one answer. The purpose of the exercise is to become competent at
applying the laws correctly, rather than arriving at a particular result.
(i) log 6x − log 2x (ii) log 2a + log 5a (iii) 3 log x 2
(iv) 12 log 16 (v) 2 log y + log y 3 (vi) log x2 + log x2
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
p
(vii) log X 2 − log X1 (viii) log 10x + log 102x (ix) log x + 32 log x
16. Which of these statements is FALSE? Think very carefully about them
because they relate to some very common errors.
(a) log(x + y) = log x + log y (b) 2 log a + 3 log a = 5 log a
3
log x
(c) = log x 2 (d) log PQ 2 = 2 log PQ
log x
1
(e) log(x 2 + 2x + 1) = 2 log(x + 1) (f ) − log X = log X
(g) loge e n = n (h) (log x)2 = 2 log x
17. Solve these equations, giving your answers correct to 3 significant

figures.
(i) 2x = 30 (ii) 7x = 50 (iii) 5x = 0.3 (iv) 1.1x = 2
2 1
(v) 3x+1 = 100 (vi) 102x−1 = 200 (vii) 3x = 17 (viii) 2 x = 3
18. Solve these equations, giving your answers correct to 3 significant

figures.
x
(i) 7x−1 = 32x (ii) 2x+1 = 34−x (iii) 0.1x = 21−2x (iv) 4x+2 = 3 2
19. Write each of these expressions in the form log X .

(i) log 2a + log a 3 (ii) 6 log x + log x (iii) log b 2 − 4 log b
(iv) log(x 2 + 2x) − log x (v) log(x 2 + 2x + 1) − log(x + 1)
p log x 6
(vii) log yx2 + 2 log x y (viii) 32 log x + log x (viii) 2
20. Write down the value of log2 8. Hence solve the equation log5 x = log2 8.
21. Solve the equation log3 (x + 1) − log3 x = 2.
22. Solve the equations

(a) 52x − 3(5x ) = 0, and (b) 4x = 7(2x ).
23. Given that p = logq 32, express each of these in terms of p:

(a) logq 2, and (b) logq 16q.
24. If log5 x = 2p and log5 y = p − 1, express each of these in terms of p:

¡x ¢
(a) log5 (x y) (b) log5 (x 3 ) (c) log5 5
25. Solve the equation log2 (x − 5) + log2 x = 3.

26. ab = 16 and log4 b − log4 a = 3. Find the possible values of a and b.
27. Find y in terms of x if log 3x − log x 2 y + 4 log x = 0.
28. What is the smallest integer n for which 2n > 10, 000?
29. Find the equation the tangent to the curve y − 1 + e −x at x = −1.
30. Show that 2x = 3 y can be written as y = kx where k is a constant to be

found in exact form.
31. Show that y = αe −2x is a solution of the differential equation

dy
+ 2y = 0.
dx
If y = 3 when x = 1, find α and hence write down the relationship
between x and y.
32. Find the turning point on the curve y = e x + 2e −x , and determine

whether it is a maximum or a minimum point.

Solutions 2
1. y = 5x+2 . [y = 52 × 5x ]
1
2. 4x = (22 )x = 22x . Stretch scale factor 2
parallel to the x-axis.
3. (a) (0, 1), k = 3. (b) Translation −1 parallel to the y-axis. A 0 (0, 0), B 0 (3, 7).
(b) (1, 1), (4, 8).
1 p p ¢ ¡1 p ¢
4. 3 2 = 3. (i) Stretch sf 2 // y-axis 12 , 2 3 (ii) Stretch sf 1
¡
2 // x-axis 4, 3 .
5. (a) ln 5 (b) ln 2 (c) 0 and ln 3
6. 21 = 2(1)2
y
When x = −1, e x = 0.368,
and 2(−1)2 − 2 > 0.368, so
they meet where x > −1.
1•
x
−2 −1 0 1 2
7.
y 1 1
If x = ln 2, e x = 2 and e x = 2 ,
so e x − 1 = 2e −x = 1.
The curves meet at (ln 2, 1).
• (ln 2, 1)
x
−2 −1 0 1 2
8.
2 + 4e −x = ex − 1
y
0 = e 2x − 3e x − 4
= (e x − 4)(e x + 1) 6
ex = 4 since e x + 1 6= 0
x = ln 4
and y = e x − 1 = 4 − 1
• (ln 4, 3)
y = 3
x
−2 −1 0 1 2

1
9. (i)(a) y = −10x , (b) y = 10−x or 10x (ii)(a) 1 (b) none. [from a sketch]
(iii) (0, 1) and (3, 1000) satisfy both equations.
Rearranging we have 10x = 33x + 1, so solutions are x = 0 and x = 3.
¡2 2 1
[(23 )x = (26 )1−x ⇒ 23x = 26(x−1) ⇒ x = 2(x − 1) and 8 3 = 61 3 = 4]
¢
10. 3,4
11. x = 1 [The curve is sketched in Section 5. Any line with a positive

gradient will intersect the curve exactly once.]
1 1
12. (a) 4 (b) 2 (c) 2
(d) −2 (e) −1 (f ) 2
(g) 1 (h) 0 (i) 4 (j) − 13
1 1
13. (i) 2 (ii) 2
(iii) 1 (iv) 9 ( v) 3
(v) 81 (vi) −3
14. (a) log 20 (b) log 6 (c) log 8 (d) log 42 (e) log 60 (f) log 4 log 16
15. (i) log 3 (ii) log 10a 2 (iii) 6 log x or log x 6

(iv) log 4 or 2 log 2 (v) log y 5 or 5 log y (vi) 0 [= log 1]
3
(vii) log X or 3 log X (viii) 3x log 10 (ix) 2 log x
16. (a), (c) (these two obey no Rule), (d) [it is not log(PQ)2 ] (h) [No Rule].
For the correct ones, part (e) is log(x + 1)2 and in (g) loge e = 1
17. (i) 4.91 (ii) 2.01 (iii) −0.748 (iv) 7.27

(v) 3.19 (vi) 1.65 (vii) ±1.61 (viii) 1.58
18. (i) −7.74 [x(log 7 − 2 log 3) = log 7] (ii) 2.07 [x(log 2 + log 3) = log 81
2
]
(iii) −0.756 [x(log 0.1 + 2 log 2 = log 2)] (iv) −3.31 [x log 16
3
= −4 log 4]
x 2 +2x
19. (i) log 2a 4 (ii) log x 7 (iii) log b −2 (iv) log(x + 2) [ x
= x + 2]
(x+1)2
(v) log(x + 1) [ x+1 = x + 1] (vi) log x 3 [log x − log y 2 + log x 2 y 2 ]
20. log2 8 = 3, x = 125 [x = 53 ]

1 x+1
21. x = 8 [ x = 32 ]
22. (a) x = 2.05 (b) x = 2.81 [4x = (22 )x = (2x )2 ]
p 4p
23. (a) 5 [p = logq 25 ] (b) 5 + 1 [logq 24 + logq q]
24. (a) 3p − 1 (b) 6p (c) 2p − 1
25. x = 6 or x = −1 [x(x − 5) = 23 ]
b
26. a = 21 , b = 32 or a = − 12 , b = −32 [ a = 64 then substitute]
3x
27. y = 3x 3 [ x 2 y ×x 4 = 1]
28. n = 14 [2n = 10, 000 ⇒ n = 13.28]
29. y = 1 − ex [gradient −e −x , so grad is −e. Equation y − (1 + e) = −e(x + 1)]
log 2
30. k = log 3
31. y = 3e 2−2x [3 = αe −2 so α = 3e 2 ⇒ y = 3e 2 e −2x ]

p p 1 p 2
32. (ln 2, 2 2) [e x − 2e −x = 0 so e 2x = 2 i.e. 2x = ln 2, x = ln 2 2 . y = 2+ p ]
2
d2y
Minimim [ d x 2 = e x + 2e −x > 0 for all x]

11.6 Exponential modelling

The exponential function e x crops up in a wide range of practical areas, from
radioactive decay to population studies and epidemiology. The reason for
this is that in many of these area the rate of increase or decrease of a variable
is proportional to the the value of the variable at that point.
For example in an epidemic the number of people being infected by a
disease is proportional to the number of people already infected. In
radioactive decay mass is lost as it turns into radiation; the rate at which this
happens is proportional to the mass that remains. Mathematically we can
express this relationship as
dy
= ky
dx
where the constant k > 0 for increasing variables and k < 0 for decreasing
variables.
We saw in Section 2 that the solution of this equation has the form y = ae kx
(where a is a constant). Hence the exponential function crops up in all these
situations.
Example 23
The number of people infected with a disease is modelled by the formula
N = 350 − 200e −0.5t
Where N is the number of people infected t years after the disease is first
detected.
(a) How many people with the disease were initially detected?
(b) What is the long term prediction of the number of people with the
disease18 .
(c) After how long (to the nearest month) will the number have increased by
half?
(d) Sketch the graph of N against t .
Solution
(a) When t = 0, N = 150
(b) As t → ∞, N → 250
(c) 225 = 350 − 200e −0.5t
200e −0.5t = 125
e −0.5t = 0.625
−0.5t = ln 0.25 = −0.4700
t = 0.94 years
= 11.28 ≈ 11 months (to the nearest month)
N
(d)
250
150
t
18
In practice other factors will mean the relationship is more complex, leading to a long
term reduction of numbers

Example 24
When carbon-14 decays, its mass after T years is given by
m = m 0 e −λT
where m 0 is the mass ay time T = 0 and λ is constant equal to 0.000121.

(a) Find what proportion of the mass has decayed after 1000 years.
(b) How many years does it take for the initial mass to be reduced by 10%?
(c) Find the half-life of carbon-14.
dm
(d) Show that = −λm.
dT
(e) Sketch the curve of m against T , marking where the half-life is.
Solution
m
(a) m = m 0 e −0.121 , so = 0.8860,
m0
i.e. 11.46% (3 SF) has decayed.
(b) 0.9m 0 = m 0 e −λT ,
so e −λT = 0.9 or −λT = ln 0.9
−0.000121T = −0.10536, or T = 870.75 years.
(c) The half-life is the time it takes for the mass to reduce by half.
This identical to the calculation in (b) replacing 0.9 with 0.5,
so −0.000121T = ln 0.5 = −0.6931.
The half-life (to the nearest year) is 5, 728 years.
dm
(d) = −λm 0 e −λT = −λm
dT
(e)
m
m0
1
m
2 0
0 T years
5, 728

Exercises 3
1. The population of a country is modelled using the formula

t
P = 500 + 100e 40
where P is measured in thousands and t is the time in years since 2000.
(a) State the population in the year 2000.
(b) Use the model to predict the population in the year 2020, to the
nearest 1, 000.
(c) Explain why it not be sensible to use this model to predict the
population in 2500.
2. The value of a car is modelled by the formula

t
V = 30, 000e − 10
where V its its value in £ after t years.

(a) State the value of car when new.
(b) Find its value to the nearest £100 after 4 years.
(c) How long does it take, to the nearest year, for its value to halve?
3. Starting at the beginning of January the number of rabbits n in a local

population after m months is modelled by the formula
n = 150e 0.08m
(a) Use this model to estimate the number of rabbits (i) at the end of
March, (ii) after 1 year.
(b) Show that at after 18 months the rabbit population is expected to be
increasing by approximately 41 rabbits per month.
(c) Give reasons why the model may not be valid for large enough values
of t .
4. A microbiologist researching a new strain of bacteria puts 100 in a Petri

dish to divide. After 8 hours he returns to find 500 bacteria in the dish.
Bacteria are known to divide in such a way that their number can be
modelled using the formula
N = N0 e kt
where N0 is the initial number and N is the number after t hours.

(a) Find the value of k for this strain of bacteria correct to 2 decimal
places.
(b) How many Bactria are there after 24 hours, to the nearest 50?
(c) How many hours will it take for number of bacteria to reach 100, 000?

Solutions 3
1. (a) 600, 000 (b) 665, 000 (c) The model will almost certainly need
updating by then.
t
2. (a) 30, 000 (b) 20, 100 (c) 7 years [e − 10 = 12 ⇒ t = 10 ln 2]
3. (a) (i) 191, (ii) 392

(b) Rate of increase = ddnt = 0.08(150)e 0.08×18 = 50.65 /yr.
(c) Over time the factors affecting population growth, like weather and
disease, will change.
4. (a) 0.20 (b) 12, 150 (c) 35 (to the nearest hour)

11.7 Logs and non-linear data

In many practical situations, variables are connected by a non-linear
relationship. The problem we are seeking to solve is this. We have some data,
i.e. values of y and corresponding values of x. If the relationship was a linear
one we could plot the point on a graph, fit an approximate straight line to it
and so estimate what the relationship is between x and y.
If the relationship is not linear we are not going to get a straight line and
estimating what the is relationship from a curve is very difficult.
In this section we will be looking at two that take the form
y = ax n and y = ab x .
We will see that by transforming the data using logs, we can convert them into
linear relationships and so estimate the parameters (i.e. a and n in the first
type, and a and b in the second).
Relations of the type y = ax n

The theory is quite simple. If we take logs (we generally use base 10) on both
sides of the equation we have
y = ax n
log y = log a + log x n
or log y = log a + n log x
Now we define two new variables: X = log x and Y = log y. In terms of the
new variables the relationship is
Y = n X + log a.
If we compare this will the equation of a straight line y = mx + c, the gradient
of the line we obtain is n and the y-intercept is log a. If we measure these
from our graph, we will know n and we able to find a.
Suppose, having plotted the points and find n = 2.3 and log a = 1.75. It follows
that a = 5.75 (to 3 SF) and the relationship between x and y is
y ≈ 5.75x 2.3 .
Relations of the type y = ab x

If we take logs on both sides of the equation we have
y = ab x
log y = log a + x log b
Now we define two variables: Y = log y. In terms of the new variable the
relationship is
Y = x log b + log a.
If we compare this will the equation of a straight line y = mx + c, the gradient
of the line we obtain is log b and the y-intercept is log a. If we measure these
from our graph, we will know b and we able to find a.
Suppose, having plotted the points and find log a = 0.48 and log b = 0.18. It
follows that a = 3.01 and b = 1.51 (to 3 SF) so the relationship between x and
y is
y ≈ 3(1.5)x x .

Example 25
Data are collected on two variables P and T as shown in the table below. It is
suspected that the variables are related by a relationship of the form P = aT n
for some constants a and n. By transforming the variable P and plotting
points on a graph estimate the values of a and n.
T 2.1 6.2.7 3.1 4.0 4.6

P 5.10 9.57 13.51 25.60 36.28
Solution
Taking logs we have log P = log a + n log T .
If we plot log P against log T we should get a straight line. Its gradient will be
n and its y-intercept log a.
The values of log T and log P are
log T 0.322 0.431 0.491 0.602 0.663

log P 0.708 0.981 1.131 1,408 1.560
log P
x
1.5
x
1.0 x
0.5
0 log T years
0.2 0.4 0.6
From the graph log a = −0.1, so a = 100.1 = 0.794 ≈ 0.8

Gradient n = 2.51 ≈ 2.5
The relationship is P ≈ 0.8T 2.5

Example 26
Data are collected on two variables y and x as shown in the table below
known to be connected by a relationship of the form y = ab x for some
constants a and b. By transforming the variable P and plotting points on a
graph estimate the values of a and n.
x 1.2 1.7 1.9 2.3 2.5

y 31.9 27.6 26.1 23.2 21.9
Solution
Taking logs we have log y = log a + x log b.
If we plot log y against x we should get a straight line. Its gradient will be
log b and its y-intercept log a.
The values of log y are
log y 1.504 1.441 1.417 1.365 1.341
log y
1.5 x
x x
x x
0.5
0 x
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
From the graph log a = 1.65, so a = 100.165 = 44.67 ≈ 45

Gradient = log b = −0.127, so b = 0.746 ≈ 0.75
The relationship is y ≈ 45(0.75)x

Exercises 4
The tables below give observed data points corresponding to a relationship
between two variables of the form given. In each case, transform the variables
as necessary to convert the relationship into a linear one, and by plotting the
points on a graph estimate the parameters a and n or a and b.
When constructing a graph you will get more accurate answers if you are able
to restrict each of the scales to be close to the values you are plotting.
In some cases n will be a negative number. Similarly when the relationship is
of the form y = ab x it may actually turn out to be of the form y = ab −x .
1. y = ax n x 1 3 6 7 10
y 4.50 3.74 8.59 10.33 15.85
2. Y = ax n x 0.82 0.96 1.10 1.14 1.30

Y 10.48 20.97 38.18 44.67 79.62
3. V = at n t 0.35 0.41 0.48 0.77

V 14.51 10.41 7.47 2.77
4. P = aq n q 2 3 4 5 6
P 62.9 34.3 22.3 15.9 12.1
5. y = ab x x 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5

y 4.29 5.76 7.73 10.37 13.91
6. T = ab v v 0.3 0.7 1.1 1.9 2.2

T 0.66 0.49 0.36 0.20 0.16
7. S = ab t t 1 2 3 4 5
S 13.0 16.25 20.31 23.39 31.74
8. F = ab x x 1.0 2.6 2.8 3.3 4.1

F 242 261 264 270 281
Solutions 4
All the answers are approximate, because plotting points and fitting a line will
never be exact. Just check that your answers are reasonably close to those given
here.
1. y ≈ 4.5x 1.2 2. Y ≈ 25x 4.4 3. V ≈ 1.6t −2.1 4. P ≈ 178q −1.5

5. y ≈ 3.2(1.8)x 6. T ≈ 0.82(2.1)−v 7. S ≈ 10.4(0.8)−t 8. F ≈ 230(1.05)x

Summary of key ideas

Reminder of the index rules underpinning the whole chapter.
• Exponential equations. Where the solution can be found by

inspection, or after some simple manipulation. For example
3x = 81, 252x = 5, 16x = 8x+2 .
• Quadratic Exponential equations. Equations containing exponents

that have an underlying quadratic structure, for example
32x − 3x − 6 = 0, 16x − 3(4x ) − 4 = 0, 9x = 36 − 3x+2
solved by substitution.
• Exponential graphs. Sketching them. For example y = 2x and y = 2−x .
• The function f (x) = e x What is special about the number e ?

f 0 (x) = e x . If f (x) = e ax , f 0 (x) = e ax .
• Transforming exponential functions. Translating, stretching,

reflecting. Effect on intercepts with the axes and on the asymptote.
e.g. f (x) = e x transforms to f (x + 2) = e x+2 by a translation,
or as e 2 f (x) = (e 2 )e x by a stretch.
• Logarithms. Definition: log A Y = X ⇔ Y = A X .

Hence log A A = 1, log A 1 = 0.
Solving equations e.g. log3 x = 4, y = log10 1000
• Logarithm Laws
X
µ ¶
Y
log X N = N log X
• Exponential equations using logs e.g. 2x + 10, 22y+5 = 0.5, 4x = 121−x
• Simplifying log expressions

1
e.g. 3 log 2 + log 5 − 2 log 4, ln e 2 , 2 log pq − log 3p 2 .
• Exponential modelling. Example of practical problems e.g. population

growth, radioactive decay.
• Non-linear relationships. Using logs to convert functions of the form

y = ax n or y = ab x to a linear relationship.

Exponential Equations & Logarithms Chapter - Pure Maths Guide From Love of Maths

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"Sometimes a theorem can just be so elegant. It can draw together.

11 EXPONENTIAL EQUATIONS AND LOGARITHMS 11-1

EXPONENTIAL EQUATIONS AND

11.1 Exponential equations. Where the solution can be found by

PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 11-2

11.1 Exponential equations

Commonly occurring powers of 4 can be deduced from the powers of 2. For

10x = 1000 Solution: x = 3

We can solve these equations by inspection, because we recognise the

Example 1 101−2x = 0.001

PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 11-3

Example 2 54x = 25x−1

(25 ) y = (23 ) y−1

PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 11-4

We end with an example that involves solving a quadratic equation rather

PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 11-5

11.1.1 Quadratic Exponential Equations

Substituting2 y = 2x , the underlying quadratic structure emerges:

We appear to have two solutions. One of them, 2x = 4, yields the solution

Can you see that

Notice that we can’t solve this by equating exponents; although tantalisingly

PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 11-6

and the solutions are given by 3t = 1 and 3t = 9, that is t = 0 or t = 2.

Example 8 22x = 2x+1 + 8

PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 11-7

PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 11-8

1. Solve each of these exponential equations by inspection.

3. Solve each of these equations.

4. Solve these equations.(This question is optional.)

5. Solve these simultaneous equations.

(a) 5x+y = 125 (b) 9x = 27 y

6. In each case find the value of k.

PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 11-9

7. Solve these exponential equations.

PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 11-10

1. (a) x = 4 (b) y = 13 (c) x = −2 (d) y = 35

2. (a) x = 23 (b) x = 4 (c) y = 12

3. (a) x = 6 (b) y = 3 (c) x = 12

5. Alongside the solution is the underlying pair of linear equations,

PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 11-11

6. (a) k = 6. [4(2n ) + 2(2n )] (b) k = 24. [15(3n ) + 9(3n )]

7. The underlying quadratic equation is given in the bracket.

PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 11-12

11.2 Exponential graphs

where a and b are constants. The variable x only appears in an exponent, or

PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 11-13

What about negative values of x? In Chapter 2 we saw that a negative index

The table below covers the range x = −5 to +5

If we keep to low values of x, we can draw the curve fairly accurately:

PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 11-14

The curve looks like this ¡ 1 ¢x

PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 11-15

Earlier in the chapter we solved lots of exponential equations. In every case

PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 11-16

11.3 The function y = e x

As expected y = 3x increases much more rapidly that y = 2x . At least it does

PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 11-17

Function Gradient function

f (x) = 2x f (x) = 2x f (x) = 3x f 0 (x) = 1.099 × 3x

PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 11-18

We already know that when we multiply a function by a constant, that