Philosophy Reviewer

FALLACY OF RELEVANCE

ad hominem- This fallacy occurs when, instead of addressing someone's argument or position,
you irrelevantly attack the person or some aspect of the person who is making the argument.

Examples of ad hominem logical fallacy- “Marx's ideas are irrelevant today because the
technologies we use and rely on would have been inconceivable to him.”

Attacking the motive- when a claim is dismissed because of the claimant's motivation or
purpose. It's a fallacy of relevance in that it only takes into consideration the motive, not the
claim. Attacking the motive is a negative fallacy, in that it detracts from the claim.

example of attacking the motive- When my parents encourage me to attend college and leave
home, it's because they want me out of the house. Therefore, I disagree with them about my
need to attend college.

Look who’s talking or Tu quoque- discussion technique that intends to discredit the opponent's
argument by attacking the opponent's own personal behavior and actions as being inconsistent with
their argument, therefore accusing hypocrisy. a type of ad hominem argument in which one
discredits a position by asserting that the proponent has acted contradictory to their stated
position.

example of Look who’s talking- Tu quoque would happen in an argument between a husband
and wife or another intimate couple. One member of the couple says the other has been
behaving badly and the response is that he or she has behaved just as badly.

Two wrongs make a right- If you try to justify an act/belief by pointing out in others a similar
act/belief, you are committing the fallacy of "two wrongs make a right." This fallacy can occur by
suggesting "if others are doing it, I can too" (common practice).

example of two wrongs make a right- Let's consider the situation with your neighbor. You're
claiming that it's not really wrong for you to let your dog dig up the neighbor's yard because your
neighbor has already acted in a wrong way by allowing her kids to ruin your garden. Therefore,
the two wrongs lead to a right.

Scare Tactics- argumentation that uses fear, such as the fear caused by a seemingly
reasonable potential adverse outcome, to coerce others into accepting the argument.

Examples of scare tactics- Mock car crashes, gruesome scenes, images of people before and
after drug addiction, graphic depictions of death and drug use, auditorium speakers who share
how drug use ruined their lives, videos of dead, drunk drivers being scraped off the road, and
other frightening messages are all scare tactics.
Argumentum Ad Misericordiam (Appeal To Pity)- when someone tries to win support for an
argument or idea by exploiting one's opponent's feelings of pity or guilt. It is a specific kind of appeal
to emotion. The name "Galileo’s argument" refers to the scientist's suffering as a result of his house
arrest by the Inquisition.

Examples of Appeal to pity- "You need to pass me in this course since I'll lose my scholarship if
you don't."

Bandwagon Argument- sometimes called the appeal to common belief or appeal to the masses
because it's all about getting people to do or think something because “everyone else is doing
it” or “everything else thinks this.”

Example of Bandwagon Argument- Everyone is going to get the new smartphone when it comes
out this weekend.

Straw Man- straw man is a form of argument and an informal fallacy of having the impression of
refuting an argument, whereas the real subject of the argument was not addressed or refuted, but
instead replaced with a false one. One who engages in this fallacy is said to be "attacking a straw
man".

Example of Straw Man- Strawman arguments commonly occur when making choices. A person
takes someone else's point and then exaggerates it. For example, a teacher recommends
longer class lectures. A person using a strawman may reply, “No, because that means giving a
perfect score to students.”

Red Herring- red herring is a logical fallacy in which irrelevant information is presented

alongside relevant information, distracting attention from that relevant information. This may be
done intentionally or unintentionally. A red herring is often used in movies, television, and
literature.

example of red herring- This fallacy consists in diverting attention from the real issue by
focusing instead on an issue having only a surface relevance to the first. Examples: Son: "Wow,
Dad, it's really hard to make a living on my salary." Father: "Consider yourself lucky, son. Why,
when I was your age, I only made $40 a week."

Equivocation or doublespeak- The fallacy of equivocation occurs when a key term or phrase

in an argument is used in an ambiguous way, with one meaning in one portion of the argument
and then another meaning in another portion of the argument.

Example of Equivocation- I have the right to watch "The Real World." Therefore, it's right for me
to watch the show.

Begging the question- The fallacy of begging the question occurs when an argument's
premises assume the truth of the conclusion, instead of supporting it. In other words, you
assume without proof the stand/position, or a significant part of the stand, that is in question.
Begging the question is also called arguing in a circle.

example of Begging the Question- It sneaks in a claim that needs to be argued for in the form of
a question. In this example, the claim is that people who are put in jail should receive education
programs. That might be true, or it might not, but because it forces the answer to go in a certain
direction, it is an example of begging the question.

FALLACY OF INSUFFICIENT

Appeal to ignorance- is a fallacy in informal logic. It asserts that a proposition is true because it has
not yet been proven false or a proposition is false because it has not yet been proven true.

Example of Appeal to ignorance- This fallacy occurs when you argue that your conclusion must
be true because there is no evidence against it. This fallacy wrongly shifts the burden of proof
away from the one making the claim. Examples: Him: "C'mon, hook up with me tonight." Her:
"Why should I?" Him: "Why shouldn't you?".

False Alternative- Sometimes called the “either-or” fallacy, a false dilemma is a logical fallacy
that presents only two options or sides when there are many options or sides.

example of False Alternative- A false dilemma is a fallacy that misrepresents an issue by

presenting only two mutually exclusive options rather than the full, nuanced range of options.
Here's a basic example: If we don't order pizza for dinner, we'll have to eat the week-old
spaghetti in the fridge.

Loaded Question- A loaded question or complex question fallacy is a question that contains a
controversial or unjustified assumption (such as a presumption of guilt).

example of Loaded Question- A loaded question is a trick question, which presupposes at least
one unverified assumption that the person being questioned is likely to disagree with. For
example, the question “have you stopped mistreating your pet?” is a loaded question,
because it presupposes that you have been mistreating your pet.

Hasty Generalization- The hasty generalization fallacy is sometimes called the over-
generalization fallacy. It is basically making a claim based on evidence that it is just too small.
Essentially, you can't make a claim and say that something is true if you have only an example
or two as evidence.
example of Hasty Generalization- A hasty generalization is a type of informal fallacy. It occurs
when you generalize a singular experience or small sample size, essentially stating that limited
experience is a universal fact. I saw a basketball player sneeze; thus, all basketball players
have allergies.

Slippery Slope Fallacy- A slippery slope argument, in logic, critical thinking, political rhetoric, and
caselaw, is an argument in which a party asserts that a relatively small first step leads to a chain of
related events culminating in some significant effect.

example of Slippery Slope Fallacy- The slippery slope fallacy works by creating an assumed
relationship between two or more events. For example, an arguer might claim that building new
cell phone towers will disorient birds, which will lead to insect infestations due to a lack of
predators for them.

Weak Analogy- Many arguments rely on an analogy between two or more objects, ideas, or
situations. If the two things that are being compared aren't really alike in the relevant respects,
the analogy is a weak one, and the argument that relies on it commits the fallacy of weak
analogy.

Example of Weak Analogy- If the two things that are being compared aren't really alike in the
relevant respects, the analogy is a weak one, and the argument that relies on it commits the
fallacy of weak analogy. Example: “Guns are like hammers—they're both tools with metal parts
that could be used to kill someone.

Words to Review
Philosophy in Life- A personal philosophy is a set of beliefs, values, and principles that guide
an individual's behavior. It encompasses everything from how a person views the world and
their place in it, to what they believe is important in life, and what they consider to be right or
wrong.

Philosophical Reflection- Philosophical reflection is, among other things, philosophical

thinking in a general way about our ordinary thinking. When we take our ordinary thinking in
general as an object of thinking, then we are reflecting philosophically.

Example of Philosophical reflection- natural word in English, “reflection.” Some examples of

reflection are perceiving, thinking, doubting, believing, reasoning, knowing, and being
willing.

Logical Reasoning- is a form of thinking in which premises and relations between premises are
used in a rigorous manner to infer conclusions that are entailed (or implied) by the premises and
the relations. Different forms of logical reasoning are recognized in the philosophy of science
and artificial intelligence.
example of Logical Reasoning- "When it rains, things outside get wet. The grass is outside,
therefore: when it rains, the grass gets wet." Mathematical logic and philosophical logic are
commonly associated with this type of reasoning.

Philosophy as intellectual activity - Philosophy is an activity of thought, a type of thinking.

Philosophy is critical and comprehensive thought, the most critical and comprehensive manner
of thinking that the human species has yet devised. This intellectual process includes both an
analytic and synthetic mode of operation.

Example of Philosophy as intellectual activity- Whether you prefer to read a book, do crossword
puzzles, play a good game of chess or cards, attend workshops, take part in social gatherings,
attend a good show, play a musical instrument or sing in a choir, it is important to focus on at
least one intellectual activity every day.

Holistic Point Of View- In terms of psychology, the holistic view suggests that it is important to
view the mind as a unit, rather than trying to break it down into its individual parts. Each
individual part plays its own important role, but it also works within an integrated system.

DEFINE

Truth in Philosophy- truth, in metaphysics and the philosophy of language, is the property of
sentences, assertions, beliefs, thoughts, or propositions that are said, in ordinary discourse, to
agree with the facts or to state what is the case.

Knowledge in Philosophy- Many philosophers define knowledge as justified true

belief (JTB). This definition characterizes knowledge through three essential features: (1) a
belief that is (2) true and (3) justified.

Facts in Philosophy- Facts may be understood as information, which makes a true sentence
true: "A fact is, traditionally, the worldly correlate of a true proposition, a state of affairs whose
obtaining makes that proposition true." Facts may also be understood as those things to which a
true sentence refers.

Prejudice- prejudice, adverse or hostile attitude toward a group or its individual members,

generally without just grounds or before sufficient evidence. It is characterized by
irrational, stereotyped beliefs.

Wisdom in Philosophy- From the Latin Sapientia, it relates to intelligence, common sense,
prudence, knowledge, science, and philosophy. Wisdom is commonly used to describe the
character of someone who is reasonable or exercises moderation in desires.

Cultural Bias- Cultural bias is interpreting and judging phenomena in terms particular to
one's own culture. This is a danger in any field of knowledge that claims objectivity and
universality, such as philosophy and the natural sciences.
Red Herring- A red herring is a logical fallacy in which irrelevant information is presented
alongside relevant information, distracting attention from that relevant information. This
may be done intentionally or unintentionally.

Philosophy as Body of Knowledge- Philosophy (from Greek: φιλοσοφία, Philosophia, 'love of

wisdom) is the systematized study of general and fundamental questions, such as those
about existence, reason, knowledge, values, mind, and language. Such questions are often
posed as problems to be studied or resolved.