The McGraw-Hill Companies 64 Elements of Fracture Mechanics Fig. 4.3 Triangular pressure distribution acting at the surfaces of a crack which contributes towards stress intensity factor as, 2(a-s)pofrads dK, = 2(a-s)po rads x(a -#)" Now, to determine the effect of pressure, the equation is integrated to have the form 2 4 (a-s 2p (maf as bale? 2) K which on integration gives Ky=(1-2/2)po Ja Note that we have considered a simple example for demonstrating the approach of Green's function; but problems having any variation of p(x) on the crack surfaces can be solved through Eq. (4.1) for symmetric pressure, or through Eq. (4.2) for asymmetric pressure. If p(x) is a simple distribution, one may be able to integrate to obtain a closed form solution; otherwise, one can always resort to numerical techniques to solve the problem. 4.1.2 Collinear Cracks in an Infinitely Long Strip A classic problem in fracture mechanics is of collinear cracks in an infinitely long strip as shown. in Fig. 4.4. Identical cracks, each of length 2a, are separated by a distance W. The geometry of this problem is not usually encountered in practical cases and, therefore, one may think that the problem is solved just for the sake of academia. This is not the case, because the problem acts as a stepping stone to several real life problems dealing with finite size plates. In this section, we shall find the solution of this problem, but in subsequent sections of this chapter, appropriate portions will be cut out from this strip to solve problems encountered in several engineering applications of importance. The Westergaard function Z, for the problem [4.2] is known to beThe McGraw-Hill companies SIF of More Complex Cases 65 Lititititet |; en unnnnca|;inne etl rTttifttitt Fig. 44 Collinear cracks in an infinitely long strip osin(z/W) [/sin® (x z/W) - sin? (7 a/W) |"? where, the origin is at the center of a crack. z=a+z,leads to x 43) fransforming axes to the tip of the crack by relation (4.4) Since we have confined the analysis to the close proximity of the crack tip (1z1<< a), oi) Since z,/W is a small number, the first term of the numerator as well as of the denominator are negligible, leading toThe McGraw-Hill Companies 66 Elements of Fracture Mechanics Using basic definition of K; [Eq. (3.36)], we obtain Ki = (20z,)'7Z, Manipulating the equation, so as to have the familiar oa in the numerator, we have (ant@)? tan 22 | w} (45) ma | lw) Itis worth noting that the expression of Eq. (4.5) is only an approximate relation. For W > >a, we obtain Ky = o Jira , which is the same as that of an infinite plate with one crack. 4.2 APPLICATION OF THE PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION The principle of superposition can be applied to identical geometries for linear elastic bodies. Since only elastic bodies are considered in this chapter, the principle can be exploited to solve problems of fracture mechanics. Take an example of a centre-cracked plate with two different loads, ¢ as a far field stress and line loads P at the cracked faces as shown in the Config. (s) of Fig. 4.5. Invoking the principle of superposition, stress at any point H in the vicinity of the crack tip is given by the sum of the stress of Config. (m) and Config. (n); that is, 6, = OR +03, Substituting the values of 0% and 04, from Eq, (3.32b), we get, +sinSsin, Kr 8 6.30), Kf 4 cos (1 2), A 2) par 46)The McGraw-Hill companies SIF of More Complex Cases _ 67 rr Fig. 4.5 Separating a complex problem into two simpler problems to exploit the principle of superposition which means, K=KY+Ki} (4.7) We thus conclude that when several external loads develop stress intensity factors of Mode I on a crack, the resulting stress intensity factor is the sum of individual stress intensity factor. However, it is clear from Eq, (4.6) that in the case of mixed modes, the stress intensity factors cannot be added to obtain the net stress intensity factor. 4.2.1 Internal Pressure on Cracked Faces Consider the case of a large plate with an uniform pressure p applied on the crack faces (Fig. 4.6a). The pressure opens the crack faces and loads the specimen in Mode I. We would be determining the resulting stress intensity factor at the crack tips. The solution to this problem can be easily obtained through the Green's function approach using Eq. (4.1), as Ky=pvna The same problem can also be solved using the principle of superposition. This method is different from the approach of Green's function. In fact, several interesting and powerful tricks are developed which can be used for solving more complex problems of fracture mechanics through the use of the principle of superposition. Consider an infinite plate which has no crack butis loaded by a far field stress 0, shown through the starting Config. (s) in Fig. 4.6(b). Config. (8) is equivalent to Config. (f) with a centre-crack and the applied traction oon the cracked faces, whose magnitude must be the same as that of the far field stress. This is because the neighboring atoms on the opposite side of the crack are no longer held together with the help of the interatomic bonding. In place of these bonds, external traction is applied on the cracked faces so that they do not open up under the far field stress and the stress in the entire plate remains uniform. Now, the Config. (f) has two external loads, the far field stress and the applied traction at the cracked faces. They are separated, keeping the geometry of the crack and the plate same, into Config. (g) and Config. (h). Thus, the superposition of Config. (g) and Config. (i) makes Config. (f), whose stress intensity factor is zero. Invoking the principle of superposition, we obtain:Clee led 68 Elements of Fracture Mechanics ttt } zed s 9 h im HH HAH © Fig. 4.6 (a) Internal pressure on the surfaces of a crack, and (b) determination of K, by invoking the principle of superposition Ki +Kf = yielding Ki'=-Kf =-oVma If the direction of the externally applied traction in Config. (I) is reversed (p =~ 0), we have the stress intensity factor of the centre-crack with internal pressure p, as =pvna 4.2.2 Wedge Load at the Surface of a Crack Face Consider the case of a line load P at one surface of the crack (Config. (5) of Fig. 4.7) and a far field stress on the side of the other crack face. Note that for maintaining equilibrium, P = ¢ W. Such a problem has practical applications in riveted joints. The Config. (s) can be separated into Config. (h) and Config. (n). As shown in the figure, Config. (1) is further separated into Config. (I) and Config. (m). The principle of superposition gives Ki= Ki-K? Ki +Kj'-Kj (4.8)The McGraw-Hill companies SIF of More Complex Cases _ 69 Fig. 4.7 A wedge load on one surface of a crack and a far field stress on the side of the other crack face Its to be noted that loads on Config. (1) are the same as those on Config. (s), except with the difference in the direction of the loads. When the Config. () in Fig. 4.7 is taken to the left hand side of Eq, (4.8), it gets added to Config. (5), giving 2K{= Ki +K% Using Eq, (4.2a) and substituting P = o W, we have The expression for Kj is well known as ora for the infinite plate. Thus, we have Ww Kin oma, 0 9 na 4.3 CRACK IN A PLATE OF FINITE DIMENSIONS In practical applications, an edge (boundary) of a component may be close to the crack tip. Since the edge is traction free, it disturbs the stress field around the crack tip. The edge then may have a considerable influence on the stress field in the vicinity of the crack tip and on the stress intensityet me Re ed 70 _ Elements of Fracture Mechanics factor. The situation may require an accurate determination of the SIE. When is an edge regarded close to the crack? If the distance of the edge from the crack tip is less than the crack length, or of the order of the crack length, the component is of finite dimensions. Experimentalists, who determine the toughness properties of materials, also require accurate analysis of the SIF for a test specimen. A crack in a test specimen is fairly long (usually longer than 10 mm) for practical considerations. The lateral dimensions of the specimen cannot be made very large for reasons such as to save money on the material of the specimen, to reduce machining charges, to use a test-machine of low load capacity and to minimize material handling problems. Since free edges of a specimen have considerable influence on the stress field and the SIF, it becomes necessary to analyze the problem accurately. Usually, SIF is expressed in the form K = oVraf(a/W) where, W is the width of plate (dimension of the component from one edge to opposite edge along the crack length) and the function f depends on a/W. For most cases, f(a/W) is written as a series of ratio a/W. The Westergaard approach is applicable only to a limited cases of finite dimensions. More problems are solved by the general approach of Muskhelishvili, in which Airy’s Stress Function is expressed in terms of two complex variables. An introduction to this method is discussed in Appendix 4A. It is worth mentioning here that the Westergaard approach is a special case of the general Muskhelishvili approach [4.3]. If a close form solution to a problem is not available, powerful numerical methods have been developed for determining stress intensity factor of a crack in a given component. We now consider the case of a common problem—a centre-cracked plate of finite dimensions subjected to a tensile stress o which acts normal to the crack plane. The SIF is estimated using the results of collinear cracks in an infinite strip (Fig. 4.4), by cutting a portion out at AA’ and BB’. The separated portion is shown in Fig. 4.8, with traction on the cut faces. Since AA’ and BB’ are the planes of symmetry, shear stress on them is zero. The stress component o,, has some distribution, shown qualitatively in the figure. In fact, the problem is somewhat similar to the biaxial loading (Fig. 3.6), where it is argued that a,; does not change the SIF significantly. On the same lines, the effect of 63, on cut faces may be ignored. Then, the SIF of a plate with a centre- crack is approximated to be same as that of the case of collinear cracks in an infinite strip, ie., w | However, the Mode I problem of a finite plate with a centre crack is important and has been solved through advanced mathematical techniques and sophisticated numerical methods. It has been found that the exact solution is more close to the form Kj=0. a see( =)Be aCe ae eel rd SIF of More Complex Cases 71 att ttt «TT dtd Fig. 4.8 Centre-cracked plate of finite dimensions Note that for a/W < <1, K, approaches o/ma which, as expected, is the solution of an infinite plate, 4.4 Epce Cracks Edge cracks are more dangerous than interior cracks. We have already discussed in Sec. 43 that a free edge close to the crack influences the stress field near the crack tip. In the case of an edge crack, the free edge is not only close to the crack, but it intersects the crack (touches the surfaces of the crack). Edge cracks are very commonly encountered in day-to-day life. Since they are more dangerous, special attention is required to deal with them. Consider an edge crack in a semi-infinite plate which is loaded by a far field stress o, as shown in Fig. 4.9. The stress intensity factor for this case is known [4.2] to be equal to 1.12 6 ma . When. the edge crack is compared with one half of the overall length of an interior crack, the value of the SIF is about 12% more. We can justify the larger value by looking at the problem closely. The ends of cracked faces at the free edge tend to open up more easily. This is similar to the case of a cantilever beam whose deflection is more than the deflection of a beam supported at its two ends. SIF for a finite plate with an edge crack can be determined through the expression given in Appendix 4B. The analysis for the case of edge crack is not straightforward, because the mouth of the crack lies on the free edge and the stress field is influenced considerably by the free edge. The problem can be solved by separating a portion CBB’C’ from the strip of collinear cracks (Fig. 4.4) and invoking the principle of superposition to make the traction zero on section . However, the solution is quite complex and is beyond the scope of this book.